The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian

«Prologue and paean. King Gilgamesh tyrannizes the people of Uruk, who complain to the gods. To divert his superhuman energies the gods create his counterpart, the wild man Enkidu, who is brought up by the animals of the wild. Enkidu is spotted by a trapper, who lures him away from the herd with a prostitute. After a week of sexual intercourse the prostitute proposes to take him to Uruk, where Gilgamesh has been dreaming about him.» — resumen de argumento que encabeza la tablilla I; George declara en la nota sobre la traducción que estos resúmenes, como la numeración de versos y las notas, son añadidos modernos suyos y no del texto antiguo

«He who saw the Deep, the country’s foundation, [who knew the proper ways,] was wise in all matters! [Gilgamesh, who] saw the Deep, the country’s foundation, [who] knew the [proper ways, was] wise in all matters! [He] explored everywhere the seats of [power,] I 5 [he knew] of everything the sum of wisdom. He saw what was secret, discovered what was hidden, he brought back a tale of before the Deluge.» — voz del poema, versión estándar, tablilla I: el prólogo presenta al héroe como el que vio el Abismo, supo de todo la suma de la sabiduría, vio lo secreto y trajo noticia de antes del Diluvio. Los corchetes son restitución del aparato y el *I 5* intercalado es el numeral de verso que el impreso lleva al margen

«He came a far road, was weary, found peace, all his labours were [set] on a tablet of stone.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el prólogo cierra el retrato del héroe con el hallazgo de la paz y con sus trabajos puestos en una tablilla de piedra, que es el marco por el que el poema se presenta como escrito por el propio Gilgamesh

«He built the rampart of Uruk-the-Sheepfold, of holy Eanna, the sacred storehouse.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la obra por la que el prólogo lo recuerda, la muralla de Uruk y el santuario de Eanna

«[A square mile is] city, [a square mile] date-grove, a square mile is clay-pit, half a square mile the temple of Ishtar: [three square miles] and a half is Uruk’s expanse.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la medida de Uruk por cuartos, ciudad, palmeral, arcilla y templo de Ishtar; los corchetes marcan restitución de un pasaje roto

«[Find] the tablet-box of cedar, [release] its clasps of bronze! I 25 [Lift] the lid of its secret, [pick] up the tablet of lapis lazuli and read out the travails of Gilgamesh, all that he went through.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la instrucción de abrir la caja de cedro, alzar la tapa y leer en voz alta la tablilla de lapislázuli, que es donde el poema se declara a sí mismo escritura del héroe

«[Powerful of] body, majestic of [beauty,] [he was large] of stature, eleven cubits [tall.] [Four] cubits was the width of his chest, a triple cubit was his foot, half a rod his leg. Six cubits was his stride, I 55=57 three cubits long the curls at his cheeks.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: las medidas gigantes del héroe en codos, que el prefacio de la segunda edición declara ganancia de las piezas nuevas; los corchetes marcan restitución y el *I 55=57* es una doble numeración del margen

«His cheeks were bearded, dark as [gleaming] lapis lazuli, the locks of his hair grew thickly [as barley.] I 60 When he grew tall his beauty was consummate, most handsome was he by the standards of men.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el retrato se cierra con la barba de lapislázuli y el cabello espeso como cebada, y con la belleza consumada al crecer

«The young men of Uruk he harries without warrant, Gilgamesh lets no son go free to his father. By day and by night his tyranny grows harsher,» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la queja concreta contra el héroe, que no deja hijo libre para su padre y cuya tiranía arrecia de día y de noche

«2 ‘Like a wild bull lording it, head held aloft’.» — pie de la figura 2, que toma como rótulo un verso del propio paean; los pies de figura caen a media plana dentro del cuerpo del poema

«‘A brutal wild bull you have bred in Uruk-the-Sheepfold, he has no equal when his weapons are brandished.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz de los dioses del cielo dirigiéndose a Anu, denunciando al toro salvaje brutal criado en Uruk; el troceo une la palabra partida en el salto de renglón

«They summoned Aruru, the great one: ‘You, Aruru, created [mankind:] I 95 now fashion what Anu has thought of! ‘Let him be a match for the storm of his heart, let them vie with each other, so Uruk may be rested!» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz de los dioses mandando a Aruru fabricar un rival, para que Uruk descanse; la creación de Enkidu se decide como medida de gobierno y no como castigo

«The goddess Aruru heard these words, what Anu had thought of she fashioned within her.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la diosa concibe dentro de sí lo que Anu había pensado, antes del pellizco de arcilla

«A hunter, a trapper-man, did come upon him by the water-hole. One day, a second and then a third, I 115 he came upon him by the water-hole.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la entrada del cazador, que topa con él en el abrevadero tres días seguidos

«When the hunter saw him, his expression froze, but he with his herds – he went back to his lair. [The hunter was] troubled, subdued and silent, his heart [was vexed,] his features gloomy.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el efecto del encuentro sobre el cazador, con el rostro helado y el ánimo sombrío

«‘[He filled in the] pits that I [myself] dug, I 130 [he pulled up] the snares that I laid. [He set free from my grasp] all the beasts of the field, [he stops] me doing the work of the wild.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la queja práctica del cazador, con las trampas cegadas y las presas liberadas, que es lo que pone la trama en marcha

«[Go, my son, and] fetch [Shamhat the harlot,] I 140 [her allure is a match] for even the mighty!» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz del padre del cazador dando el remedio, traer a la prostituta Shamhat, cuyo atractivo iguala al más fuerte; los corchetes restituyen casi toda la frase

«[When the herd comes] down [to] the water-hole, [she should strip off] her [raiment to reveal] her charms. [He will] see her, and will approach her, his herd will spurn him, [though he grew up] among it.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la instrucción completa del padre, con la ropa retirada, la aproximación y el rechazo del rebaño; el poema repite estos mismos versos tres veces más, en boca del cazador y del rey

«Off went the hunter, taking Shamhat the harlot, they set out on the road, they started the journey.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el cazador y la prostituta emprenden el camino tras la orden del rey

«then Shamhat saw him, the child of nature, the savage man from the midst of the wild.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el momento en que Shamhat ve a Enkidu, nombrado hijo de la naturaleza y hombre salvaje

«‘This is he, Shamhat! Uncradle your bosom, I 180 bare your sex, let him take in your charms! Do not recoil, but take in his scent: he will see you, and will approach you. ‘Spread your clothing so he may lie on you, treat the man to the work of a woman! I 185 Let his passion caress and embrace you, his herd will spurn him, though he grew up among» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz del cazador instruyendo a Shamhat, con el encargo dicho como trabajo de mujer; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«Shamhat unfastened the cloth of her loins, she bared her sex and he took in her charms.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la ejecución de esa instrucción, en los mismos términos en que se dio

«The gazelles saw Enkidu, they started to run, the beasts of the field shied away from his person. Enkidu had defiled his body so pure, his legs stood still, though his herd was in motion.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la consecuencia del encuentro, el rebaño que huye y el cuerpo antes puro que queda mancillado

«Enkidu was weakened, could not run as before, but now he had reason and wide understanding.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el canje que el poema hace explícito, fuerza perdida a cambio de razón y ancho entendimiento

«‘You are handsome, Enkidu, you are just like a god! Why with the beasts do you wander the wild?» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz de Shamhat declarándolo semejante a un dios y preguntándole por qué vaga con las bestias; el tramo cruza de plana

«Surpassing all other kings, heroic of stature, brave scion of Uruk, wild bull on the rampage! I 30 Going at the fore he was the vanguard, going at the rear, one his comrades could trust! A mighty bank, protecting his warriors, a violent flood-wave, smashing a stone wall!» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la serie de símiles del paean, abierta con el título antiguo del poema paleobabilónico, y el héroe como toro salvaje, dique y ola violenta. El capítulo 3 reimprime estos mismos versos ingleses en su Prologue reconstruido, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«Wild bull of Lugalbanda, Gilgamesh, the perfect in strength, I 35 suckling of the august Wild Cow, the goddess Ninsun!» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la filiación del héroe, hijo de Lugalbanda y crío de la Vaca Salvaje augusta, la diosa Ninsun; el tramo cruza de plana. El capítulo 3 reimprime estos mismos versos ingleses en su Prologue reconstruido, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«Who is there can rival his kingly standing, I 45 and say like Gilgamesh, ‘It is I am the king’?» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la pregunta retórica que cierra el paean y que nadie más puede responder. El capítulo 3 reimprime estos mismos versos ingleses en su Prologue reconstruido, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«Gilgamesh was his name from the day he was born, two-thirds of him god but one third human.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la proporción con que el poema define al héroe, dos tercios dios y un tercio humano, que es la raíz de todo lo que sigue. El capítulo 3 reimprime estos mismos versos ingleses en su Prologue reconstruido, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«In Uruk-the-Sheepfold he walks [back and forth,] like a wild bull lording it, head held aloft. He has no equal when his weapons are brandished,» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el primer indicio de la tiranía, el héroe paseando como toro con la cabeza en alto y sin igual cuando blande sus armas; el tramo cruza de plana

«All his body is matted with hair, I 105 he bears long tresses like those of a woman: the locks of his hair grow thickly as barley, he knows not a people, nor even a country. Coated in hair like the god of the animals, with the gazelles he grazes on grasses,» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el retrato de Enkidu salvaje, cubierto de pelo, con trenzas de mujer, sin pueblo ni país y paciendo con las gacelas; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana, donde queda el numeral *I 110*

«For six days and seven nights Enkidu was erect, as he coupled with Shamhat.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la duración del encuentro tal como esta edición la imprime; el prefacio de la segunda edición declara que las piezas nuevas mostraron dos semanas donde antes se leía una. El mismo arranque de verso vuelve en la tablilla XI, en la prueba del sueño

«Take the stairway of a bygone era, I 15 draw near to Eanna, seat of Ishtar the goddess, that no later king could ever copy! Climb Uruk’s wall and walk back and forth! Survey the foundations, examine the brickwork! Were its bricks not fired in an oven? I 20 Did the Seven Sages not lay its foundations?» — versión estándar, tablilla I: la serie de imperativos con que el prólogo invita a subir a la muralla y examinar el ladrillo, y la pregunta por los Siete Sabios como cimentadores; los numerales *I 15* y *I 20* son los del margen impreso. El capítulo 3 reimprime estos mismos versos ingleses en su Prologue reconstruido, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«Gilgamesh so tall, magnificent and terrible, who opened passes in the mountains, dug wells on the slopes of the uplands,» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el arranque del catálogo de hazañas, con los pasos abiertos en las montañas y los pozos cavados en las laderas; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la lista sigue en la 65 hasta los ritos del cosmos. El capítulo 3 reimprime estos mismos versos ingleses en su Prologue reconstruido, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«‘My father, there was a man came [by the water-hole.] Mightiest in the land, strength [he possesses,] [his strength] is as mighty [as a rock] from the sky.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz del cazador ante su padre, describiendo al hombre más fuerte de la tierra, con fuerza de roca caída del cielo; los corchetes marcan restitución y el troceo une la palabra que el impreso parte al final del renglón

«‘I will challenge him, for [my strength] is mighty, I 220 [I will vaunt] myself in Uruk, saying “I am the mightiest!” [There] I shall change the way things are ordered: [one] born in the wild is mighty, strength he possesses.’» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz de Enkidu al oír hablar del rey, proponiéndose cambiar el orden establecido porque el nacido en lo salvaje también es fuerte

«Go, Enkidu, to Uruk-the-Sheepfold, where young men are girt with waistbands! ‘Every day [in Uruk] there is a festival, the drums there rap out the beat. And there are harlots, most comely of figure, I 230 graced with charm and full of delights.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz de Shamhat describiendo Uruk a Enkidu, con su fiesta diaria, sus tambores y sus prostitutas de buena figura

«‘Before you even came from the uplands, Gilgamesh in Uruk was seeing you in dreams:» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz de Shamhat revelando que el rey ya soñaba con él antes de que bajara de las tierras altas

«‘“The stars of the heavens appeared above me, like a rock from the sky one fell down before me. I lifted it up, but it weighed too much for me, I tried to roll it, but could not dislodge it.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz de Gilgamesh contando el primer sueño a su madre, la roca caída del cielo que no pudo levantar ni mover

«‘“[Like a babe-in]-arms they were kissing its feet, I 255 like a wife [I loved it,] caressed and embraced it. [I lifted it up,] set it down at your feet, [and you, O mother, you] made it my equal.”» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el resto del primer sueño, con la roca amada como a una esposa y hecha su igual por la madre; los corchetes marcan restitución

«‘“[In a street] of Uruk-the-City, an axe was lying with a crowd gathered round. The land [of Uruk] was standing around it, [the people were] gathered about it. I 280 ‘“A crowd was milling about before it, [the menfolk were] thronging around it. I lifted it up and set it down at your feet, like a wife [I loved] it, caressed and embraced it, [and you, O mother,] you made it my equal.”» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el segundo sueño, el hacha en la calle rodeada de gente, contado en los mismos términos que el primero

«‘“My son, the axe you saw is a friend, like a wife you’ll love him, caress and embrace him, and I, Ninsun, I shall make him your equal.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz de Ninsun interpretando el segundo sueño, el hacha es el amigo que ella hará su igual

«“May it befall me, O mother, by Counsellor Enlil’s command! I 295 Let me find a friend to counsel me, a friend to counsel me I will acquire!”» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz de Gilgamesh acogiendo el augurio, con el deseo de hallar un amigo que lo aconseje

«Her words he heard, her speech found favour: a woman’s counsel struck home in his heart. She stripped and clad him in part of her garment, P 70 the other part she put on herself.» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada: el consejo de una mujer le llega al corazón, y ella lo viste con la mitad de su ropa

«‘This fellow – how like in build he is to Gilgamesh, II 40 tall of stature, proud as a battlement. It must be Enkidu, born in the uplands, his strength is as mighty as a rock from the sky.’» — versión estándar, tablilla II: voz de los pastores reconociendo en el recién llegado la hechura del rey; el tramo cruza de plana

«3 ‘It must be Enkidu, born in the uplands’.» — pie de la figura 3, que toma como rótulo un verso de los pastores; los pies de figura caen a media plana dentro del cuerpo del poema

«Bread they set before him, ale they set before him. II 45 Enkidu ate not the bread, but looked askance.» — versión estándar, tablilla II: el pan y la cerveza puestos delante, y el recelo del salvaje

«[When at night the shepherds lay sleeping,] [he struck] down wolves, he [chased off lions.] II 60 Sleeping lay the senior shepherds, their shepherd boy Enkidu, a [man wide] awake.» — versión estándar, tablilla II: el salvaje vuelto guardián nocturno del rebaño, que abate lobos y ahuyenta leones mientras los pastores duermen

«Enkidu with his foot blocked the door of the wedding house, not allowing Gilgamesh to enter. They seized each other at the door of the wedding house, in the street they joined combat, in the Square of the Land. The door-jambs shook, the wall did shudder, II 115 [in the street Gilgamesh and Enkidu joined combat, in the Square of the Land.]» — versión estándar, tablilla II: el pie en la puerta de la casa nupcial y la pelea en la Plaza del País, con las jambas y el muro estremecidos; los corchetes marcan el pasaje restituido y el *II 115* es el numeral del margen

«‘O Enkidu, cast aside your sinful thoughts! I 240 Gilgamesh it is whom divine Shamash loves.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz de Shamhat previniéndolo contra el desafío, porque a Gilgamesh lo ama el dios Shamash; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la frase sigue en la 73 con Anu, Enlil y Ea

«and I, Ninsun, I made it your equal. Like a wife you loved it, caressed and embraced it: a mighty comrade will come to you, and be his» — versión estándar, tablilla I: voz de Ninsun interpretando el sueño, la piedra amada como esposa es el compañero fuerte que vendrá; el tramo se corta antes del cruce de renglón donde el impreso parte *friend's saviour*

«After a second week of sexual intercourse the prostitute takes Enkidu to a shepherds’ camp, where he is instructed in the ways of men and becomes the shepherds’ watchman. A passing stranger tells him how in Uruk Gilgamesh exercises droit de seigneur at wedding ceremonies. Enkidu, shocked by this practice, enters Uruk and interrupts the proceedings.» — primera mitad del resumen de argumento de la tablilla II, añadido moderno de George: la segunda semana, el campamento de pastores y el derecho de pernada que lleva a Enkidu a irrumpir en la boda

«Gilgamesh and Enkidu fight until Enkidu accepts Gilgamesh’s supremacy, whereupon the pair become firm friends. In search of fame and glory Gilgamesh proposes an expedition to the Forest of Cedar, ignoring Enkidu’s warning of the dangers. They kit themselves out with weapons. Gilgamesh announces his plans to the assembly of Uruk. The elders try to dissuade him.» — segunda mitad del mismo resumen, cortada porque la entrada entera dispara la guarda anticosido: la pelea, la amistad, la expedición al Bosque de Cedro contra el aviso de Enkidu y el intento de disuasión de los ancianos

«As Gilgamesh related the dream, Enkidu was sitting before the harlot. The two of them together began making love, P 46 he forgot the wild where he was born.» — material paleobabilónico interpolado en la tablilla II, tablilla de Pensilvania: el olvido de lo salvaje donde nació; el numeral *P 46* del margen marca que la fuente es esa tablilla y no la versión estándar. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«For seven days and seven nights Enkidu was erect and coupled with *Shamhat.» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada en la tablilla II: siete días y siete noches, donde la versión estándar daba seis días y siete noches; la discrepancia entre versiones queda sin armonizar, y el asterisco antepuesto al nombre avisa de que se uniformó a su forma tardía. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«‘Come, I will lead you to Uruk-the-City, to the sacred temple, the dwelling of Anu! Enkidu, arise, let me take you to the temple Eanna, the dwelling of Anu, P 60 ‘where [men] are engaged in labours of skill, you, too, like a man, will find a place for yourself.» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada: voz de Shamhat llevándolo al templo de Anu y a la ciudad donde los hombres se ocupan en labores de destreza. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«You are banished from the regions that have no shepherd.» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada: el cierre del argumento de Shamhat, el destierro de las tierras sin pastor. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«How to eat bread Enkidu knew not, P 90 how to drink ale he had never been shown.» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada: no sabía comer pan ni le habían enseñado a beber cerveza; el numeral *P 90* queda dentro del verbatim. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«‘Eat the bread, Enkidu, essential to life, drink the ale, the lot of the land!’ Enkidu ate the bread until he was sated, P 100 he drank the ale, a full seven jugfuls.» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada: voz de Shamhat mandándole comer el pan esencial para la vida y beber la cerveza, suerte del país, y él bebe siete jarras. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«His mood became free, he started to sing, his heart grew merry, his face lit up. P 105 The barber groomed his body so hairy, anointed with oil he turned into a man. He put on a garment, became like a warrior, P 110 he took up his weapon to do battle with lions.» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada: la humanización completa, canto, barbero, aceite, vestido y arma. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«‘For the king of Uruk-the-City, the veil will be parted for the one who picks first; P 155 for Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk-the-City, the veil will be parted for the one who picks first.» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada: voz del invitado a la boda enunciando el derecho de pernada del rey, en dos versos paralelos. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«At the fellow’s words his face paled in anger. P 165 * * * He going [first,] with *Shamhat following.» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada: la reacción de Enkidu al oírlo y su marcha a Uruk; los tres asteriscos son la marca de laguna de más de un verso. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«‘In build he is the image of Gilgamesh, but shorter of stature, and bigger of bone. P 185 It [must be the one who] was born in the uplands, animals’ milk is what he was suckled on.’» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada: voz de la gente de Uruk al verlo, más bajo y de hueso más grueso, criado con leche de animales. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«Gilgamesh knelt, one foot on the ground, his anger subsided, he broke off from the fight.» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada: el desenlace de la pelea, con la rodilla en tierra y la ira apaciguada. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«‘As one unique your mother bore you, P 235 the wild cow of the fold, the goddess Ninsun! High over warriors you are exalted, to be king of the people Enlil made it your» — tablilla de Pensilvania interpolada: voz de Enkidu reconociendo la supremacía del rey, nacido único de la vaca salvaje del redil y destinado por Enlil a reinar; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana, donde queda *destiny*. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«[After] Shamhat told Enkidu the dreams of Gilgamesh, the two of them together [began making] love.» — versión estándar, tablilla I: el cierre de la tablilla, con los sueños contados a Enkidu y el regreso al abrazo; los corchetes marcan restitución

«Standing there, Enkidu heard [what she said,] and thinking it over, he sat [down weeping.] His eyes brimmed with [tears,] II 180 his arms fell limp, [his] strength [ebbed away.]» — versión estándar, tablilla II: el efecto de esas palabras sobre Enkidu, que se sienta a llorar y pierde la fuerza al oírse llamar sin familia

«‘…… ferocious *Humbaba, Y 97 … [let us] slay him, [so his power] is no more! ‘In the Forest of Cedar, [where *Humbaba] dwells, Y 100 [let us] surprise him in his lair!’» — tablilla de Yale interpolada en la tablilla II: voz de Gilgamesh proponiendo matar al guardián en su guarida; el asterisco antepuesto avisa de que el nombre se uniformó a su forma tardía, Huwawa vuelto Humbaba. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«‘I knew him, my friend, in the uplands, when I roamed here and there with the herd. For sixty leagues the forest is a wilderness, who is there would venture inside it? ‘*Humbaba, his voice is the Deluge, Y 110 his speech is fire, and his breath is death! Why do you desire to do this thing? An unwinnable battle is *Humbaba’s ambush!’» — tablilla de Yale interpolada: voz de Enkidu oponiéndose, porque conoce al guardián de sus tiempos de rebaño y sabe que su voz es el Diluvio, su habla fuego y su aliento muerte. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«‘[My friend], how can we [go to the Forest of Cedar?] So to keep safe the cedars, Enlil made it his lot to terrify men.» — versión estándar, tablilla II: la misma objeción en la versión tardía, con la razón teológica dentro, que Enlil le dio al guardián por suerte aterrar a los hombres para mantener a salvo los cedros

«‘That is a journey [which must not be made,] [that is a man who must not be looked on.] He who guards the [Forest of Cedar, his reach is wide,] II 220 Humbaba, his voice is the Deluge. ‘His speech is fire, his breath is death, he hears the forest murmur at sixty leagues’ distance. Who is there would venture into his forest?» — versión estándar, tablilla II: la fórmula de la prohibición, que el poema repite tres veces en esta tablilla en bocas distintas, con la voz de Diluvio y el oído que alcanza sesenta leguas

«Adad ranks first, and Humbaba second. II 225 ‘Who is there would oppose him among the Igigi?» — versión estándar, tablilla II: el rango del guardián en el orden divino, segundo tras Adad, con que se mide lo irrazonable de la empresa

«‘Why, my friend, do you speak like a coward? With your feeble talk you [vex] my heart. ‘As for man, [his days] are numbered, whatever he may do, it is but wind,» — versión estándar, tablilla II: voz de Gilgamesh contra la prudencia de su amigo, con la sentencia que sostiene toda la expedición, que los días del hombre están contados y cuanto haga es viento; el tramo cruza de plana

«‘You were born and grew up [in the wild:] even lions were afraid of you, [you experienced] all. Grown men fled away [from your presence,] your heart is tried and [tested in] combat. II 240 ‘Come, my friend, [let us hie] to the forge!’» — versión estándar, tablilla II: el argumento con que el rey vuelve la objeción a favor suyo, recordándole a Enkidu su temple, y la salida hacia la fragua

«Great hatchets they cast, Y 165 and axes weighing three talents apiece. Great daggers they cast: two talents apiece were the blades, one half of a talent the crests of their handles, half a talent apiece the daggers’ gold mountings. Y 170 Gilgamesh and Enkidu bore ten talents each.» — tablilla de Yale interpolada: el armamento pesado en talentos, hachas, dagas y monturas de oro, que los dos héroes cargan. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«He bolted the sevenfold gates of Uruk, he convened [the assembly,] the crowd gathered» — tablilla de Yale interpolada: el rey cierra las siete puertas de Uruk y convoca a la asamblea antes de anunciar la empresa. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«[I would tread the path to ferocious *Humbaba,] I would see the god of whom men talk, whose name the lands do constantly repeat. ‘I will conquer him in the Forest of Cedar: let the land learn Uruk’s offshoot is mighty! Y 185 Let me start out, I will cut down the cedar, I will establish for ever a name eternal!’» — tablilla de Yale interpolada: voz de Gilgamesh ante los ancianos declarando el motivo de la expedición, ver al dios del que hablan los hombres y fundar para siempre un nombre eterno. El volumen imprime este pasaje dos veces, aquí interpolado y otra vez en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«‘Hear me, O young men [of Uruk-the-Sheepfold,] II 260 O young men of Uruk, who understand [combat!] Bold as I am I shall tread the distant path [to the home of Humbaba,] I shall face a battle I know not. ‘[I shall ride] a road [I know not:] give me your blessing as I go on my journey, II 265 [so I may see again] your faces [in safety,] and return [glad at heart] through Uruk’s gate!» — versión estándar, tablilla II: voz de Gilgamesh ante los jóvenes de Uruk, pidiendo bendición para un camino y una batalla que declara no conocer

«‘On my return [I will celebrate] New Year [twice over,] I will celebrate the festival twice in the year. Then shall the festival take place, the merriment begin, II 270 and the drums resound before [Wild-Cow] Ninsun!’» — versión estándar, tablilla II: la promesa de dos Años Nuevos al volver, que la introducción da como etiología de las dos fiestas del calendario babilonio

«Enkidu [gave] the elders counsel, and the young men of Uruk, who understood combat: ‘Tell him not to go to the Forest of Cedar!» — versión estándar, tablilla II: Enkidu se vuelve a los ancianos y a los jóvenes para que disuadan al rey, invirtiendo el papel que tenía en la tablilla de Yale; el tramo cruza de plana

«The rest of Tablet II, perhaps twenty lines containing more of Gilgamesh’s reply to his counsellors, is lost.» — nota editorial de George midiendo la laguna en unos veinte versos; estas notas en cuerpo menor son añadido moderno declarado en la nota sobre la traducción

«The elders give Gilgamesh and Enkidu advice for their journey. The two heroes visit the goddess Ninsun, who enlists the help of the Sun God, Shamash, and the aid of his wife, Aya goddess of dawn. Ninsun adopts the orphan Enkidu. Gilgamesh gives instructions for the governing of Uruk in his absence. The heroes depart.» — resumen de argumento de la tablilla III, añadido moderno de George: el consejo de los ancianos, la visita a Ninsun, la ayuda de Shamash y de Aya, la adopción de Enkidu y la partida

«‘To Uruk’s [quay come back in safety,] III 1 do not rely, O Gilgamesh, on your strength alone, look long and hard, land a blow you can count on!» — versión estándar, tablilla III: voz de los ancianos previniendo al rey de no fiarse solo de su fuerza

«‘“Who goes in front saves his companion, who knows the road protects his friend.” III 5 Let Enkidu go before you, he knows the way to the Forest of Cedar. ‘He is tested in battle and tried in combat, he shall guard his friend and keep safe his» — versión estándar, tablilla III: el proverbio que los ancianos citan dentro de su consejo, con sus propias comillas en el impreso, y la orden de que Enkidu vaya delante; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘In our assembly we place the King in your care: you bring the King back and replace him in ours!’» — versión estándar, tablilla III: la fórmula con que la asamblea entrega el rey a Enkidu, marcada en el impreso con la acotación *(To Enkidu)* en cuerpo menor

«[Wild-Cow] Ninsun listened long and with sadness III 35 to the words of Gilgamesh, her son, and Enkidu. Into the bath-house she went seven times, [she bathed] in water of tamarisk and soapwort. [She donned] a fine dress to adorn her body, [she chose a jewel] to adorn her breast. III 40 Having put on [her cap,] she donned her tiara, .….. the harlots … the ground.» — versión estándar, tablilla III: la preparación ritual de la diosa antes de interceder, con siete baños en agua de tamarisco y jabonera, vestido, joya, gorro y tiara; los puntos marcan laguna

«‘Why did you afflict my son Gilgamesh with so restless a spirit? ‘For now you have touched him and he will tread the distant path to the home of Humbaba. He will face a battle he knows not, he will ride a road he knows not.» — versión estándar, tablilla III: voz de Ninsun reprochando al Sol haber dado a su hijo un espíritu tan inquieto, y describiendo el camino y la batalla que no conoce

«‘During the days of his journey there and back, until he reaches the Forest of Cedar, until he slays ferocious Humbaba, and annihilates from the land the Evil Thing you abhor,» — versión estándar, tablilla III: la diosa nombra el fin de la empresa en términos de culto, aniquilar del país la Cosa Mala que el dios aborrece

«may Aya the Bride unfearing remind you: “Entrust him to the care of the watches of the night!”» — versión estándar, tablilla III: el estribillo con que la diosa encarga a Aya, la esposa del Sol, recordarle el cuidado del héroe; el poema lo repite cuatro veces en esta oración

«‘Bitterly he ……, Enkidu possesses no [kith or kin.] II 175 Shaggy hair hanging loose …… he was born in the wild and [has] no [brother.]’» — versión estándar, tablilla II: voz de Ninsun señalando la orfandad de Enkidu, sin parientes ni hermano, nacido en lo salvaje; los puntos suspensivos marcan laguna corta

«‘Why, my friend, [did your eyes] brim [with tears,] your arms fall limp, [your strength ebb away?]’» — versión estándar, tablilla II: voz de Gilgamesh preguntando a su amigo por las lágrimas y la fuerza perdida

«‘My friend, my heart is aggrieved … ‘Through sobbing [my legs do] tremble, II 190 terror has entered my heart.’» — versión estándar, tablilla II: la respuesta de Enkidu ya en la plana siguiente, con las piernas temblando de sollozos y el terror entrado en el corazón

«Gilgamesh heard the words of the senior advisers, II 300 he looked with a [laugh at his friend] Enkidu:» — versión estándar, tablilla II: la reacción del rey al consejo de los mayores, que mira a su amigo con una risa; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la respuesta restituida sigue en la 87

«into the presence of the great Queen Ninsun. Ninsun is clever and wise, well versed in everything, she will set our feet in steps of good counsel.’» — continuación de esa misma propuesta ya en la plana siguiente: Ninsun es sabia y versada en todo y pondrá sus pies en pasos de buen consejo

«Scattering incense she lifted her arms in appeal to the Sun God:» — versión estándar, tablilla III: el gesto de la diosa esparciendo incienso y alzando los brazos al Sol

«‘Make for [his feet] a road of [safety,] touch Enkidu, so [he goes] before him! Because he [knows] the way to the [Forest of Cedar,] [he shall throw] open a path, [make] the mountains [passable.] ‘And a torch … for the journey let him bear in his hand, III 80 until Gilgamesh reaches the Forest of Cedar, let the days be long, let the nights be short, let his loins be girt, let his stride [be long!]» — versión estándar, tablilla III: las peticiones concretas de la diosa al Sol, camino seguro, guía de Enkidu, días largos y noches cortas

«‘“O Shamash, rouse against Humbaba the mighty gale-winds: South Wind, North Wind, East Wind and West Wind, Blast, Counterblast, Typhoon, Hurricane and Tempest, III 90 Devil-Wind, Frost-Wind, Gale and Tornado.» — versión estándar, tablilla III: la lista de los trece vientos que la diosa pide contra el guardián, que es la que decidirá el combate de la tablilla V

«‘You are young, Gilgamesh, borne along by emotion, all that you talk of you don’t understand.» — versión estándar, tablilla II: voz de los consejeros mayores, que le reprochan la juventud y el arrebato; el poema repite estos versos en la tablilla III y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«She climbed the staircase and went up on the roof, on the roof she set up a censer to Shamash.» — versión estándar, tablilla III: el rito de intercesión en la azotea, con incensario al Sol

«‘“Let rise thirteen winds and Humbaba’s face darken, let the weapons of Gilgamesh then conquer Humbaba!” After your very own fires are kindled, at that time, O Shamash, turn your face to the» — versión estándar, tablilla III: el remate de la oración de Ninsun, los trece vientos que oscurecen el rostro del guardián para que las armas del héroe lo venzan; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘Your fleet-footed mules shall [bear] you [onwards.] A restful seat, a bed [for the night] shall be [what awaits] you. The gods, your brothers, shall bring food [to delight] you, Aya the Bride shall wipe your face dry with the fringe of her garment.’» — versión estándar, tablilla III: la contrapartida que la diosa le ofrece al Sol, mulas veloces, asiento de reposo, comida de los dioses hermanos y el gesto de Aya secándole el rostro con la orla del vestido

«‘O Shamash, will not Gilgamesh rank with the gods? Will he not share the heavens with you? Will he not share with the moon a sceptre and crown? ‘Will he not grow wise with Ea of the Ocean Below?» — versión estándar, tablilla III: la serie de preguntas con que la diosa reclama para su hijo un puesto entre los dioses, compartir cielo, cetro y corona y volverse sabio con Ea del Océano de Abajo

«She smothered the censer and came [down from the roof,] she summoned Enkidu and declared her will:» — versión estándar, tablilla III: el final del rito, con el incensario apagado y la diosa bajando de la azotea para llamar a Enkidu

«After another lacuna there follows an episode in which Gilgamesh and Enkidu apparently perform rituals in aid of a safe journey, but it remains very badly damaged. When the text resumes after a long lacuna, Gilgamesh gives instructions for the running of the city in his absence:» — nota editorial de George declarando una laguna y el estado muy dañado del ritual de viaje que sigue; estas notas en cuerpo menor son añadido moderno

«‘[The regents] must not gather young men in the street. Judge the lawsuit of the weak, call to account those who do wrong, while we attain our desire like babes-in-arms, III 210 and plant our [weapons] in Humbaba’s gate!’» — versión estándar, tablilla III: las instrucciones de gobierno que el rey deja al partir, juzgar el pleito del débil y pedir cuentas al que hace mal

«The regents stood there wishing him well, the young men of Uruk ran behind in a mob, and the regents kissed his feet:» — versión estándar, tablilla III: la despedida, con los regentes besándole los pies y la tropa de jóvenes detrás

«‘Where you’ve set your mind begin the journey, let your heart have no fear, keep your eyes on me! ‘[In the] forest I knew his lair, Y 275 [and the ways, too,] that *Humbaba wanders. Speak [to the crowd] and send them home!’» — tablilla de Yale interpolada al final de la tablilla III: voz de Enkidu aceptando por fin la empresa y ofreciéndose como guía, porque conoce la guarida y los caminos del guardián

«Every three days in the course of their journey Gilgamesh and Enkidu pitch camp on a hillside and conduct a ritual to provoke a dream. Each time Gilgamesh wakes from a nightmare, but Enkidu reassures him that his dream is favourable after all. After at least five such dreams the heroes draw near to the Forest of Cedar.» — resumen de argumento de la tablilla IV, añadido moderno de George: el ciclo de campamento, rito de sueño, pesadilla y reinterpretación favorable que se repite al menos cinco veces

«[Gilgamesh climbed to the top of the mountain,] [to the hill he poured an offering of flour:] [‘O mountain, bring me a dream, so I see a good sign!’] [Enkidu made for Gilgamesh a House of the Dream God,] IV 10 [he fixed a door in its doorway to keep out the weather.] [In the circle he had drawn he made him lie down,] [and falling flat like a net lay himself in the doorway.]» — versión estándar, tablilla IV: el rito de incubación, con harina ofrecida al monte, la Casa del Dios del Sueño levantada por Enkidu, el círculo trazado y el amigo tendido como red en el umbral; los corchetes marcan que el pasaje entero es restitución

«‘[The] dream that I had [was an utter confusion:] [we were standing on] a mountain slope. [The mountain] fell down [between us,] [but] we like flies [flew clean over it.]’» — versión estándar, tablilla IV: el primer sueño, la montaña que cae entre los dos y de la que escapan como moscas; el tramo cruza de plana

«‘My friend, [your] dream is a good omen, the dream is precious [and bodes us well.] ‘My friend, the mountain you saw: [was it not Humbaba?] IV 30 [We] shall capture Humbaba, [him] we [shall slay,] we shall [cast down] his corpse on the field of battle.» — versión estándar, tablilla IV: la interpretación de Enkidu, que lee la montaña como el guardián y anuncia su muerte; es el movimiento que se repite tras cada pesadilla

«5 ‘At twenty leagues they broke bread’.» — pie de la figura 5, que toma como rótulo la fórmula de marcha

«Gilgamesh’s relation of his second dream has not survived in Tablet IV. A paraphrase of an earlier version of the epic which comes from the Hittite capital, Hattusa, and dates to the Middle Babylonian period, shows that Gilgamesh’s second dream tells how he was rescued from beneath an avalanche by the Sun God. The same dream is better preserved in a still older version on an Old Babylonian tablet, where it is Gilgamesh’s first dream:» — nota editorial de George explicando cómo se rellena la laguna del segundo sueño: por una paráfrasis de Hattusa de época medobabilónica y por una tablilla paleobabilónica más vieja donde el sueño es el primero

«[You were] born in the wild, can we take counsel?’ [Having heard the words of his friend,] Enkidu gave the dream meaning, saying to Gilgamesh: ‘[My friend,] your dream is good, [its message] is» — versión estándar, tablilla IV: la pregunta con que el rey se vuelve al nacido en lo salvaje, y el arranque de la respuesta; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana, donde queda *lucky*

«‘and his weapons you will turn into ashes. Schøyen2 50 Your dreams are good, a god is with you, you will soon achieve your plans.’» — tablilla Schøyen2 interpolada para llenar la laguna del tercer sueño: las armas del guardián vueltas ceniza y la sentencia de que un dios va con ellos

«4 ‘O Shamash, turn your face to the supplicant!’ Again Wild-Cow Ninsun made her request before» — pie de la figura 4, que toma como rótulo un verso de la oración de Ninsun; el pie cae a media plana dentro del cuerpo del poema y el tramo sigue con el verso que reanuda la oración

«‘The priestesses took in the foundling, III 125 and the Divine Daughters brought up the fosterchild. Enkidu, whom [I love,] I take for my son, Enkidu in [brotherhood,] Gilgamesh shall favour» — versión estándar, tablilla III: la fórmula de la adopción, el expósito acogido por las sacerdotisas y criado por las Hijas Divinas; el troceo une la palabra que el impreso parte al final del renglón y `span()` devuelve *fosterchild* donde el libro imprime *foster-child*

«[fifty] leagues they travelled in the course of a day, by the third day [a march] of a month and a half; nearer they drew to Mount Lebanon.» — continuación de esa fórmula ya en la plana siguiente: cincuenta leguas por día, al tercer día una marcha de mes y medio, y el monte Líbano cada vez más cerca

«[‘My friend, did you not call me? Why have I wakened?] [Did you not touch me? Why am I startled?] [Did a god not pass by? Why is my flesh frozen numb?]» — versión estándar, tablilla IV: la fórmula de despertar que abre cada uno de los cinco sueños, con las tres preguntas seguidas; los corchetes marcan que el pasaje entero es restitución

«My friend, I have had a third dream! ‘The dream that I had was an utter confusion: IV 100 heaven cried aloud, while earth did rumble. The day grew still, darkness came forth, there was a flash of lightning, fire broke out. ‘[Flames] flared up, death rained down. The fire so bright dimmed and went out, IV 105 [the flames] diminished and turned into cinders.» — versión estándar, tablilla IV: el tercer sueño, con el cielo gritando, la tierra retumbando, el relámpago, el fuego, la muerte lloviendo y las llamas vueltas ceniza

«‘My friend, I have had a dream! Why did you not rouse me? It was so frightening! With my shoulder I propped up a mountain; Schøyen2 5 the mountain fell down on me, pressing me hard. ‘A feeling of weakness wrapped my legs round, a fearsome aura overpowered my arms.» — tablilla paleobabilónica Schøyen2 interpolada en la tablilla IV: el sueño de la montaña que lo aplasta y la debilidad que le envuelve las piernas; el numeral del margen nombra la fuente y el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘Now, my friend, the one to whom we go, is he not the mountain, so strange as he is? Schøyen2 15 Now, *Humbaba to whom we go, is he not the mountain, so strange as he is? ‘If you and he meet, then but one is your task: the warrior’s rite, the task of a man.» — tablilla Schøyen2 interpolada: la interpretación de Enkidu, la montaña es el guardián, y la tarea que les toca dicha como rito del guerrero

«‘But the man you saw was King Shamash the Sun God, in time of peril he will grasp your hand.’ Gilgamesh was glad, his dream a good sign, his heart grew merry, his face shone bright.» — tablilla Schøyen2 interpolada: el hombre como león es el Sol, que en el peligro le tomará la mano, y el héroe se alegra al oírlo

«The details of the fourth dream and its explanation are not well preserved in Tablet IV, but an Old Babylonian tablet from Nippur supplies a more complete version of» — nota editorial de George sobre el cuarto sueño: la versión estándar no lo conserva bien y el texto se completa con una tablilla paleobabilónica de Nippur

«‘My friend, I have had a fourth dream, it surpasses my other three dreams! OB Ni 10 I saw a Lion-Bird in the sky, up it rose like a cloud, soaring above us. ‘It was a …, its visage distorted, its mouth was fire, its breath was death.» — tablilla paleobabilónica de Nippur interpolada en la tablilla IV: el cuarto sueño, el Pájaro León que sube como nube con rostro deforme, boca de fuego y aliento de muerte; el numeral *OB Ni 10* nombra la fuente

«‘My friend, I had a dream: Ha1 3 how ominous it was, how desolate, how unclear!» — tablilla paleobabilónica de Tell Harmal interpolada en la tablilla IV: el arranque del sueño del toro salvaje, calificado por el propio soñador de ominoso, desolado y confuso

«‘I had taken me hold of a bull from the wild: as it clove the ground with its bellows, Ha1 5 the clouds of dust it raised thrust deep in the sky, and I, in front of it, bent myself forward.» — tablilla de Tell Harmal interpolada: el sueño del toro que hiende la tierra con sus bramidos y levanta polvo hasta el cielo

«‘The [god,] my friend, we are going against, Ha1 10 he’s not the wild bull, so strange as he is. The wild bull you saw was shining Shamash, he will grasp our hands in time of peril.» — tablilla de Tell Harmal interpolada: la interpretación de Enkidu, el toro salvaje del sueño es el Sol, que les tomará la mano en el peligro

«‘The one who gave you water to drink from his skin was your god who honours you, divine Lugalbanda. Ha1 15 Should we join forces but one is our task, a feat that never was done in the land!’» — tablilla de Tell Harmal interpolada: el segundo término de la interpretación, el que da de beber es Lugalbanda, dios personal del héroe, y la empresa una hazaña nunca hecha en el país

«The end of Tablet IV is lost. It must have contained a description of the heroes’ final approach to the Forest of Cedar.» — nota editorial de George declarando perdido el final de la tablilla IV y diciendo qué debió contener; la deuda se declara en vez de rellenarse

«The heroes admire from afar the mountain of cedar, which is a jungle noisy with wildlife, and Gilgamesh is petrified with awe. As the heroes anxiously try to allay each other’s fears they draw their weapons and creep into the forest. The forest king Humbaba senses their presence.» — primera parte del resumen de argumento de la tablilla V, añadido moderno de George: la selva ruidosa, el pavor del héroe y el guardián que los presiente

«Shamash advises a speedy attack in order to catch him unawares before he can put on the seven auras that protect him. Humbaba confronts them, and accuses Enkidu of treachery. Enkidu urges swift action. He and Gilgamesh attack Humbaba, and Shamash sends the thirteen winds to blind the forest king and win victory for his protégé. Humbaba pleads for his life, but Enkidu repeatedly intervenes, telling Gilgamesh to kill Humbaba before the gods find out. Humbaba curses the heroes, who promptly kill him and begin felling cedar in the sacred groves. From one especially magnificent cedar Enkidu makes a great door to adorn the temple of the god Enlil.» — segunda parte del mismo resumen: los trece vientos que ciegan al guardián, la súplica desoída, la maldición, la muerte, la tala del bosque sagrado y la puerta hecha con el cedro mayor

«They saw the Mountain of Cedar, seat of gods and goddesses’ throne. [On the] face of the land the cedar proffered its abundance, its shade was sweet and full of delight.» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el monte de cedro dado como asiento de dioses y trono de diosas, con su sombra dulce

«[Thick] tangled was the thorn, the forest a shrouding canopy, V 10 cedars and gum trees, [all entwined,] left no way in. For a league on all sides cedars [sent forth] saplings, cypresses [grew thick] for two-thirds of a league. Cedars scabbed with resin grew sixty cubits high, the resin [oozed] forth, drizzling down like rain,» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la descripción del bosque que el prefacio de la segunda edición declara ampliada por las piezas nuevas, con la resina goteando como lluvia de cedros de sesenta codos

«[Through] all the forest a bird began to sing, [hen birds] gave answer, a constant din was the noise. [A solitary] tree-cricket set off a noisy chorus, … sing a song, making the … pipe loud. V 20 A wood pigeon moans, a turtle dove calls in answer. [At the call of] the stork, the forest exults, [at the cry of] the francolin, the forest exults amid plenty. [Monkey mothers] sing aloud, a youngster monkey shrieks: [like a band] of musicians and drummers, V 25 daily they bash out a rhythm in the presence of Humbaba.» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el bosque como orquesta, con pájaros, grillo, paloma, tórtola, cigüeña, francolín y monos que tocan a diario ante el guardián

«As the cedar [cast] its shadow, [terror] fell on Gilgamesh. [Stiffness took] a grip of his arms, and tremors beset his legs.» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el terror que paraliza al héroe ante la sombra del cedro, con los brazos rígidos y las piernas temblando

«‘[Why,] my friend, do we tremble like cowards, V 35 [we who] came across all the mountains?» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el reproche que el rey se hace a sí mismo y a su amigo, tras haber cruzado todas las montañas

«‘Take my hand, friend, and we shall go [on] together, V 45 [let] your thoughts dwell on combat! Forget death and [seek] life! [The one who] walks alongside is the prudent man.» — versión estándar, tablilla V: voz de Gilgamesh pidiendo la mano de su amigo, con la fórmula de olvidar la muerte y buscar la vida

«‘“[Let him who] goes first be on guard for himself and bring his comrade to safety!” It is they made a name [for days] long in the» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el proverbio del que va delante, citado dentro del verso con sus propias comillas; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘A strong dog’s two pups [will overcome it.] V 80 Fix firm your stance …… My friend, an arrow’s dart ……, the journey that you are making ……» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el último de esos proverbios, los dos cachorros de un perro fuerte, en un pasaje muy roto

«He bellowed once, a bellow full of terror, the guardian of the forests was bellowing, .….……. V 105 Humbaba was [thundering] like the God of the Storm.» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el bramido del guardián, comparado con el dios de la Tormenta

«‘Come, Enkidu, you spawn of a fish, who knew no father, hatchling of terrapin and turtle, who sucked no mother’s milk! In your youth I watched you, but near you I went not, would your … have sated my belly? V 120 ‘[Now] in treachery you bring before me Gilgamesh, and stand there, Enkidu, like a warlike stranger!» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el insulto del guardián a Enkidu, engendro de pez sin padre y cría de tortuga sin leche de madre, acusado de traición por traer al rey

«I will slit the throat and gullet of Gilgamesh, I will feed his flesh to the birds of the forest, ravening eagle and vulture!’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la amenaza del guardián, dar la carne del rey a las aves del bosque

«‘My friend, Humbaba’s features have changed! Though boldly we came up to his lair to defeat him, yet the heart that took fright does not grow calm in a moment.’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el miedo del rey dicho a su amigo, con la observación de que el corazón que se asustó no se calma de golpe

«They stood there marvelling at the forest, gazing at the lofty cedars, gazing at the forest’s entrance – where Humbaba came and went there was a track. The paths were straight and the way well trodden.» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la primera vista del bosque, con la senda por donde el guardián entraba y salía; el poema repite el primer verso unas planas después

«‘My [friend] is one who is tested in combat, one who has been in battle has no fear of death. V 40 ‘You have been splashed in blood, so you need not fear death: [go] berserk, like a dervish fall into a frenzy. Let [your shout] boom loud [like] a kettle drum, may the stiffness leave your arms, the tremors your legs!» — versión estándar, tablilla V: voz de Enkidu animándolo, con la sentencia de que quien ha estado en batalla no teme a la muerte y la orden de enloquecer como un derviche

«‘It must be Enkidu ……, in goodwill he …… V 70 If a word to …… may Enlil curse him ……!’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: voz del guardián hablando solo, que reconoce a Enkidu y pide contra él la maldición de Enlil; los puntos marcan lagunas cortas de hasta un cuarto de verso

«‘My friend, Humbaba …… One friend is one alone, but [two are two!] V 75 ‘Though they be weak, two ……, [though one alone cannot climb] a sloping rampart, two [will succeed!] Two triplets ….….. a three-ply rope [is not easily broken.]» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la serie de proverbios con que Enkidu arguye que dos pueden lo que uno no, rematada con la cuerda de tres ramales que no se rompe fácil

«Gilgamesh lifted his head, [weeping before Shamash,] V 90 [his tears] flowing under the rays of the sun: ‘[Do not forget] that day, O Shamash, that I placed my trust in you! Now come to my aid and …… Upon Gilgamesh, offshoot sprung from Uruk’s midst, [place your protection!]’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la oración del héroe al Sol en el momento del miedo, recordándole el día en que puso su confianza en él

«Shamash heard what he had spoken, V 95 straight away [from the sky there cried out] a voice: ‘Fear not, stand against him! Humbaba must not [enter his forest,] he must not go down to the grove, he must not …! ‘He [must not] wrap himself in his seven cloaks …! [One] he is wrapped in, six he has shed.’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la respuesta del Sol desde el cielo, que manda atacar antes de que el guardián se envuelva en sus siete mantos, de los que ya se ha quitado seis

«already the copper pours into the mould! To stoke the furnace for an hour? To blow on the coals for an hour? To send the Deluge is to crack the whip!» — versión estándar, tablilla V: los símiles con que Enkidu urge a golpear ya, porque el metal está vertido y el momento no espera

«‘Be mindful of your god Lugalbanda, keep in your thoughts all the dreams that you had!’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el último argumento de Enkidu antes del ataque, recordarle su dios personal y los sueños interpretados en el camino

«Gilgamesh went [forward] on the advice of his friend, nine times he smote bedrock, the mountain broke up. He launched like a lion a brutal attack, V 145 and Enkidu pounced like a puma.» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el ataque, con el héroe golpeando nueve veces la roca y los dos lanzados como león y como puma

«They grabbed his auras in their hands, Humbaba bellowed, on his own account howling: V 150 ‘[I shall] lift them up and climb to the sky! [I shall] smite the ground so they fall to the Ocean Below!’ He lifted them up but the sky was too far, he smote the ground but the bedrock withstood him.» — versión estándar, tablilla V: las auras arrancadas al guardián, que intenta subirlas al cielo y hundirlas al Océano de Abajo y no puede

«At the heels of their feet the ground burst asunder, V 155 they shattered, as they whirled, Mounts Sirion and Lebanon. Black became the clouds of white, raining down on them death like a mist.» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el efecto cósmico del combate, con el Sirion y el Líbano destrozados y las nubes vueltas negras; la introducción lo da como etiología del Valle del Rift

«In a plea for his life said Humbaba to Gilgamesh: ‘You are so young, Gilgamesh, your mother just bore you, but indeed you are the offspring of [Wild-Cow Ninsun!] By Shamash’s command you flattened ten mountains, O offshoot sprung from Uruk’s midst, Gilgamesh the king!» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la primera súplica del guardián, que empieza halagando la juventud y la filiación divina del vencedor

«‘Never, O Gilgamesh, did a dead man please a master, [but a slave] alive [brings profit] to his owner. O Gilgamesh, be merciful! In woe I am truly [prostrated!] Let me stay here in the forest at your beck and call! ‘Trees I will keep you, as many as you ask for: V 175 I will keep you myrtle, cedar and cypress, timber fine and straight-grown, to be the pride of your palace!’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el argumento de utilidad con que el guardián pide la vida, un esclavo vivo rinde y un muerto no, y la oferta de maderas para el palacio

«‘You are experienced in the ways of my forest, the ways …, V 190 also you know all the arts of speech. Had I only hung you high on a sapling at my forest’s entrance, had I only fed your flesh to the birds of the forest, ravening eagle and vulture. ‘Now, Enkidu, [my] release lies with you: tell Gilgamesh to spare me my life!’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la segunda súplica, dirigida ya a Enkidu, a quien el guardián reprocha conocer su bosque y sus artes de palabra, y lamenta no haberlo matado cuando pudo

«‘My friend, Humbaba who guards the Forest of [Cedar:] finish him, slay him, do away with his power! Humbaba who guards the Forest [of Cedar:] finish him, slay him, do away with his power! ‘Before Enlil the foremost hears what we do, V 200 and the [great] gods take against us in anger, Enlil in Nippur, Shamash in [Larsa] …, establish for ever [a fame] that endures, how Gilgamesh [slew ferocious] Humbaba!’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la fórmula con que Enkidu insiste en matarlo, repetida cuatro veces en la tablilla, con la razón de apuro, hacerlo antes de que Enlil se entere

«Humbaba’s third plea for mercy is lost, but a Middle Babylonian fragment from Ugarit contains lines that can very well fit here:» — nota editorial de George declarando la laguna y la procedencia del relleno, un fragmento medobabilónico de Ugarit, con un *can very well fit* que no afirma identidad

«‘When Enkidu lay asleep with his animals, I did not call out to [him;] mounts [Sirion] and Lebanon, growers of cedar, had never been [spoilt.] ‘[As you], O Shamash, [are] my lord and my judge, I knew no mother who bore me, [I knew no father who reared me,] [it was a] mountain that bore me and you that reared me!» — fragmento de Ugarit interpolado en la tablilla V: la tercera súplica, donde el guardián declara no haber tenido madre ni padre, sino un monte que lo parió y el Sol que lo crió

«‘You did enter, O Enkidu, …… In the clashing of weapons a prince …, but for his palace retainer hostilities are … V 260 ‘You sit before [him] like a shepherd, like his hireling [doing his bidding.] Now, Enkidu, [my release] lies with you …, tell Gilgamesh to [spare] me my life!’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la cuarta súplica, donde el guardián reprocha a Enkidu servir al rey como pastor y como jornalero

«‘May the pair of them not grow old, besides Gilgamesh his friend, none shall bury Enkidu!’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la maldición del guardián moribundo, que la introducción señala como cumplida en la muerte de Enkidu; el tramo cruza de plana

«‘My friend, I speak to you but you do not hear me! While the curses ….….., [let those curses return] to his mouth.’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la última intervención de Enkidu, que pide devolver a la boca del guardián sus propias maldiciones

«[Gilgamesh heard the words] of his friend, V 285 he drew forth [the sword at] his side. Gilgamesh [stabbed him] in the neck, Enkidu cut out [his heart,] pulled it forth with the» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la muerte del guardián, con la espada en el cuello y el corazón arrancado; el tramo se corta en el cruce de renglón donde el impreso parte *lungs*

«‘[My friend,] we have reduced the forest [to] a wasteland, [how] shall we answer Enlil in Nippur? “[In] your might you slew the guardian, V 305 what was this wrath of yours that you went trampling the forest?”’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el remordimiento de Enkidu, que se pregunta cómo responderán ante Enlil por el bosque arrasado, y pone las palabras del dios en boca propia

«After they had slain his seven sons, Cricket, Screecher, Typhoon, Screamer, Crafty, …, Storm – hatchets of two talents each were their axes, .….…. they cut off, three and a half cubits (long) were the chips made by each stroke.» — versión estándar, tablilla V: los siete hijos del guardián nombrados uno por uno, y las hachas de dos talentos con que talan

«‘My friend, we have felled a lofty cedar, whose top thrust up to the sky. V 315 ‘I’m making a door, six rods in height, two rods in breadth, one cubit in thickness, whose pole and pivots, top and bottom, are all of a piece. To the house of Enlil in Nippur the Euphrates shall bear it, [and] the sanctuary of Nippur [rejoice!]’» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la puerta que Enkidu labra del cedro mayor, con sus medidas en varas y codos, destinada a la casa de Enlil en Nippur y llevada por el Éufrates

«Back in Uruk Gilgamesh’s beauty provokes the desire of the goddess Ishtar and she proposes to him. Gilgamesh scorns her, reminding her of the fates suffered by her many former conquests. Ishtar is enraged and rushes up to heaven. She persuades Anu, her father, to give her the fiery Bull of Heaven (the constellation Taurus) so that she can punish Gilgamesh with death. The Bull of Heaven causes havoc in Uruk, but Gilgamesh and Enkidu discover its weak spot and kill it. They insult Ishtar further and return to the palace in triumph to celebrate their victory.» — resumen de argumento de la tablilla VI, añadido moderno de George: la propuesta de Ishtar, el desprecio del héroe, el Toro del Cielo pedido a Anu y su muerte

«He washed his matted hair, he cleaned his equipment, he shook his hair down over his back. Casting aside his dirty gear he clad himself in clean, wrapped cloaks round him, tied with a sash. Then did Gilgamesh put on his crown.» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: el aseo del héroe al volver, que es lo que desencadena el deseo de la diosa

«‘Come, Gilgamesh, be you my bridegroom! Grant me your fruits, O grant me! Be you my husband and I’ll be your wife!» — voz de Ishtar en la versión estándar, tablilla VI: la propuesta de matrimonio, dicha sin rodeos

«‘Let me harness you a chariot of lapis lazuli and gold, VI 10 its wheels shall be gold and its horns shall be amber. Driving lions in a team and mules of great size, enter our house amid the sweet scent of cedar!» — voz de Ishtar, tablilla VI: la dote ofrecida, carro de lapislázuli y oro con leones y mulas de tiro

«‘[And if indeed I] take you in marriage, ‘…… body and clothing, VI 25 [whence will come] my food and my sustenance? [Will you feed me] bread that is fit for a god, [and pour me ale] that is fit for a king?’» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: la primera objeción del héroe, formulada como pregunta por el sustento de un mortal casado con una diosa

«‘[Why] would I want to take you in marriage? VI 32 [You, a frost] that congeals no ice, a slatted door that stays not breeze nor draught, a palace that massacres warriors, VI 35 ‘an elephant which … its hoods, pitch that [stains the hands] of its bearer, a waterskin that [cuts the hands] of its bearer, a boulder that [smashes] a wall of stone, ‘a battering ram that destroys [a wall for] the enemy, VI 40 a shoe that bites the foot of its owner!» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: la sarta de símiles con que el héroe la rechaza, de la escarcha que no cuaja a la sandalia que muerde el pie de su dueño

«What bridegroom of yours did endure for ever? What brave warrior of yours went up [to the heavens?]» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: las dos preguntas con que el héroe pasa del insulto al argumento, y que abren el catálogo de los amantes de la diosa; el tramo cruza de plana

«Dumuzi, the husband of your youth, year upon year, to lamenting you doomed him.» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: el primero del catálogo, Dumuzi condenado a lamento año tras año

«Shamash roused against Humbaba the mighty gale-winds: South Wind, North Wind, East Wind and West» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el Sol suelta los vientos contra el guardián, cumpliendo al pie de la letra la petición de Ninsun en la tablilla III; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la lista de los trece se completa en la 111

«‘Do not listen, my [friend,] to Humbaba’s words of pleading, [why] should his pleading even enter your mind?» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la intervención de Enkidu contra la clemencia; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y el argumento sigue en la 112

«6 ‘Gilgamesh stabbed him in the neck’. A short lacuna intervenes, during which the heroes desecrate the forest.» — pie de la figura 6, que toma como rótulo el verso de la muerte del guardián, seguido de la nota editorial de George que declara la laguna donde cae la profanación del bosque

«They fashioned a raft of logs [of cedar and] cypress,» — versión estándar, tablilla V: la balsa de cedro y ciprés con que vuelven; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y el regreso con la cabeza del guardián sigue en la 117

«‘Your goats shall bear triplets, your ewes shall bear twins, your donkey when laden shall outpace any mule! Your horse shall gallop at the chariot in glory, VI 20 no ox shall match yours at the yoke!’» — voz de Ishtar, tablilla VI: la fertilidad prometida al ganado, que es el registro propio de la diosa

«‘If he returns to his home, we shall be as unborn!» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el argumento de urgencia de Enkidu; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y sigue en la 112 con las auras

«‘You loved Ishullanu, your father’s gardener, who used to bring you dates in a basket, VI 65 daily making your table gleam. You eyed him up and went to meet him: ‘“O my Ishullanu, let us taste your vigour: Put out your ‘hand’ and stroke my quim!”» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: el amante del catálogo que el héroe cuenta con más detalle, el jardinero Ishullanu, con la propuesta de la diosa en su propia voz y el eufemismo entrecomillado del impreso

«‘When you heard what [he had to] say, VI 75 you struck him and turned him into a dwarf. You sat him down in the midst of his labours, he cannot go up …, he cannot go down … Must you love me also and [deal with me] likewise?’» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: el castigo del jardinero, vuelto enano, que la introducción da como etiología de los enanos, y la pregunta con que el héroe cierra el catálogo

«The goddess Ishtar [heard] these words, VI 80 she [went up] to heaven in a furious rage. [Weeping] she went to Anu, her father, before Antu, her mother, her tears did flow: ‘O father, again and again does Gilgamesh scorn me, telling a tale of foulest slander, VI 85 slander about me and insults too.’» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: la subida de la diosa al cielo y su queja ante Anu y Antu

«‘Well, was it not you who provoked King Gilgamesh, so he told a tale of foulest slander, VI 90 slander about you and insults too?’» — voz de Anu en la versión estándar, tablilla VI: el padre le devuelve la queja preguntándole si no fue ella quien provocó al rey

«‘If you want from me the Bull of Heaven, let the widow of Uruk gather seven years’ chaff, [and the farmer of Uruk] grow seven years’ hay.’» — voz de Anu, tablilla VI: la condición para entregar el Toro, siete años de paja y de heno guardados, que es la cuenta de la sequía que el Toro traerá

«Anu heard this speech of Ishtar, the Bull of Heaven’s nose-rope he placed in her hands.» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: la entrega del Toro, con la cuerda de la nariz puesta en manos de la diosa

«when it reached the land of Uruk, it dried up the woods, the reed-beds and marshes, down it went to the river, lowered the level by seven full cubits. As the Bull of Heaven snorted a pit opened up, one hundred men of Uruk fell down it. VI 120 The second time it snorted a pit opened up, two hundred men of Uruk fell down it. The third time it snorted a pit opened up, and Enkidu fell in as far as his waist.» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: los estragos del Toro, el río bajado siete codos y los pozos que se abren con cada resoplido, cien y doscientos hombres tragados

«‘My friend, we vaunted ourselves [in our] city: VI 130 how shall we answer the thronging people?» — voz de Enkidu, tablilla VI: la razón por la que hay que matar al Toro, dicha como cuenta que rendir ante la gente de la ciudad

«‘My friend, I have tested the might of the Bull of Heaven, so learning [its] strength, [and knowing its] purpose. Let me [test] again the might of the Bull, I [shall get me] behind [the Bull of Heaven,] VI 135 I will seize [it by the tuft of the tail.] ‘I will set [my foot on the back of] its [leg,] in ….….. [it.] Then [you] like a [butcher, brave and] skilful, between the yoke of the horns and the slaughter-spot thrust in your knife!’» — voz de Enkidu, tablilla VI: el plan de ataque repartido, él a la cola y el rey al cuchillo entre el yugo de los cuernos y el punto del degüello

«Enkidu rushed round to the rear of the Bull, he seized it by the [tuft] of the tail. [He set] his foot on [the back of] its [leg,] [in] ….….. it. Then Gilgamesh like a butcher, brave and skilful, VI 145 between the yoke of the horns and the slaughter-spot [he thrust in] his knife.» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: la ejecución del plan en los mismos términos en que se enunció, que es el modo de narrar propio del poema

«After they had slain the Bull of Heaven, they bore its heart aloft and set it before Shamash. Stepping back they fell prostrate in the presence of the Sun God, then both of them together sat down.» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: la ofrenda del corazón del Toro al Sol, hecha antes que cualquier celebración

«Ishtar went up on the wall of Uruk-the-Sheepfold, hopping and stamping, she wailed in woe: ‘Alas! Gilgamesh, who mocked me, has killed the Bull of Heaven.’» — voz de Ishtar, tablilla VI: el lamento desde la muralla, saltando y pataleando

«Enkidu heard these words of Ishtar, and tearing off the Bull’s shoulder he hurled it towards her. VI 155 ‘Had I caught you too, I’d have treated you likewise, I’d have draped your arms in its guts!’» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: la afrenta de Enkidu, que le arranca al Toro la espaldilla y se la arroja con una amenaza; es el acto que la asamblea divina castigará en la tablilla siguiente

«7 ‘Between the yoke of the horns and the slaughter-spot he thrust in his knife’.» — pie de la figura 7, que toma como rótulo el verso del degüello del Toro

«Ishtar assembled the courtesans, prostitutes and harlots, over the Bull of Heaven’s shoulder she began rites of mourning.» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: el duelo de la diosa sobre la espaldilla del Toro, con cortesanas, prostitutas y meretrices

«Gilgamesh spoke a word to the serving girls of [his palace:] ‘Who is the finest among men? Who the most glorious of fellows?’ ‘Gilgamesh is the finest among men! [Gilgamesh the most] glorious of fellows!’» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: el intercambio de preguntas y respuestas con las criadas del palacio, que es la cima de la soberbia del héroe antes de la caída

«Gilgamesh made merry in his palace. VI 179 At night the men lay asleep on their beds, VI 180 and Enkidu as he slept was having a dream.» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: el corte entre la fiesta y el sueño de Enkidu, con que se cierra la tablilla

«there rose thirteen winds and the face of Humbaba darkened – he could not charge forwards, he could not kick backwards – the weapons of Gilgamesh then conquered Humbaba.» — versión estándar, tablilla V: el desenlace del combate, los trece vientos alzados, el rostro del guardián oscurecido y las armas del héroe venciéndolo; la lista entera de vientos ocupa las planas 110 y 111

«Did my mother not bake? Have I not eaten, that now I should eat the bread of slander and insults? Should I let only rushes cover me in winter?”» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: voz del jardinero Ishullanu rechazando a la diosa, con la pregunta por el pan de la calumnia y el junco por abrigo

«‘Father, give me, please, the Bull of Heaven, so in his dwelling I may slay Gilgamesh! VI 95 ‘If you do not give me the Bull of Heaven, I shall smash [the gates of the Netherworld, right down] to its dwelling, to the world below I shall grant [manumission,] I shall bring up the dead to consume the living,» — voz de Ishtar, tablilla VI: la petición del Toro del Cielo y la amenaza de romper las puertas del Inframundo y soltar a los muertos sobre los vivos; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«Enkidu sprang up and seized the Bull by the horns.» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: la reacción de Enkidu, que salta y toma al Toro por los cuernos; el desprecio del Toro sigue en la plana 122

«In his face the Bull spat slaver, flicking its dung with the tuft of its tail.» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: la respuesta del Toro, que le escupe baba y le lanza estiércol con la borla de la cola

«Gilgamesh summoned all the smiths and craftsmen, VI 160 the size of the horns the craftsmen admired. Thirty pounds of lapis lazuli in a solid block,» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: los cuernos llevados a los artesanos, con treinta libras de lapislázuli en bloque macizo; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y las medidas siguen en la 124

«two pounds each their rims, sixty bushels of oil, the capacity of both. He gave them to his god Lugalbanda, to hold oil for anointment, VI 165 he took them in to hang in his chamber.» — versión estándar, tablilla VI: el resto de las medidas y el destino de los cuernos, vasos de unción ofrecidos a Lugalbanda y colgados en la cámara del rey

«In a dream Enkidu sees the gods in assembly decree his doom. In anguished delirium he pictures before him the great door of cedar he made for Enlil’s temple, and he curses it because it has failed to secure for him the god’s favour. He then turns his thoughts to the trapper and the prostitute, the instruments of his introduction to civilization, whom he also blames for his plight.» — primera parte del resumen de argumento de la tablilla VII, añadido moderno de George: la asamblea que lo condena, la puerta de cedro maldecida y la culpa echada al cazador y a la prostituta

«‘My friend, why were the great gods in counsel?’» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el único verso conservado del arranque de la tablilla, la pregunta de Enkidu por la asamblea de los dioses

«What followed the opening line of Tablet VII is still not recovered. The missing episode is known from a fragmentary passage written in Hittite, which was based on an older version of the Babylonian poem:» — nota editorial de George sobre la laguna que sigue y sobre el pasaje hitita con que la rellena, basado en una versión más antigua del poema babilonio; es la única vez que el volumen traduce del hitita, por mano de David Hawkins según el prefacio

«‘And Enlil said: “Let Enkidu die, but let not Gilgamesh die!”» — paráfrasis hitita interpolada: la sentencia de Enlil, que es la condena de Enkidu y el eje de todo lo que sigue en el poema

«‘Celestial Shamash began to reply to the hero Enlil: “Was it not at your word that they slew him, the Bull of Heaven – and also *Humbaba? Now shall innocent Enkidu die?”» — paráfrasis hitita interpolada: la objeción del Sol, que recuerda que las muertes se hicieron por mandato suyo y llama inocente a Enkidu

«‘Enlil was wroth at celestial Shamash: “How like a comrade you marched with them daily!”’» — paráfrasis hitita interpolada: la réplica airada de Enlil, que reprocha al Sol haber marchado con ellos como un camarada

«Enkidu lay down before Gilgamesh, his tears [flowed] down like streams: ‘O my brother, dear to me is my brother! They will [never] raise me up again for my brother. [Among] the dead I shall sit, the threshold of the dead [I shall cross,] never again [shall I set] eyes on my dear brother.’» — paráfrasis hitita interpolada: el lamento de Enkidu al saberse condenado, que se ve ya sentado entre los muertos y cruzando su umbral

«‘O door of the woodland, that has no [sense,] I have understanding that [you] have not. VII 40 For twenty leagues I sought for you the [finest] timber, until [in the forest] I found a tall cedar.» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el delirio de Enkidu hablando con la puerta de cedro como con un hombre, reprochándole no tener el entendimiento que él sí tiene

«‘Had I but known, O door, that so you would [repay me,] had I but known, O door, that so you would reward me, I would have lifted my axe, I would have cut you down, I would have shipped you down on a raft to Ebabbara. VII 50 ‘[To] Ebabbara, the temple of Shamash, I would have brought [you,] I would have set [up] the cedar [in the gate] of Ebabbara.» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la maldición contra la puerta, que el moribundo habría dado al templo del Sol y no al de Enlil de haber sabido cómo se le pagaría

«‘Now, O door, it was I who fashioned you, who lifted you up: I [also can curse you, I also can] tear you down! VII 60 May a king who comes after me bear for you hatred, or … hang you [where you cannot be seen,] may he remove my name and write upon you his own!’» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el cierre de la maldición, con el derecho del que hizo la obra a deshacerla y el castigo de que otro rey le borre el nombre

«He ripped off [his garments,] cast [his finery] away, as he listened to his words, swiftly and soon his [tears were flowing –] VII 65 as Gilgamesh listened to the words of Enkidu, his friend, [swiftly and soon his] tears were [flowing.]» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el duelo doble, el moribundo rasgando sus ropas y el amigo llorando al oírlo

«[‘My friend,] … in …… manifest, [do you, who] had understanding and reason, [now speak] madness? VII 70 ‘Why, my friend, does your heart talk madness …? [the dream] was special, great the anxiety. [Your feverish lips] were buzzing like flies, [the misgivings were] great, the dream was rare.» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la respuesta del rey, que trata el delirio como locura de fiebre, con los labios zumbando como moscas

«‘To the one who survives is left grief for a legacy: VII 75 the dead leave sorrow to those who survive.» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la sentencia sobre el duelo que el rey enuncia antes de sufrirlo, el dolor como herencia del que queda

«‘In [your presence] I will pray [to Anu,] father of the gods, [may] great counsellor Enlil [hear] my prayer in your presence, VII 80 may [my entreaty find favour with Ea!] I will fashion your statue in gold without limit,» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el recurso del rey, rezar a Anu, a Enlil y a Ea y ofrecer una estatua de oro sin límite

«[‘My friend,] give no silver, give no gold, give no [gemstones!] The word [Enlil] spoke is not such that the gods can rescind, VII 85 [what he] commands, he doesn’t erase,» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la respuesta de Enkidu, que rechaza la ofrenda porque la palabra de Enlil no la pueden revocar ni los dioses; el tramo cruza de plana

«My friend, fixed [is my destiny,] people go to their doom before their time.’» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la aceptación de Enkidu, con la sentencia de que la gente va a su perdición antes de tiempo

«‘I appeal to you, Shamash, for my life so precious: [as for] the hunter, the trapper-man, who let me not get as much as my friend: VII 95 ‘may the hunter not get as much as his friend! Destroy his profit, diminish his income! May his share of the profits be cut in your presence!» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la maldición contra el cazador, medida en ganancia y en ingreso, que es el registro económico con que el poema castiga

«Shamash persuades him to relent, and he returns to bless the prostitute. He has a second dream, in which he is dragged down to the Netherworld by the Angel of Death and granted a vision of hell.» — parte central del resumen de argumento de la tablilla VII, añadido moderno de George: la retractación por consejo del Sol, la bendición de la prostituta y el sueño del Ángel de la Muerte

«These, because they slew the Bull of Heaven, and slew *Humbaba who [guarded] the mountains dense-[wooded] with cedar,” so said Anu, “between these two [let one of them die!]”» — paráfrasis hitita interpolada en la tablilla VII, en prosa y no en verso: voz de Anu ante Enlil, que exige la muerte de uno de los dos por el Toro y por el guardián

«‘Your tree had no rival [in the Forest of Cedar:]» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el elogio del cedro del que salió la puerta; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y las medidas siguen en la 126

«six rods is your height, two rods your breadth, one [cubit] your thickness, your pole and your pivots, top and bottom, are all of a piece. VII 45 I fashioned you, I lifted you, I hung you upright in Nippur.» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: las medidas de la puerta repetidas verso por verso desde la tablilla V, ahora en boca del moribundo

«‘For your home shall serve a potter’s [clay pit!] You shall have neither bedroom, nor family shrine, [nor hearth!] No bed, chair or table, that people take pride in, shall be found in your chamber! The couch you delight in shall be a hard bench! VII 115 ‘[The dust of the cross]-roads shall be where you sit! [A field of ruins shall be] where you sleep! The shade of the rampart shall be where you stand! [Thorn and] briar shall skin your feet! ‘[Drunk and] sober shall strike your cheek! [Wives] shall be plaintiff, and bring claims against you! VII 120 [The roof of your house] no builder shall plaster! [In your chamber] shall roost an owl!» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el resto de esa maldición, que fija el lugar de la prostituta en la encrucijada, la ruina y la sombra de la muralla; la introducción la lee como etiología de las prostitutas de los márgenes

«‘Because [you made] me [weak, who was undefiled!] VII 130 Yes, in the wild [you weakened] me, who was undefiled!’» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el motivo de la maldición dicho por el propio Enkidu, haber sido debilitado cuando estaba sin mancilla

«‘O Enkidu, why curse Shamhat the harlot, who fed you bread that was fit for a god, VII 135 and poured you ale that was fit for a king, who clothed you in a splendid garment, and gave you as companion the handsome Gilgamesh?» — voz del Sol desde el cielo, tablilla VII: la objeción a la maldición, que enumera lo que la prostituta le dio, pan de dios, cerveza de rey, vestido espléndido y el amigo; el tramo cruza de plana

«‘The people of Uruk [he will have] mourn and lament you, the people [so bonny] he will fill full of woe for you. VII 145 After you are gone his hair will be matted in mourning, [clad] in the skin of a lion, he will wander the [wild.]’» — voz del Sol, tablilla VII: el anuncio del duelo del rey, con el pelo enmarañado y la piel de león, que es lo que ocurrirá en las tablillas siguientes

«Enkidu [heard] the words of Shamash the hero, … his heart so angry grew calm, … [his heart] so furious grew calm:» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el efecto del reproche divino sobre el moribundo, que se aplaca

«‘[My] mouth [that] cursed you shall bless [you] as well! [Governors] shall love you and noblemen too! [At one league off] men shall slap their thighs, [at two leagues off] they shall shake out their hair! VII 155 ‘No soldier shall [be slow] to drop his belt for you, obsidian he shall [give you], lapis lazuli and gold! Ear[rings] of gold shall be what he gives you! ‘Ishtar, [the ablest] of gods, shall gain you entrance to the man whose home [is secure] and wealth heaped high! VII 160 [For you] his wife shall be deserted, though mother of seven!’» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la bendición que revoca la maldición, con la misma boca, y que promete a la prostituta el favor de gobernantes y nobles

«‘My friend, in the course of the night I had such a dream! VII 165 ‘The heavens thundered, the earth gave echo, and there was I, standing between them. A man there was, his visage was darkened, fierce as a Lion-Bird were his features. ‘His hands were a lion’s paws, his claws an eagle’s talons, VII 170 he seized me by the hair, he overpowered me. I struck him, but back he sprang like a skipping rope, he struck me, and like a raft capsized me.» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el segundo sueño, el hombre de rostro oscurecido con garras de león y de águila que lo vence; el tramo cruza de plana

«8 ‘Ishtar, the ablest of gods’.» — pie de la figura 8, que toma como rótulo un verso de la bendición a la prostituta

«‘Underfoot [he] crushed me, like a mighty wild bull, [drenching] my body with poisonous slaver. VII 175 “Save me, my friend! ……” You were afraid of him, and you ……» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el reproche que el moribundo hace al amigo dentro del relato del sueño, por no haberlo socorrido

«‘[He struck me and] turned me into a dove. VII 182 ‘[He trussed] my arms like the wings of a bird, to lead me captive to the house of darkness, seat of Irkalla:» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la transformación en paloma y el traslado a la casa de la oscuridad; el tramo cruza de plana

«‘to the house whose residents are deprived of light, where dust is their sustenance and clay their food, where they are clad like birds in coats of feathers, and see no light, but dwell in darkness.» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la descripción del Inframundo, donde el polvo es sustento y la arcilla comida y los muertos van vestidos de plumas como pájaros

«‘I looked around me, saw crowns stacked in piles, there were the crowned [heads] who’d ruled the land since days of yore, VII 195 who’d served the roast [at the] tables of Anu and Enlil, who’d proffered baked bread, and poured them cool water from skins.» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: el inventario del Inframundo, con las coronas apiladas de los reyes que sirvieron el asado a Anu y a Enlil

«‘In the House of Dust that I entered, there were the en-priests and lagar-priests, there were lustration-priests and lumahhu-priests, VII 200 there were the great gods’ gudapsû-priests, ‘there was Etana, there was Shakkan, [there was] the queen of the Netherworld, the goddess Ereshkigal.» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la lista de los oficios sacerdotales que pueblan la Casa del Polvo, conservados en su nombre acadio, y la reina del Inframundo al final

«‘Come, Shamhat, I will fix your destiny, a doom to endure for all eternity: ‘[I will] curse you with a mighty curse, my curse shall afflict you now and forthwith! VII 105 A home to delight in [you shall not] acquire, [never to] reside in the [midst] of a family! ‘In the young women’s [chamber you shall not] sit! Your finest [garment] the ground shall defile! Your festive gown [the drunkard] shall stain [in the dirt!] VII 110 [A household full of] beauty you shall never acquire!» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la maldición contra Shamhat, que le niega casa, familia y sitio entre las jóvenes; el verso de apertura vuelve más adelante para revocarla

«[will] lay you out on a magnificent bed. VII 140 [On] a bed of honour he will lay you out, [he will] place you on his left, on a seat of repose; [the rulers] of the underworld will all kiss your feet.» — voz del Sol, tablilla VII: la promesa de honras fúnebres para el moribundo, con el lecho magnífico, el asiento de reposo a la izquierda del rey y los señores del inframundo besándole los pies

«Before her sat [Belet]-ṣeri, the scribe of the Netherworld, holding [a tablet], reading aloud in her presence.» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la escriba del Inframundo leyendo su tablilla ante la reina, que es la imagen del registro de los muertos; el tramo cruza de plana

«The remainder of Enkidu’s vision of hell is lost. At the end of his speech he commends himself to Gilgamesh:» — nota editorial de George declarando perdido el resto de la visión del infierno

«‘I who [endured] all hardships [with you,] VII 251 remember [me, my friend,] don’t [forget] all I went through!’» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la petición de Enkidu al despedirse, que su amigo no olvide lo que pasó con él

«The day he had the dream [his strength] was exhausted, Enkidu was cast down, he lay one day sick [and then a second.] VII 255 Enkidu [lay] on his bed, [his sickness worsened,] a third day and a fourth day, [the sickness of Enkidu worsened.] A fifth day, a sixth and a seventh, an eighth, a ninth [and a tenth,] the sickness of Enkidu worsened … An eleventh day and a twelfth, …… VII 260 Enkidu [lay] on the bed, ……» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la cuenta de los días de la enfermedad, uno por uno hasta el duodécimo, que es como el poema mide la agonía

«‘[My god] has taken against me, my friend, …, [I do not die] like one who [falls] in the midst of battle. I was afraid of combat, but …… VII 265 My friend, one who [falls] in combat [makes his name,] but I, [I do not fall] in [combat, and shall make not my name.]’» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la queja última de Enkidu, morir en cama y no en combate, con lo que no gana nombre; los corchetes marcan que buena parte es restitución

«The description of Enkidu’s final death throes, which no doubt filled the remaining thirty or so lines of Tablet VII, is still to be recovered.» — nota editorial de George midiendo en unos treinta versos lo que falta del final de la tablilla VII

«Gilgamesh offers up a great lament for Enkidu. He summons his craftsmen and makes a funerary statue of his friend, and from his treasury he selects the grave goods that Enkidu will take to the Netherworld to win the goodwill of the deities who dwell there. As part of the wake a great banquet is held, and then treasures are offered to the gods of the Netherworld and ritually displayed in public.» — resumen de argumento de la tablilla VIII, añadido moderno de George: el lamento, la estatua funeraria, los ajuares elegidos del tesoro y el banquete del velorio

«‘O Enkidu, [whom] your mother, a gazelle, and your father, a wild donkey, [did raise,] ‘whom the wild [asses] did rear with their milk, VIII 5 whom the beasts [of the wild did teach] all the pastures – O Enkidu, may the paths [of] the Forest of Cedar mourn you [without pause,] by day and by night!» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: el arranque del lamento, que nombra por padres del muerto a una gacela y a un asno salvaje y manda llorar a los senderos del bosque

«‘May the elders of teeming Uruk-the-Sheepfold mourn you! May the crowd who gave us their blessings [mourn you!] VIII 10 May the high [peaks] of hills and mountains mourn you, .….…. pure. May the pastures lament like your mother!» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: la serie de convocatorias al duelo, con ancianos, multitud, cumbres y pastos; la fórmula *May … mourn you* organiza toda la tablilla

«‘May [myrtle,] cypress and cedar mourn you, through whose midst we crept in our fury! VIII 15 May the bear mourn you, the hyena, the panther, the cheetah, the stag and the jackal, the lion, the wild bull, the deer, the ibex, all the beasts of the wild!» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: el duelo pedido a los árboles del bosque talado y a las fieras, nombradas una por una

«‘May the sacred river Ulay mourn you, along whose banks we walked in our vigour! May the holy Euphrates mourn you, whose water we poured in libation from skins!» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: el duelo pedido a los dos ríos por donde pasaron, con la libación como razón

«‘May the young men of Uruk-the-Sheepfold mourn you, [who] witnessed our battle when we slew the Bull of Heaven! May the ploughman mourn you in [his furrow], [when he] extols your name with his sweet yodel!» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: el duelo pedido a los jóvenes testigos de la muerte del Toro y al labrador que canta su nombre en el surco

«‘May the harlot mourn you, [who] anointed your head with sweet-smelling oil!» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: el duelo pedido a la prostituta, que lo ungió, cerrando el ciclo que ella misma abrió en la tablilla I

«9 ‘I shall weep for Enkidu, my friend!’» — pie de la figura 9, que toma como rótulo el verso del lamento del rey

«‘The axe at my side, in which my arm trusted, the sword at my belt, the shield at my face, my festive garment, my girdle of delight: a wicked wind rose up and robbed me.» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: la serie de metáforas con que el rey nombra al muerto, hacha, espada, escudo y cinto, arrebatados por un viento malvado

«‘O my friend, wild ass on the run, donkey of the uplands, panther of the wild, VIII 50 my friend Enkidu, wild ass on the run, donkey of the uplands, panther of the wild! It was we together who climbed the [mountains,] seized and [slew] the Bull of Heaven, destroyed Humbaba, who [dwelt in the] Forest [of Cedar.]» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: el lamento que repite el verso entero antes de recordar las tres hazañas compartidas, el monte, el Toro y el guardián

«‘Now what is this sleep that has seized [you?] VIII 55 You’ve become unconscious, you do not [hear me!]’ But he, he lifted not [his head.] He felt his heart, but it beat no longer.» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: el momento en que el rey descubre la muerte al tocar el corazón, tras hablarle como a un dormido

«He covered, like a bride, the face of his friend, like an eagle he circled around him. VIII 60 Like a lioness deprived of her cubs, he paced to and fro, this way and that.» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: los tres símiles del duelo, la novia velada, el águila que gira y la leona privada de sus cachorros

«His curly [hair] he tore out in clumps, he ripped off his finery, [like] a thing taboo he cast it away.» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: los gestos de duelo, el pelo arrancado a mechones y las galas tiradas como cosa tabú

«‘O forgemaster! [Lapidary!] Coppersmith! Goldsmith! Jeweller! Make [of] my friend [a statue in his image,] [such as no one before] fashioned a statue of his friend:» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: la convocatoria a los oficios para hacer la estatua funeraria, declarada sin precedente

«‘[She raised] her head and she saw me: “[Who was] it fetched this man here? [Who was it] brought here [this fellow?]”’» — versión estándar, tablilla VII: la pregunta de la reina del Inframundo al ver al soñador, con que se corta la visión del infierno

«‘Hear me, O young men, hear [me!] Hear me, O elders [of teeming Uruk,] hear me! I shall weep for Enkidu, my friend,» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: el rey convoca a jóvenes y ancianos para llorar a su amigo; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y el símil de la plañidera de alquiler cae en la 137

«He undid its sealings, inspected the gemstones: obsidian, carnelian, [lapis lazuli, mother-of]-pearl, alabaster.» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: la apertura del tesoro para el ajuar funerario, con las piedras nombradas una por una

«[‘May] the great queen Ishtar … accept this, may she [welcome] my friend and walk [at his side!]’» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: la fórmula de ofrenda que el poema repite una vez por cada deidad del Inframundo, aquí para Ishtar; el objeto cambia y la petición no

«A flute of carnelian …… for Dumuzi, the shepherd loved by [Ishtar, he displayed to the Sun God:] ‘May Dumuzi, the shepherd loved by [Ishtar,] accept this, VIII 150 may he welcome my friend and [walk at his side!]’» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: la flauta de cornalina para Dumuzi, el pastor amado de Ishtar

«a clasp of silver, bangles of copper, … for Qassu-ṭabat, the sweeper of [Ereshkigal, he displayed to the Sun God:] ‘[May] Qassu-ṭabat, the sweeper [of Ereshkigal,] accept this, VIII 165 may he welcome my friend and [walk at his side!] May my friend not …, nor become sick at heart!’» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: la ofrenda al barrendero de la reina, que muestra hasta dónde llega el reparto, de la reina a la servidumbre del Inframundo

«He brought out a great table of elammaku-wood, VIII 215 he filled with syrup a bowl of carnelian. He filled with ghee a bowl of lapis lazuli, he decorated … and displayed it to the Sun God.» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: la última ofrenda conservada, jarabe en cuenco de cornalina y manteca en cuenco de lapislázuli

«The rest of the description of Enkidu’s funeral, which would have occupied the remaining thirty or so lines of Tablet VIII, is yet to come to light.» — nota editorial de George midiendo en unos treinta versos lo que falta del final de la tablilla VIII

«In mourning for Enkidu, whose death has brought home to him his own mortality, Gilgamesh leaves Uruk to wander the earth in search of the immortal Uta-napishti, whose secret he covets. Pressing on to the end of the world he comes to the mountains where the Sun sets and rises and asks the help of the scorpion-man who guards the way under them. Unable to convince Gilgamesh of the danger he courts the scorpion-man allows him to pass, and Gilgamesh races against time to complete the Path of the Sun before the Sun can catch up with him. He reaches the far end of the tunnel just in time and finds himself in a garden of jewels.» — resumen de argumento de la tablilla IX, añadido moderno de George: la huida de Uruk, los montes del Sol, el hombre escorpión y la carrera por el túnel

«‘I shall die, and shall I not then be as Enkidu? Sorrow has entered my heart! ‘I am afraid of death, so I wander the wild, IX 5 to find Uta-napishti, son of Ubar-Tutu.» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: el motivo de la búsqueda dicho en primera persona, el miedo a la muerte propia descubierto en la ajena

«[He] clad himself in their skins, he ate their flesh. Si i 2´ Gilgamesh [dug] wells that never existed before, [he] drank the water, as he chased the winds.» — tablilla paleobabilónica de Sippar interpolada en la tablilla IX: el héroe vestido de pieles y comiendo carne cruda, que es la figura que Uta-napishti le reprochará como propia de necios

«‘O Gilgamesh, where are you wandering? The life that you seek you never will find.’» — tablilla de Sippar interpolada: voz del Sol enunciando por primera vez la sentencia que estructura el poema, la vida que buscas no la hallarás

«‘After roaming, wandering all through the wild, Si i 10´ when I enter the Netherworld will rest be scarce? I shall lie there sleeping all down the years! ‘Let my eyes see the sun and be sated with light! The darkness is hidden, how much light is there left? When may the dead see the rays of the sun?’» — tablilla de Sippar interpolada: la réplica del héroe, que pide luz para sus ojos mientras viva porque en el Inframundo dormirá todos los años

«To Mashu’s twin mountains he came, IX 38 which daily guard the rising [sun,] whose tops [support] the fabric of heaven, IX 40 whose base reaches down to the Netherworld.» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: los montes gemelos que sostienen la bóveda del cielo y bajan hasta el Inframundo

«There were scorpion-men guarding its gate, whose terror was dread, whose glance was death, whose radiance was fearful, overwhelming the mountains – at sunrise and sunset they guarded the sun.» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: los guardianes del paso, cuya mirada es muerte y cuyo resplandor abruma las montañas

«The scorpion-man called to his mate: ‘He who has come to us, flesh of the gods is his body.’ The scorpion-man’s mate answered him: IX 50 ‘Two-thirds of him is god, but one third human.’» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: el reconocimiento del héroe por los guardianes, que repiten la proporción del prólogo, dos tercios dios y un tercio humano

«10 ‘At sunrise and sunset they guarded the sun’.» — pie de la figura 10, que toma como rótulo el verso de los hombres escorpión

«‘[I am seeking] the [road] of my forefather, Uta-napishti, IX 75 who stood with the gods in assembly, and [found life eternal:] of death and life [he shall tell me the secret.]» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: el objeto de la búsqueda dicho al guardián, el secreto de la muerte y de la vida en boca del antepasado que estuvo en la asamblea de los dioses

«‘Never [before], O Gilgamesh, was there [one like you,] IX 80 never did anyone [travel the path] of the mountain. ‘For twelve double-hours its interior [extends,] the darkness is dense, and [light is] there none.» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: la advertencia del hombre escorpión, doce dobles horas de oscuridad densa y sin luz alguna

«‘Go, Gilgamesh! ….….. May the mountains of Mashu [allow you to pass!] ‘[May] the mountains and hills [watch over your going!] Let [them help you] in safety [to continue your journey!] [May] the gate of the mountains [open before you!]’» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: la venia del guardián, dicha como bendición de camino; los puntos y corchetes marcan el estado roto del pasaje

«he butchered fattened [oxen] and sheep, piled them high for his friend. ‘[These gifts I display,] O Shamash, for my friend!’» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: el sacrificio del velorio y la fórmula con que el rey exhibe los dones ante el Sol

«A flask of lapis lazuli …… for Ereshkigal, [the queen of the Netherworld, he displayed to the Sun God:]» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: el frasco de lapislázuli ofrecido a la reina del Inframundo; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la fórmula de petición sigue en la 141

«A double-edged dagger with a haft of lapis lazuli, VIII 175 a flintstone from the holy Euphrates, for Bibbu, the butcher of the Netherworld, he displayed to the Sun God: ‘[May Bibbu, the butcher] of the teeming Netherworld, [accept this,] [may he] welcome [my friend] and walk at his» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: la daga de doble filo y el pedernal del Éufrates para el carnicero del Inframundo, con la misma fórmula de petición

«Gilgamesh heard these words, he conceived [the idea] of damming the river.» — versión estándar, tablilla VIII: la decisión de represar el río, que es lo único que queda del entierro propiamente dicho

«‘I saw some lions and grew afraid, I lifted my head to the moon in prayer,» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: el episodio de los leones y el gesto de alzar la cabeza a la luna; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la oración sigue en la 144

«to [Ishtar, the] lamp of the gods, went my supplications: “[O Sîn and Ishtar,] keep me safe!”’ [That night he] lay down, then woke from a dream: … in the presence of the moon he grew glad of life, he took up his axe in his hand, IX 15 he drew forth [the sword from] his belt. Like an arrow among them he fell, he smote the [lions, he] killed them and scattered» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: la oración a Ishtar como lámpara de los dioses, el sueño y la matanza de los leones; el tramo se corta en el cruce de renglón donde el impreso parte la frase

«At nine double-hours …… the north wind, .….…. his face. [The darkness was dense, and] light was [there none:] IX 165 [it did not allow him to] see behind him. [On] reaching [ten double-hours,] .….…. was very near. [On reaching eleven double-hours a journey remained] of one double-hour, [at twelve double-hours Gilgamesh] emerged ahead of the Sun.» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: la carrera por el túnel contada hora a hora, con la oscuridad que no deja ver ni hacia atrás y la salida por delante del Sol en la duodécima

«A carnelian tree was in fruit, hung with bunches of grapes, lovely to look on. A lapis lazuli tree bore foliage, IX 175 in full fruit and gorgeous to gaze on.» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: el Jardín de las Joyas, con el árbol de cornalina cargado de racimos y el de lapislázuli en fruto

«Sea coral …… gemstone, instead of thorns and briars [there grew] crystal vials. He touched a carob, [it was] abashmu-stone, agate and haematite ……» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: el resto del jardín, donde las zarzas son viales de cristal y el algarrobo es piedra; los puntos marcan lagunas cortas

«As Gilgamesh walked about [in wonder,] IX 195 she lifted [her head in order] to watch him.» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: los dos versos con que se cierra la tablilla, con una mujer que lo observa sin nombrarse todavía

«Beyond the garden, by the sea-shore, lives a wise old goddess. She spies a forbidding figure in the distance and, taking him to be a hunter, bars the door of her tavern. Gilgamesh hears the noise and threatens to break in. She asks who he is. He tells her how his friend has died and how much he now fears death, and he asks her aid in crossing the sea to find Uta-napishti.» — primera parte del resumen de argumento de la tablilla X, añadido moderno de George: la tabernera que atranca la puerta y el relato del duelo

«Shiduri was a tavern-keeper who lived by the sea-shore, there she dwelt, [in an inn by the sea-shore.] Potstands she had, and [vats all of gold,] she was swathed in hoods and [veiled with] veils.» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la presentación de la tabernera con sus vasijas de oro y sus velos, que la introducción lee como la sabia tras el velo

«Gilgamesh came wandering ……, X 5 he was clad in a pelt, and fearful [to look on.] The flesh of the gods he had in [his body,] but in [his heart] there was sorrow.» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la llegada del héroe vestido de piel y terrible de ver, con carne de dioses en el cuerpo y pena en el corazón

«‘Tavern-keeper, why [did you bar] your [gate] as soon as you saw [me?] X 20 ‘You barred your gate, [and went up on the] roof. I shall smash down the door, I shall [shatter the bolts!]’» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la amenaza de romper la puerta, que la introducción señala como muestra de que el héroe sigue actuando antes de pensar

«‘[If you and Enkidu were] the ones who slew the Guardian, [destroyed] Humbaba, who dwelt in the Forest of Cedar, killed lions [in the] mountain [passes,] [seized] and slew [the] Bull come down from heaven» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la tabernera repasa las hazañas del héroe antes de preguntarle por su aspecto; el corchete abarca casi todo el pasaje, que es restitución

«‘[why are your] cheeks [so hollow,] your face so sunken, X 40 [your mood so wretched,] your visage [so] wasted? [Why] in your heart [does sorrow reside,] and your face resemble one [come from afar?] [Why are] your features burnt [by frost and by sunshine,] [and why do] you wander the wild [in lion’s garb?]’» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la pregunta por el aspecto del héroe, con las cinco señales del duelo, que el poema repite cuatro veces en esta tablilla en bocas distintas

«‘[the doom of mortals overtook him.] [Six days I wept for him and seven nights.] [I did not surrender his body for burial,] [until a maggot dropped from his nostril.]» — versión estándar, tablilla X: el detalle con que el héroe cuenta el duelo, el cuerpo no entregado a la sepultura hasta que un gusano le cayó de la nariz

«‘[How can I keep silent?] How can I stay quiet? [My friend, whom I love, has turned] to clay, my friend Enkidu, whom I love, has [turned to] clay. [Shall I not be like] him, and also lie down, X 70 [never] to rise again, through all eternity?’» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la fórmula con que el héroe declara su miedo, el amigo vuelto arcilla y él mismo tendido para siempre

«‘Now, O tavern-keeper, where is the road to Uta-napishti? What is its landmark? Tell me! Give me its landmark!» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la petición del camino, con el señalamiento pedido tres veces seguidas

«She warns him of the futility of his quest and the dangers of the Waters of Death, but at length tells him where to find Uta-napishti’s ferryman, Ur-shanabi, with his crew of Stone Ones.» — parte central del resumen de argumento de la tablilla X, añadido moderno de George: el aviso de la tabernera sobre las Aguas de la Muerte y el dato del barquero con su tripulación de Piedras

«Ur-shanabi reveals that Gilgamesh has hindered his own progress by smashing the Stone Ones, but he instructs Gilgamesh to make punting-poles of immense length as an alternative means of propulsion. They embark on the boat with the poles. When the poles are all gone Gilgamesh uses the ferryman’s garment to make a sail, and they cross the Waters of Death. Having landed Gilgamesh tells his story to Uta-napishti. Uta-napishti reminds him of the duties of kings and discourses on the inevitability of death and the fleeting nature of life.» — cierre del mismo resumen, cortado porque la entrada entera dispara la guarda anticosido: las pértigas, la vela hecha con la ropa del barquero, el paso de las Aguas de la Muerte y el discurso del sabio

«‘For sure this man is a hunter of wild bulls, but where does he come from, making straight for my gate?’» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la tabernera hablando consigo misma, que lo toma por cazador de toros salvajes

«Thus the tavern-keeper saw him, and barred her gate, X 15 barred her gate and went up on the roof.» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la puerta atrancada y la huida a la azotea, que es lo que desata la amenaza del héroe

«‘The crossing is perilous, its way full of hazard, and midway lie the Waters of Death, blocking the passage forward. So besides, Gilgamesh, once you have crossed the ocean, X 85 when you reach the Waters of Death, what then will you do?» — voz de la tabernera, tablilla X: las Aguas de la Muerte en mitad del camino, y la pregunta que el héroe no puede contestar

«‘Gilgamesh, there is Ur-shanabi, the boatman of Uta-napishti, and the Stone Ones are with him, as he strips a pine in the midst of the forest. Go then, let him see your face! If [it may be] done, go across with him, X 90 if it may not be done, turn around and go back!’» — voz de la tabernera, tablilla X: el dato del barquero y sus Piedras, con la condición dicha en disyuntiva, cruzar o volverse

«Like an arrow he fell among them, in the midst of the forest his shout resounded. Ur-shanabi saw him and clad himself in his aura, he took up an axe, all atremble before him. But he, Gilgamesh, struck his head and grabbed his hair, X 100 he pinned his arm along his chest.» — versión estándar, tablilla X: el ataque del héroe contra el barquero, que la introducción da como ejemplo de su violencia irreflexiva

«The Stone Ones had sealed the boat, they who had no fear of the Waters of Death.» — versión estándar, tablilla X: qué eran las Piedras, la tripulación sin miedo a las Aguas de la Muerte, que es lo que las volvía necesarias

«He smashed the Stone Ones, tipped them into the river, he tied up the boat with a rope, and … sat himself down on the bank.» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la destrucción de las Piedras, que el propio héroe pagará en el mismo viaje

«‘So, Ur-shanabi, you took up an axe, all atremble before me! X 110 The fight and the battle you sought I will not wage against you.’» — versión estándar, tablilla X: el momento en que el héroe se retira del combate, primer signo del cambio que la introducción señala

«‘Take up, O Gilgamesh, your axe in [your] hand, go into the forest and [cut three hundred] punting-poles, each five rods in length. X 160 Trim them and furnish them each with a boss, then bring [them here to my presence.]’» — voz del barquero, tablilla X: la solución de recambio, trescientas pértigas de cinco varas, desbastadas y con su bola

«Gilgamesh and Ur-shanabi boarded [the boat,] they launched the craft, and [crewed it] themselves.» — versión estándar, tablilla X: el embarque sin tripulación, que es la consecuencia práctica de haber roto las Piedras

«‘O Gilgamesh, there never has been a way across, nor since olden days can anyone cross the ocean.» — voz de la tabernera, tablilla X: el océano es intransitable y nadie lo ha cruzado desde antiguo; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la excepción del Sol cae en la 154

«‘Your own hands, O Gilgamesh, have hindered [your crossing:] you smashed the Stone Ones, tipped [them into the river,] the Stone Ones are smashed, and the pine is not [stripped.]» — voz del barquero, tablilla X: el reproche que enuncia la consecuencia del arrebato, las manos propias estorbando el propio paso

«‘Set to, O Gilgamesh! Take the first [punting-pole!] Let your hand not touch the Waters of Death, lest you lame [it!]» — voz del barquero, tablilla X: la instrucción para cruzar sin tocar las Aguas de la Muerte

«‘Take a second punting-pole, Gilgamesh, a third and a fourth! Take a fifth punting-pole, Gilgamesh, a sixth and a seventh! Take an eighth punting-pole, Gilgamesh, a ninth and a tenth! Take an eleventh punting-pole, Gilgamesh, and a twelfth!’» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la cuenta de las pértigas de tres en tres, que es el modo del poema de medir una travesía larga

«At one hundred and twenty double-furlongs Gilgamesh had used all the punting-poles, X 180 so he, [Ur-shanabi,] undid his clothing, Gilgamesh stripped off [his] garment, with arms held aloft he made a yard-arm.» — versión estándar, tablilla X: el recurso final del héroe, la ropa del barquero y los brazos en alto convertidos en verga y vela

«‘Why are the boat’s [Stone Ones] all broken, and aboard it one who is not its master? ‘He who comes is no man of mine, but on the right …… X 190 I am looking, but he is no [man of] mine …’» — voz de Uta-napishti hablando consigo mismo, tablilla X: la barca con las Piedras rotas y un extraño a bordo, que es lo primero que ve de su visitante

«‘[Why are] your cheeks [so hollow, your face so] sunken, [your mood] so wretched, [your visage] so wasted? ‘[Why in your heart] does sorrow reside, X 215 [and your face resemble] one come from afar? [Why are your features burnt] by frost and by sunshine, and [why do you wander the wild] in lion’s garb?’» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: la misma pregunta por el aspecto del héroe que ya hicieron la tabernera y el barquero, palabra por palabra; la repetición es el modo de composición del poema

«‘Of slumber sweet my face had too little, I scourged myself by going sleepless. X 255 I have filled my sinews with sorrow, and what have I achieved by my toil?» — versión estándar, tablilla X: la pregunta con que el héroe mide su propia empresa, qué ha logrado con tanto afán

«‘I had yet to reach the tavern-keeper, my clothing was worn out. [I killed] bear, hyena, lion, panther, cheetah, deer, ibex, the beasts and game of the wild: X 260 I ate their flesh, their pelts I flayed.» — versión estándar, tablilla X: el inventario de fieras comidas y desolladas por el camino, que es la figura del héroe vuelto salvaje

«‘Now let the gate of sorrow be barred, let [its door be sealed] with tar and pitch, for my sake they shall [interrupt] the dancing no more, [for] me, happy and carefree ……’» — versión estándar, tablilla X: el deseo de cerrar con brea y pez la puerta del dolor, en un pasaje que el impreso deja roto

«‘Why, Gilgamesh, do you ever [chase] sorrow? You, who are a mix of gods’ flesh and human, whom the [gods] did fashion like your father and mother!» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: el arranque de su discurso, que le recuerda su mezcla de carne divina y humana

«‘Did they ever, Gilgamesh, build a [palace] for the fool, X 270 place a throne in the council, and tell [him,] “Sit!”? The fool gets left-over yeast instead of [fresh] ghee, bran and grist instead of [best flour.]» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: el contraste entre la suerte del rey y la del necio, que la introducción lee como reproche al héroe por comportarse como necio

«and I wandered journeying through every land. Time and again I passed through terrible mountains, time and again I crossed all the oceans.» — versión estándar, tablilla X: el balance del viaje hecho por el propio héroe, montañas terribles y océanos cruzados una y otra vez

«instead of a belt, he is girt [with old rope.] X 275 Because he has no advisers [to guide him,] his affairs lack counsel ……» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: el retrato del necio se cierra con la falta de consejeros, que es el punto donde toca al rey

«‘[But you,] you toiled away, and what did you achieve? You exhaust yourself with ceaseless toil. You fill your sinews with sorrow, bringing forward the end of your days.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: el reproche central, que el afán del héroe solo adelanta el fin de sus días

«‘Man is snapped off like a reed in a canebrake! The comely young man, the pretty young woman – all [too soon in] their [prime] Death abducts them!» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: el símil de la caña arrancada del cañaveral, con la muerte raptando en plena juventud

«‘Ever do we build our households, ever do we make our nests, ever do brothers divide their inheritance, X 310 ever do feuds arise in the land.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: la serie de lo que los hombres hacen siempre, edificar, anidar, repartir herencias y pelearse

«11 ‘Then all of a sudden nothing is there!’» — pie de la figura 11, que toma como rótulo el verso de la efímera del discurso del sabio

«‘Ever the river has risen and brought us the flood, the mayfly floating on the water. On the face of the sun its countenance gazes, then all of a sudden nothing is there!» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: la imagen de la efímera flotando en la crecida, que mira al sol y de pronto ya no está

«‘The abducted and the dead, alike is their lot! But never was drawn the likeness of Death, never in the land did the dead greet a man.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: la muerte como lo que nunca fue retratado y de lo que nadie volvió a saludar

«‘The Anunnaki, the great gods, held an assembly, Mammitum, maker of destiny, fixed fates with them: X 320 both Death and Life they did establish, but the day of Death they do not disclose.’» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: el cierre del discurso, la asamblea que fijó Muerte y Vida y calló el día de la Muerte; George cita estos versos en su introducción y allí cae la primera aparición

«‘Let me disclose, O Gilgamesh, a matter most secret, to you I will tell a mystery of gods.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: la fórmula con que abre el relato del Diluvio, declarándolo asunto secreto y misterio de los dioses

«‘The town of Shuruppak, a city well known to you, which stands on the banks of the river Euphrates: this city was old – the gods once were in it – when the great gods decided to send down the Deluge.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: el lugar y el tiempo del Diluvio, una ciudad vieja a orillas del Éufrates

«‘By the fifth day I had set her hull in position, one acre was her area, ten rods the height of her sides. At ten rods also, the sides of her roof were each the same length. I set in place her body, I drew up her design. ‘Six decks I gave her, XI 60 dividing her thus into seven. Into nine compartments I divided her interior, I struck the bilge plugs into her belly.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: las medidas del arca en acres y varas, con seis cubiertas y nueve compartimentos, que es lo que la vuelve un cubo y no una nave

«no one at all [hears] the voice of Death, Death so savage, who hacks men down.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: el cierre de esa serie, la muerte que no se oye y que derriba a los hombres a hachazos

«Gilgamesh asks Uta-napishti how he gained eternal life, and hears how Uta-napishti survived the Deluge and was given immortality by the gods as a result. Uta-napishti suggests Gilgamesh go without sleep for a week. Gilgamesh fails the test and realizes in despair that if he cannot beat Sleep he has no hope of conquering Death. Uta-napishti commands his ferryman to have Gilgamesh bathe and dress himself in more kingly garments, and to escort him back to Uruk.» — primera parte del resumen de argumento de la tablilla XI, añadido moderno de George: el relato del Diluvio, la prueba del sueño fallida y el baño y la ropa de rey

«Uta-napishti’s wife counsels him to give the departing hero the customary present for his journey. Uta-napishti tells Gilgamesh how, deep under the sea, a plant-like coral grows that has the property of rejuvenation. Gilgamesh dives to the sea-bed and retrieves it. He and Ur-shanabi leave for Uruk. Stopping at a welcoming pool, Gilgamesh bathes in its water, and a snake seizes on his inattention to steal the precious ‘plant’. Knowing that he will never rediscover the exact spot where he dived, Gilgamesh realizes at last that all his labours have been in vain.» — segunda parte del mismo resumen: el regalo de despedida, la planta del rejuvenecimiento sacada del fondo del mar y robada por la serpiente

«His hopes are destroyed: it would have been better not to have met Uta-napishti at all. He and Ur-shanabi arrive in Uruk, where, with words that echo the prologue, Gilgamesh tells the ferryman to climb the walls that will be his enduring monument and from that vantage point to observe the immortal human community that makes up the eternal city.» — cierre del mismo resumen, donde George dice cómo lee el final: el héroe manda subir a la muralla, su monumento perdurable, para mirar desde ahí la comunidad humana inmortal que forma la ciudad eterna

«‘I look at you, Uta-napishti: your form is no different, you are just like me, you are not any different, you are just like me.» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: lo primero que el héroe descubre al llegar, que el inmortal no se distingue de él en nada

«‘I was fully intent on making you fight, XI 5 but now in your presence my hand is stayed. How was it you stood with the gods in assembly, and found life eternal?’» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: la confesión del propósito de pelear y la mano detenida, con la pregunta que es el fin del viaje; George cita estos versos en su introducción y allí cae la primera aparición

«‘Princely Ea swore with them also, repeating their words to a fence made of reed: XI 20 “O fence of reed! O wall of brick! Hear this, O fence! Pay heed, O wall!» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: el subterfugio de Ea, que jura el secreto y luego se lo cuenta a una cerca de caña y a un muro de ladrillo

«‘“O man of Shuruppak, son of Ubar-Tutu, demolish the house, and build a boat! Abandon wealth, and seek survival! XI 25 Spurn property, save life! Put on board the boat all living things’ seed!» — voz de Ea a través de la cerca, tablilla XI: la orden de demoler la casa y construir una barca, con las tres sentencias sobre riqueza, propiedad y vida

«‘“The boat you will build, her dimensions all shall be equal: her length and breadth shall be the same, XI 30 cover her with a roof, like the Ocean Below.”» — voz de Ea, tablilla XI: las dimensiones de la barca, todas iguales, y el techo como el Océano de Abajo

«‘I understood, and spoke to Ea, my master: “I obey, O master, what thus you told me. I understood, and I shall do it, but how do I answer my city, the crowd and the elders?”» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: la objeción práctica, qué decirle a la ciudad

«‘“‘In your city I can live no longer, XI 40 I can tread no more [on] Enlil’s ground. [I must] go to the Ocean Below, to live with Ea, my master, and he will send you a rain of plenty:» — voz de Ea, tablilla XI: la mentira que pone en boca del constructor, el destierro y la lluvia de abundancia; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘“‘[an abundance] of birds, a riddle of fishes, [he will provide] a harvest of riches. XI 45 In the morning he will send you a shower of bread-cakes, and in the evening a torrent of wheat.’”» — voz de Ea, tablilla XI: el resto de esa promesa falsa, panecillos por la mañana y torrente de trigo por la tarde

«‘No one at all sees Death,» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla X: el arranque de la serie sobre lo invisible de la muerte; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la serie se completa en la 163

«at the gate of Atra-hasis assembled the land: the carpenter carrying [his] hatchet, XI 50 the reed-worker carrying [his] stone, [the shipwright bearing his] heavyweight axe. ‘The young men were ……, the old men bearing ropes of palm-fibre; the rich man was carrying the pitch, XI 55 the poor man brought the … tackle.» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el reparto del trabajo por oficios y por edades ante la puerta del constructor, con el rico llevando la pez y el pobre el aparejo; aquí el poema lo llama Atra-hasis y no Uta-napishti

«‘For my workmen I butchered oxen, and lambs I slaughtered daily. Beer and ale, oil and wine like water from a river [I gave my] workforce, so they enjoyed a feast like the days of New Year.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: el trato dado a los obreros del arca, con cerveza y vino como agua de río y fiesta de Año Nuevo

«‘[Everything I owned] I loaded aboard: all the silver I owned I loaded aboard, all the gold I owned I loaded aboard, all the living creatures I had I loaded aboard. I sent on board all my kith and kin, XI 85 the beasts of the field, the creatures of the wild, and experts of every skill and craft.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: lo embarcado, plata, oro, parientes, bestias y expertos de todo oficio, que la introducción da como explicación de que sobrevivieran las artes

«there rose on the horizon a dark cloud of black, and bellowing within it was Adad the Storm God. The gods Shullat and Hanish were going before him, XI 100 bearing his throne over mountain and land. ‘The god Errakal was uprooting the mooring-poles, Ninurta, passing by, made the weirs overflow. The Anunnaki gods carried torches of fire, scorching the country with brilliant flashes.» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el reparto de papeles divinos en el Diluvio, con Adad bramando, Shullat y Hanish delante y los Anunnaki con antorchas

«‘The stillness of the Storm God passed over the sky, and all that was bright then turned into darkness. [He] charged the land like a bull [on the rampage,] he smashed [it] in pieces [like a vessel of clay.]» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: el símil del toro desbocado y la vasija de arcilla rota para decir lo que el Diluvio hizo con la tierra

«‘For a day the gale [winds flattened the country,] quickly they blew, and [then came] the [Deluge.] XI 110 Like a battle [the cataclysm] passed over the people. One man could not discern another, nor could people be recognized amid the destruction.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: la ceguera del cataclismo, en que nadie distinguía a nadie

«‘Even the gods took fright at the Deluge, they left and went up to the heaven of Anu, XI 115 lying like dogs curled up in the open.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: los dioses aterrados subiendo al cielo de Anu y echados como perros, que es el símil que la introducción cita como desfavorable a los dioses

«‘“It is I who give birth, these people are mine! And now, like fish, they fill the ocean!” The Anunnaki gods were weeping with her, XI 125 wet-faced with sorrow, they were weeping [with her,] their lips were parched and stricken with fever.» — voz de Belet-ili, tablilla XI: el reclamo de maternidad sobre los ahogados, que llenan el océano como peces

«12 ‘And now, like fish, they fill the ocean!’» — pie de la figura 12, que toma como rótulo un verso del lamento de la Diosa Madre

«‘For six days and [seven] nights, there blew the wind, the downpour, the gale, the Deluge, it flattened the land. ‘But the seventh day when it came, XI 130 the gale relented, the Deluge ended.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: la cuenta del Diluvio, seis días y siete noches, y el séptimo día en que cesa

«‘I looked at the weather, it was quiet and still, but all the people had turned to clay. XI 135 The flood plain was flat like the roof of a house. I opened a vent, on my cheeks fell the sunlight.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: lo que ve al abrir el respiradero, toda la gente vuelta arcilla y la llanura plana como un techo

«‘On the mountain of Nimush the boat ran aground, Mount Nimush held the boat fast, allowed it no motion.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: el varamiento del arca y los seis días contados de dos en dos en que el monte la retiene

«‘The seventh day when it came, I brought out a dove, I let it loose: off went the dove but then it returned, there was no place to land, so back it came to me.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: la paloma soltada que vuelve por no hallar donde posarse

«‘I brought out a raven, I let it loose: off went the raven, it saw the waters receding, XI 155 finding food, bowing and bobbing, it did not come back to me.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: el cuervo que no vuelve, que la introducción da como etiología de que palomas y golondrinas se arrimen al hombre y el cuervo no

«‘I brought out an offering, to the four winds made sacrifice, incense I placed on the peak of the mountain. Seven flasks and seven I set in position, reed, cedar and myrtle I piled beneath them.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: el sacrificio en la cumbre, con siete y siete frascos y caña, cedro y mirto debajo

«‘The gods did smell the savour, the gods did smell the savour sweet, the gods gathered like flies around the man making sacrifice.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: los dioses acudiendo al olor como moscas, el segundo símil que la introducción cita como desfavorable; el tramo cruza de plana

«‘Then at once Belet-ili arrived, she lifted the flies of lapis lazuli that Anu had made for their courtship: XI 165 “O gods, let these great beads in this necklace of mine make me remember these days, and never forget them!» — voz de Belet-ili, tablilla XI: las moscas de lapislázuli alzadas como collar para no olvidar aquellos días

«‘“All the gods shall come to the incense, but to the incense let Enlil not come, because he lacked counsel and brought on the Deluge, XI 170 and delivered my people into destruction.”» — voz de Belet-ili, tablilla XI: la exclusión de Enlil del sacrificio, por haber carecido de consejo y traído el Diluvio

«‘Then at once Enlil arrived, he saw the boat, he was seized with anger, filled with rage at the divine Igigi: “[From] where escaped this living being? XI 175 No man was meant to survive the destruction!”» — voz de Enlil, tablilla XI: la cólera al ver la barca y descubrir que alguien sobrevivió

«“Who, if not Ea, could cause such a thing? Ea alone knows how all things are done.”» — voz de Ninurta, tablilla XI: la delación de Ea como único capaz del ardid

«“You, the sage of the gods, the hero, how could you lack counsel and bring on the Deluge?» — voz de Ea, tablilla XI: el reproche a Enlil, que le devuelve el título de sabio para decirle que le faltó consejo

«‘The weather to look at was full of foreboding, I went into the boat and sealed my hatch.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: el cierre de la escotilla ante el aspecto amenazante del tiempo; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y el pago al calafate sigue en la 168

«To the one who sealed the boat, Puzur-Enlil the shipwright, XI 95 I gave my palace with all its goods.» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: el pago al calafate que selló la barca, a quien deja su palacio con todos sus bienes

«‘“The olden times have truly turned to clay, because I spoke evil in the gods’ assembly.» — voz de Belet-ili, tablilla XI: el arrepentimiento de la Diosa Madre por haber hablado mal en la asamblea; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«How could I speak evil in the gods’ assembly, and declare a war to destroy my people?» — voz de Belet-ili, tablilla XI: la pregunta con que la diosa se reprocha haber declarado una guerra para destruir a los suyos

«‘“It was not I disclosed the great gods’ secret: Atra-hasis I let see a vision, and thus he learnt our secret. And now, decide what to do with him!”» — voz de Ea, tablilla XI: la coartada, no reveló el secreto sino que dejó ver una visión al superviviente, a quien aquí llama Atra-hasis

«‘Enlil came up inside the boat, he took hold of my hand and brought me outside. XI 200 He brought out my woman and made her kneel at my side, he touched our foreheads, standing between us to bless us:» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el gesto con que Enlil cambia de parecer, tomar de la mano al superviviente y bendecir a la pareja

«‘“In the past Uta-napishti was a mortal man, but now he and his woman shall become like us gods! Uta-napishti shall dwell far away, where the rivers flow forth!”» — voz de Enlil, tablilla XI: la concesión de la inmortalidad, que la introducción declara hecho aislado e irrepetible

«‘But you now, who’ll convene for you the gods’ assembly, so you can find the life you search for? For six days and seven nights, come, do without slumber!’» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: la pregunta que desarma la búsqueda del héroe y la prueba del sueño, seis días y siete noches sin dormir

«‘Man is deceitful, he will deceive you. XI 220 Go, bake for him his daily bread-loaf, and line them up by his head, and mark on the wall the days that he sleeps!’» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: la sentencia sobre el engaño del hombre y la prueba material del pan horneado y marcado día por día

«His first bread-loaf was all dried up, XI 225 the second was leathery, soggy the third, the fourth flour-cake had turned to white, the fifth had cast a mould of grey, fresh-baked was the sixth, the seventh still on the coals: then he touched him and the man awoke.» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: los siete panes como reloj del sueño, del primero reseco al séptimo aún en las brasas

«‘No sooner had sleep spilled itself over me, than forthwith you touched me and made me awake!’» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el autoengaño del héroe, que cree no haber dormido

«‘O Uta-napishti, what should I do and where should I go? A thief has taken hold of my [flesh!] For there in my bed-chamber Death does abide, XI 245 and wherever [I] turn, there too will be Death.’» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: la desesperación tras la prueba, con la muerte en la propia alcoba y dondequiera que se vuelva

«‘[May] the quay [reject] you, Ur-shanabi, and the ferry scorn you! You who used to walk this shore, be banished from it now! As for the man that you led here, XI 250 ‘whose body is tousled with matted hair, whose body’s beauty pelts have ruined: take him, Ur-shanabi, lead him to the washtub, have him wash his matted locks as clean as can be!» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: el destierro del barquero y la orden de bañar y vestir al héroe, que es el signo de su vuelta a la condición de rey

«Ur-shanabi took him, and led him to the washtub. He washed his matted locks as clean as could be, he cast off his pelts, and the sea bore them off. His body was soaked till fair, XI 265 he made a new [kerchief for] his head, he wore royal robes, the dress fitting his dignity.» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: la ejecución del baño y del vestido en los mismos términos en que se mandó

«‘There is a plant that [looks] like a box-thorn, it has prickles like a dog rose, and will [prick one who plucks it.] But if you can possess this plant,» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: la descripción de la planta con espinas de escaramujo y su promesa de juventud recobrada; el tramo cruza de plana

«As soon as he squatted down on his haunches, XI 210 sleep like a fog already breathed over him.» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el fracaso instantáneo de la prueba del sueño, con el sueño respirando sobre él como niebla

«Said Uta-napishti to her, to his wife: ‘See the fellow who so desired life! Sleep like a fog already breathes over him.’» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el sabio mostrando a su mujer al que tanto deseaba la vida y no puede con el sueño

«‘Let him cast off his pelts, and the sea bear them off, XI 255 let his body be soaked till fair! Let a new kerchief be made for his head, let him wear royal robes, the dress fitting his dignity!» — voz de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: las pieles arrojadas al mar y la vestidura real, que es el signo de la vuelta del héroe a su condición

«‘Touch the man and make him awake! The way he came he shall go back in safety, by the gate he came forth he shall return to his land!’» — voz de la mujer de Uta-napishti, tablilla XI: la primera de sus dos intervenciones a favor del héroe, que pide despertarlo y mandarlo de vuelta a salvo

«Just as soon as Gilgamesh heard what he said, he opened a [channel] …… Heavy stones he tied [to his feet,] and they pulled him down … to the Ocean Below. XI 290 He took the plant, and pulled [it up, and lifted it,] the heavy stones he cut loose [from his feet,] and the sea cast him up on its shore.» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el buceo con piedras atadas a los pies hasta el Océano de Abajo, que la introducción da como primera vez que se bucea por coral

«‘This plant, Ur-shanabi, is the “Plant of Heartbeat”, XI 295 with it a man can regain his vigour. To Uruk-the-Sheepfold I will take it, to an ancient I will feed some and put the plant to the test! ‘If the ancient grows young again, I will eat it myself, and be once more as I was in my youth!’» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el nombre de la planta y el plan del héroe, probarla primero en un anciano de Uruk y solo después comerla él

«Gilgamesh found a pool whose water was cool, down he went into it, to bathe in the water. Of the plant’s fragrance a snake caught scent, XI 305 came up in [silence], and bore the plant off. As it turned away it sloughed its skin.» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el robo de la planta por la serpiente mientras el héroe se baña, y la muda de piel, que la introducción da como el mito más puro del poema

«‘Now far and wide the tide is rising. XI 315 Having opened the channel I abandoned the tools: what thing would I find that served as my landmark? Had I only turned back, and left the boat on the shore!’» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el arrepentimiento del viaje entero, que George cita en su introducción como el punto en que el héroe mide su insuficiencia

«When they arrived in Uruk-the-Sheepfold, said Gilgamesh to him, to Ur-shanabi the boatman: ‘O Ur-shanabi, climb Uruk’s wall and walk back and forth! Survey its foundations, examine the brickwork! Were its bricks not fired in an oven? XI 325 Did the Seven Sages not lay its foundations? ‘A square mile is city, a square mile date-grove, a square mile is clay-pit, half a square mile the temple of Ishtar: three square miles and a half is Uruk’s expanse.’» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el final del poema, que repite verso por verso el prólogo de la tablilla I, ahora en boca del héroe y dirigido al barquero; la repetición es del propio libro

«The last Tablet in the ‘Series of Gilgamesh’, Tablet XII, is not part of the epic at all, but an Akkadian prose translation of the latter part of the Sumerian poem of Gilgamesh and the Netherworld. It was appended to the epic presumably because of the relevance of the material: it describes conditions in the Netherworld, where after his death Gilgamesh presided over the shades of the dead. A translation is given in Chapter 2, following that of the original Sumerian poem.» — nota editorial de George sobre la tablilla XII, que declara ajena a la epopeya y traducción acadia en prosa de la segunda mitad del poema sumerio, remitida al capítulo 2

«a lion could have risen, and diminished the people! Instead of your causing the Deluge, XI 190 a wolf could have risen, and diminished the people! ‘“Instead of your causing the Deluge, a famine could have happened, and slaughtered the land!» — voz de Ea, tablilla XI: el resto de la serie de alternativas al Diluvio, lobo, hambre y peste, con que sostiene que el castigo fue desmedido

«for whom ran dry the blood of my heart? Not for myself did I find a bounty, [for] the “Lion of the Earth” I have done a favour!» — versión estándar, tablilla XI: el lamento del héroe, que ha hecho el favor al León de la Tierra y no a sí mismo

«The envoys of Akka, Enmebaragesi’s son, came from Kish to Gilgamesh in Uruk. Before his city’s elders Gilgamesh laid the matter, seeking a solution:» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka, cuyo título antiguo es su primer verso: la embajada de Kish y la consulta a los ancianos

«‘“To empty the wells, to empty the wells of the land, 5 to empty the shallow wells of the land, to empty the deep wells furnished with hoisting ropes”: let us not submit to the house of Kish, let us wage war!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: los tres versos enigmáticos de los pozos, que George lee como figura de un trabajo sin fin y no como exigencia literal; el poema los repite tres veces

«Gilgamesh, the lord of Kullab, 15 placing his trust in the goddess Inanna, took no notice of what his city’s elders said.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: el rey desoye a los ancianos confiando en Inanna; en este poema el héroe se nombra señor de Kullab

«‘To stand on duty, to sit in attendance, 25 to escort the king’s son – to hold a donkey by the hindquarters – as they say, who is there has breath for that?» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: el dicho de los jóvenes sobre servir a un amo real, tan penoso como tener un burro por los cuartos traseros; el impreso marca con *as they say* que es refrán

«Uruk, the smithy of the gods, 30 Eanna, house come down from heaven – the great gods it was who gave them shape – their great rampart, a cloudbank resting on the earth, 13 ‘Let us wage war!’ their lofty residence, founded by the god An: they are given into your charge, you are their king and their warrior!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: voz de los jóvenes describiendo Uruk como fragua de los dioses y Eanna como casa bajada del cielo, dadas al rey en encargo

«O crusher of heads, prince beloved of An, when he arrives how will he scare us? That army is small and a rabble at the rear, its men will not withstand us!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: el desprecio de los jóvenes por el ejército sitiador, pequeño y con chusma en la retaguardia

«It was not five days, it was not ten days, Enmebaragesi’s son Akka laid siege to Uruk, and Uruk’s good sense was confounded.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: el asedio llega antes de lo previsto y a Uruk se le confunde el buen juicio, con la misma fórmula que el rey había deseado para el enemigo

«‘O my warriors, I have chosen you all, let one with courage volunteer, “I will go to Akka!”’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: la petición de un voluntario para ir al campamento enemigo

«Birhurturra went forth from the city gate. As Birhurturra passed through the city gate, 60 in the city’s gateway he was taken captive. They battered Birhurturra from head to toe.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: la captura y la paliza del voluntario apenas cruza la puerta

«‘Slave, is that man your king?’ ‘That man is not my king!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: la pregunta de Akka y la primera respuesta del prisionero, que niega al mayordomo de Uruk

«After the Steward of Uruk, Gilgamesh climbed up on the wall, (his) dread aura enveloped the old and the young of Kullab, 85 and [put] weapons of war in the hands of Uruk’s young men.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: la aparición del rey en la muralla, cuyo aura envuelve a viejos y jóvenes de Kullab

«‘That man is indeed my king!’ And it was just as he had said, a myriad did fall, a myriad did rise, a myriad did thereby roll in the dust, 95 all the nations were thereby overwhelmed,» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: la segunda respuesta del prisionero y el cumplimiento literal de lo que había profetizado, verso por verso

«‘Now make ready the equipment and arms of battle, let weapons of war return to your grasp!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: la orden a Enkidu, que en esta tradición es su siervo y no su amigo, de aprestar las armas; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«Were that man my king, were that his fearsome brow, were those his bison eyes, were that his beard of lapis lazuli,» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: el retrato del rey verdadero, con ceño temible, ojos de bisonte y barba de lapislázuli; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la profecía de la derrota sigue en la 184

«‘O Akka, my lieutenant, Akka, my captain, O Akka, my commander, Akka, my general, O Akka, my field marshal! O Akka, you gave breath, Akka, you gave life, O Akka, who took to your bosom a man on the run, 105 O Akka, a runaway bird you sated with grain!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: el vencedor se dirige al vencido con una escala entera de títulos superiores y le recuerda el refugio que le dio en su fuga

«‘Before the Sun God I hereby repay you the favour of old!’ He let Akka go free to Kish.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: el desenlace, la deuda pagada ante el Sol y el prisionero liberado

«‘O Enkidu, since no man can escape life’s end, I will enter the mountain and set up my name. 5 Where names are set up, I will set up my name, where names are not yet set up, I will set up gods’ names.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el motivo de la expedición dicho por el héroe, poner su nombre donde se ponen los nombres y donde aún no se ponen, los nombres de los dioses

«‘My lord, if you are to enter the mountain, the god Utu should be informed, Utu, Young Hero Utu should be informed! 10 Things to do with the mountain are Utu’s concern, things to do with Cut-Cedar Mountain are Young Hero Utu’s concern, Utu should be informed!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: voz de Enkidu como siervo, que manda avisar al Sol, aquí con su nombre sumerio Utu

«Gilgamesh took a white kid in hand, as an animal offering he held a brown kid to his breast. The pure staff in his hand he held at his nose, 15 he addressed Utu of Heaven: ‘O Utu, I am to enter the mountain, be you my helper! I am to enter Cut-Cedar Mountain, be you my helper!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el rito de consulta, con cabrito blanco y cabrito pardo y el báculo puro llevado a la nariz

«‘Young man, in your own place you are a nobleman, but there in the mountain what would you be?’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la objeción del Sol, que le recuerda que su nobleza vale en su sitio y no en la montaña

«O Gilgamesh, lord of Kullab, sweet is your praise!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Akka: la fórmula de doxología con que cierra el poema, propia de la literatura sumeria; el libro imprime este mismo verso otra vez al cerrar uno de los dos finales de la Muerte de Gilgamesh, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«The lord to the Living One’s Mountain did turn his mind, the lord Gilgamesh to the Living One’s Mountain did turn his mind, he called to his servant, Enkidu:» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa, versión A, cuyo título antiguo es su primer verso, repetido en el segundo con el nombre del héroe

«‘O Utu, let me speak a word to you, give ear to what I say! Let me tell you something, may you give thought to it! In my city a man dies, and the heart is stricken, a man perishes, and the heart feels pain. I raised my head on the rampart, 25 my gaze fell on a corpse drifting down the river, afloat on the water: I too shall become like that, just so shall I be!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la razón que el héroe da al Sol, el cadáver visto flotar río abajo desde la muralla y el reconocimiento de su propia suerte

«“No man can stretch to the sky, no matter how tall, no man can compass a mountain, no matter how broad!”» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el proverbio sobre el límite del hombre, citado dentro del verso con sus propias comillas, que el poema pone como premisa de la búsqueda de fama

«Utu accepted his tears as he would a gift, like a man of compassion he showed him pity.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la respuesta del Sol, que acepta las lágrimas como ofrenda

«Seven warriors they were, sons of one mother, the first, their eldest, had paws of a lion, talons of an eagle, the second was an [open]-mouthed cobra …, the third an overpowering Dragon Serpent …, the fourth a … which kindled fire …, 40 the fifth a shrieking serpent whose screech split the uplands, the sixth like a torrent in spate that battered the mountains, the seventh blasted like lightning so none could go near it:» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: los siete guerreros que el Sol le da, descritos uno por uno con garras de león, cobra, dragón, fuego, chillido, torrente y rayo; George los identifica en su resumen con constelaciones

«‘He who has a family, to his family! He who has a mother, to his mother! 50 Let men who are unattached like me, fifty of them, be at my side!’ He who had a family, to his family. He who had a mother, to his mother. Men who were unattached like him, fifty of them, were at his side.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la leva declarada en forma de bando, con los cincuenta hombres sin familia que se alistan; el poema repite el bando y su cumplimiento verso por verso

«He made his way to the forge, he had them cast war-hatchets and battle-axes of bronze, his weapons of valour. 55 He made his way to the Dark Grove outside the city, he had them hew axe shafts of oak and axe shafts of boxwood, [he set them] in the hands of the sons of his city who were going with him.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la fragua y el bosque oscuro, con hachas de bronce y astiles de roble y de boj

«He crossed the first mountain range, he did not find the cedar he wanted, he crossed the [second] mountain range, [he did not find] the cedar he [wanted,] UrF he crossed the third mountain range, [he did not find] the cedar he wanted, he crossed the fourth mountain range, [he did not find] the cedar he wanted, he crossed the fifth mountain range, he did not [find] the cedar he wanted, he crossed the sixth mountain range, he did not find the cedar he wanted, but crossing the seventh mountain range, he found the cedar he wanted.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la búsqueda del cedro contada cordillera por cordillera hasta la séptima, que es el modo sumerio de medir una travesía

«He asked no question, he looked no further, Gilgamesh smote the cedar. Enkidu lopped off its branches … for Gilgamesh, 65 the sons of his city who had come with him stacked them in a pile.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la tala hecha sin preguntar ni mirar más, con Enkidu desramando y los cincuenta apilando

«With all the commotion Gilgamesh disturbed Huwawa in his lair, he launched against him his auras of terror. Gilgamesh was overcome [with a stupor], as if in a sleep, [Enkidu] was beset [with torpor], as if in a daze. The sons of his city who had gone with him like little puppies lay shivering at his feet.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el despertar del guardián y su aura de terror, que deja a todos en estupor

«Enkidu awoke, it had been a dream, he shuddered, it had been a deep sleep. He rubbed his eyes, there was desolate silence.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el despertar de Enkidu, que descubre que el estupor fue sueño y halla silencio desolado

«‘You who lie, you who lie, 75 O Gilgamesh, young lord of Kullab, how long will you lie?» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: voz de Enkidu tratando de despertar a su señor, con la pregunta repetida y el Sol ya recogido en el seno de su madre Ningal

«do not reduce the mothers who bore them to spinning yarn in the square of your city!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el argumento con que Enkidu lo despierta, las madres de los cincuenta reducidas a hilar en la plaza

«He (Gilgamesh) took in his hands thirty shekels of oil and rubbed his chest, he stood on the Great Earth like an ox [on all fours], he bent his neck to the ground and gave voice: ‘By the life of the mother who bore me, the goddess Ninsun, and my father, the pure Lugalbanda! Should I behave as if in terror on the knees of Ninsun, the mother who bore me?’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el despertar del héroe, que se unta treinta siclos de aceite y jura por Ninsun y Lugalbanda

«Until I discover whether that fellow is a man or a god, my mountain-bound feet I shall not turn home to the city!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el juramento del héroe, no volver hasta saber si el guardián es hombre o dios

«The servant – makes life pleasant, makes life sweet – 95 made answer to his master:» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el epíteto con que el poema nombra a Enkidu, que aquí es siervo y no amigo; el tramo cruza de plana

«‘My lord, you have not set eyes on that fellow, your heart is not stricken, but I have set eyes on him, my heart is stricken: a warrior he is, his teeth the teeth of a dragon, his eye the eye of a lion! 100 His chest is a torrent in spate, his brow devours the canebrake, none can go near him, (like) a man-eating lion, [his tongue] is never sated with blood.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el retrato del guardián en boca de Enkidu, con dientes de dragón, ojo de león y frente que devora el cañaveral

«My lord, you go on up the mountain, but let me go home to the city: I will tell your mother you lived, so she laughs for joy, then I will tell your mother you died, so she wails with grief.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la deserción que Enkidu propone, volver a la ciudad para dar a la madre la noticia doble

«‘Set to, O Enkidu! Two men together will not die: a raft of reed cannot sink, no man can cut a three-ply rope, a flood cannot sweep a man down from a wall, fire in a reed hut cannot be extinguished!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la serie de proverbios con que el héroe responde, la balsa que no se hunde, la cuerda de tres ramales y el fuego en choza de caña, que la epopeya babilónica reutiliza

«“After it sank, after it sank, after the boat from Magan sank, after the barge sank, the cargo-boat sank, a raft of reed was the boat that saved lives, it did not sink.”» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el proverbio del naufragio, citado dentro del verso con sus comillas, donde la balsa humilde salva y la nave grande se pierde

«“Fright is countered with fright, cunning with cunning!”» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el proverbio que anuncia el método del poema, la astucia contra la astucia, y no las armas

«He turns his eye upon one, it is the eye of death, he shakes his head at one, it is the gesture that pronounces one guilty.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: los poderes del guardián dichos como actos de juez, la mirada que es muerte y el gesto que declara culpable

«let me send you my older sister Enmebaragesi, to be your wife on the mountain!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la primera oferta del ardid, la hermana mayor por esposa, con el nombre que el otro poema da al padre de Akka

«His first aura of terror he gave him. 145 The sons of his city who had come with him lopped off its branches, lashed them together, and laid it down at the foot of the mountain.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el aura entregada resulta ser un cedro que los hombres desraman y bajan al pie del monte, que es la equivalencia del poema entre aura y árbol

«let me bring you [in the mountain] big sandals for big feet.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la cuarta oferta, sandalias grandes para pies grandes; el impreso da con sangría los pasajes interpolados que la numeración tradicional no cuenta

«‘Ho, hurrah! Tall-grown sapling, 130 noble one in whom the gods delight, angry ox standing ready for combat, well knew your mother how to make a child, well knew your nurse how to suckle a baby! Be not afraid, place both hands on the ground!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: voz del guardián, que abre con la fórmula que da título a la versión B y manda poner las manos en el suelo; el poema repite esa fórmula tres veces

«let me send you my little sister Peshtur, to be your concubine on the mountain!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la segunda oferta del ardid, la hermana menor por concubina; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«let me bring you in the mountain …] [So may I not then join your family?] [Give me one of your auras of terror, and I will become your kinsman!’] His second aura of terror he gave him. The sons of his city who had come with him UnC lopped off its branches, lashed them together, and laid it down at the foot of the mountain. And a third time he said: ‘By the life of the mother who bore me, the goddess Ninsun, and my father, the pure Lugalbanda! Where you dwell on the mountain, it is not known! Where you dwell on the mountain, it should be known: let me bring you in the mountain finest-quality flour, such as the great gods eat, and flasks of cool water.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la tercera oferta, harina de la que comen los grandes dioses y frascos de agua fresca, que son bienes de ciudad desconocidos en la montaña

«rock crystal, chalcedony and lapis lazuli.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la sexta oferta del ardid, cristal de roca, calcedonia y lapislázuli

«Having stripped him clean of his seven auras of terror, he drew near to his lair. Like a snake in the wine harbour, he followed behind him, 150 and making as if to kiss him, struck him on the cheek with his fist.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el desenlace del ardid, con el beso fingido convertido en puñetazo, que es donde el héroe muestra su verdadera cara

«‘O Gilgamesh, set me free! To the Sun God let me say a word! O Utu, I never knew a mother to bear me, I never knew a father to rear me, 155 I was born in the mountains, it was you who reared me!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la súplica del guardián al Sol, con la declaración de no haber tenido madre ni padre, que el fragmento de Ugarit repite en la epopeya babilónica

«‘O Enkidu, let the captive bird go off to its place, let the captive soldier go back to his mother’s embrace!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la clemencia del héroe, dicha con dos imágenes de liberación; aquí el rey perdona y el siervo objeta, al revés que en la epopeya babilónica

«A captive warrior given freedom, a captive priestess [returned] to the cloister, UnB a captive priest returned to the wig, from days of old [who ever saw such a thing?]» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el argumento de Enkidu por precedente, que nunca se vio soltar a un cautivo de esa clase

«14 ‘In rage and fury Enkidu severed his head at the neck’.» — pie de la figura 14, que toma como rótulo el verso de la muerte del guardián

«‘O Enkidu, about me you use evil words to him! Mercenary, serving the enemy to earn bread! You use evil words to him!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el reproche del guardián a Enkidu, a quien llama mercenario que sirve al enemigo por pan

«in rage and fury Enkidu severed his head at the neck. They put it in a leather sack, 180 and took it before the gods Enlil and Ninlil.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el degüello y la cabeza llevada en un saco de cuero ante Enlil y Ninlil

«‘Why have you done this thing? Was it commanded that his name be wiped from the earth? He should have sat before you, he should have eaten the bread that you ate, 190 he should have drunk the water that you drank!» — voz de Enlil en el poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el reproche, que el guardián debió sentarse a comer y beber con ellos; la epopeya babilónica no conserva esta escena

«From his throne Enlil distributed his heavenly auras: UnB his first aura he gave to the field, Ni his second aura he gave to the river, his third aura he gave to the canebrake,» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el reparto de las auras del guardián entre el campo, el río y el cañaveral, con que cierra el poema

«Huwawa spoke to Gilgamesh: UrG ‘O deceitful warrior, [you do me wrong!]’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: la acusación del guardián, que llama traidor al vencedor

«Even the tallest, if lacking good counsel,» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa A: el arranque de la sentencia con que Enkidu ataja la clemencia; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y Namtar aparece en la 198

«‘In Uruk a man dies, and the mind is stricken, 5 a man perishes, and the heart feels pain. I raised my head on the rampart, I saw a corpse afloat on the water. The mind despairs, the heart is stricken: the end of life being inescapable – 10 the grave, the oppressive Netherworld, which spares no man: “No man can reach across a mountain, no matter how lofty, no man can compass a mountain, no matter how broad!” – because no man can escape life’s end, by the lives of the mother who bore me, the goddess Ninsun, my father, [the pure] Lugalbanda, 15 my god Enki, the lord Nudimmud, my little sister Enmebaragesi and my sister Peshtur, I will [climb] the mountain!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: el motivo de la expedición, con el cadáver visto flotar y el juramento por Ninsun, Lugalbanda, Enki y las dos hermanas; la versión A dice lo mismo con otro reparto de versos

«Heavenly Utu donned his lapis-lazuli lustre, came forth with head held high.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: la salida del Sol con su lustre de lapislázuli, detalle propio de esta versión

«Then as the one warrior drew close to the other, the aura [of Huwawa] unrolled like a carpet.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: el aura del guardián desplegada como una alfombra, símil que la versión A no trae

«Gilgameshfn1 arose, it had been a dream, he shuddered, it had been a deep sleep. He rubbed his eyes with his hands, there was desolate silence.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: el despertar del héroe tras el estupor; el troceo pega al nombre la llamada de nota del impreso y la deja dentro del verbatim

«At its base I will make a temple to my god, I will take» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: el propósito declarado, un templo al pie del cedro único, que la versión A no trae; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«in the heavens they are stars blazing on high, on earth [they know] the road to Aratta, [like] merchants they know the pathways, like pigeons they know the nooks and crannies of the mountains: through the mountain passes let them lead you.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: los siete guerreros dichos aquí como estrellas que arden en lo alto y conocen el camino de Aratta, que es el pasaje en que George apoya su lectura de constelaciones

«‘O city, he who has a wife, to his wife! He who has a child, to his child! O warriors known, O warriors unknown, who have not wives, who have not children, 55 let such men be at my side, with Gilgamesh!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: el bando de leva, aquí por mujer e hijo donde la versión A decía familia y madre

«Gilgamesh felled the cedar,» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: la tala; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y el reparto de tareas sigue en la 203

«‘O warrior, you deceived me, you laid your hand on me, though you swore an oath to me. 130 By the life of [the mother who bore you], the goddess Ninsun, and your father, pure Lugalbanda, [your] god [Enki]-Nudimmud emerged in your words! [As with a wild bull made captive] you threw a rope on me, [as with a warrior taken prisoner you bound] my elbows (behind me)!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: la acusación del guardián, que nombra el juramento roto y reconoce que Enki salió en las palabras del vencedor

«‘Come, I will set the warrior free, he shall be our guide, who will spy out the route for us, he shall be our guide, W he shall be my [porter], he shall carry my pack.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: la clemencia del héroe, que además quiere hacer del vencido su guía y su porteador

«‘The tallest one can lack good counsel.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: la objeción de Enkidu en su forma más escueta, que la versión A desarrolla en dos versos

«‘The mother who bore me was a cave in the mountains, the father who sired me was a cave in the uplands! O Utu, you made me dwell all alone on the mountain!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: la última palabra del guardián, que da por padres dos cuevas y reprocha al Sol haberlo dejado solo en la montaña

«Hero in battle, hero in battle, let me sing his song!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo, cuyo título antiguo es su primer verso; el prólogo hímnico repite el estribillo en cada renglón

«Rampaging against wrongdoers, hero in battle, let me sing his song!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: el último de los epítetos del prólogo hímnico, el que arrasa contra los malhechores

«‘My king, go down to the river, [take] dust in hand, wash in the river! My lord, enter the juniper grove, learn the task, … axe, the weapon … enter the Gipar house, shear the lordly sheep, Na 1´ take a seat on the plank at the front!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: los deberes que la madre le manda, lavarse, aprender la tarea del enebral y esquilar la oveja señorial en el Gipar

«my king, being in the marsh, bend the oars in the water, my lord, let the oars dip in the water for you like a dense-growing reed-bed, let its … dip in the water for you like …!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: el deber de la marisma, con los remos que se doblan como cañaveral espeso

«‘O my wild bull, you shall be my man, I shall not let you go, O lord Gilgamesh, my wild bull, you shall be my man, I shall not let you go, you shall pass judgement in the temple Eanna, I shall not let you go, A i 5´ you shall render verdicts in the holy Gipar, I shall not let you go, you shall pass judgement in the god An’s beloved Eanna, I shall not let you go! O Gilgamesh, be you its lord, and I will be its lady!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la oferta de Inanna, que no es matrimonio sino gobierno compartido, con la judicatura en Eanna y en el Gipar; la epopeya babilónica la convierte en propuesta de boda

«‘The gifts of Inanna must not enter your chamber, the divine Palace Lady must not cover with cloth a warrior’s might! A i 10´ “O lady Inanna, you must not block my path! Let me catch wild bulls in the mountains, let me fill your folds! Let me catch sheep in the mountains, let me fill your pens! Let me pile silver, carnelian, lapis lazuli and trinkets in leather bags, let me fill your house!” That is what you must say to her!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la prohibición de la madre y el discurso que le dicta palabra por palabra, con los toros, las ovejas y las bolsas de plata para llenar la casa de la diosa

«‘Who said to you, Gilgamesh, that I have no wild bulls from the mountains? Who said to you, Gilgamesh, that I have no sheep from the mountains? Who said to you, Gilgamesh, that I have no silver, carnelian, lapis lazuli and trinkets in leather bags? If you catch [wild bulls in the mountains,] if you catch [sheep in the mountains,] if you pile [silver,] carnelian, lapis lazuli and trinkets in leather bags, take them to your sisters and [your] mother!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la respuesta de Inanna, que rechaza la oferta pregunta por pregunta y le manda llevarla a sus hermanas y a su madre

«‘A wolf … a one-year old lamb! Who did wail for it? A one-year old lamb from the mouth of a raven! Who did wail for it? It seizes them, it seizes them, it flays their skins, it flays their skins, it drinks their blood! It spills their blood as if from a jug!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: el grito de Ninsun, que compara a la diosa con el lobo y el cuervo que desuellan y beben la sangre del cordero

«‘O my child, the Bull of Heaven would have no food, at the horizon is its food! O maiden Inanna, it grazes where the sun rises! I shall not give you the Bull of Heaven.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la negativa de An, con la razón de que el Toro pace en el horizonte, donde sale el sol; la epopeya babilónica pone en su lugar la cuenta de los siete años de paja

«‘Then I shall scream until sky draws nigh earth!’ She screamed, and at her scream heaven drew nigh earth, Holy Inanna screamed, and at her scream heaven drew nigh earth.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la amenaza de Inanna y su cumplimiento, el grito que acerca cielo y tierra

«In Uruk the bull devours the grass, in the Engilua canal it drinks the water, though the Engilua canal extends a whole league, its thirst is not sated. A iii 30´ It devours the grass, it lays the earth bare, it snaps the date-palms of Uruk, bending them to its mouth. The bull, as it stands there, it fills (all of) Uruk, the bull, on its own, it fills (all of) Kullab.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: los estragos del Toro, el canal bebido sin saciarse y las palmeras dobladas hasta su boca

«At that time he was drinking beer in the house of his god, the lord Gilgamesh was drinking beer in the house of his god. His minstrel, Lugalgabangal, who had gone out into the open, puking bile, A iii 35´ lifting his gaze caught sight of the Bull of Heaven. Crouching down very low, he went back inside.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la escena del rey bebiendo mientras el Toro arrasa, y el juglar que lo ve al salir a vomitar bilis

«‘You drink, you drink, how long will you drink? O lord Gilgamesh, you drink, how long will you drink? Holy Inanna has brought the Bull of Heaven down from the sky!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: voz del juglar Lugalgabangal dando la noticia, con el reproche por la bebida

«‘O my lord, may you eat, [may you] drink, as for that matter is it not your concern?’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la insistencia irónica del juglar, que le pregunta si el asunto no le incumbe

«To smite the bull [he took up his weapons,] to smite the bull Gilgamesh [took up his weapons:] with a belt weighing fifty pounds [he girt his loins,] a dagger of seven talents and a half [he hung at his side,] [his bronze] axe [for expeditions, he took up in his hand.]» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: el armamento del rey pesado en libras y talentos, cinturón, daga y hacha de bronce

«‘O mother who bore me, [go into] the temple of Enki! O little sister Peshtur, [go into] his temple … at that ……[slaughter] oxen, at that ……slaughter sheep, at that … may … pour beer!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: el encargo a la madre y a la hermana de sacrificar en el templo de Enki antes del combate

«‘Forthwith I shall smite [the Bull of Heaven,] may its corpse be [thrown down] in the narrow streets, may its innards [be thrown down] in the broad streets, Ma 110 may the orphans of [my city take shares] of itsfn3 meat [by] the basket-load, may its carcass [be handed over] to the tanner, may Inanna in Eanna [pour sweet oil from] flasks made of its two horns!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: el voto del rey, la carne del Toro repartida por cestas entre los huérfanos y los dos cuernos hechos frascos de aceite para Inanna; el troceo pega al posesivo la llamada de nota del impreso

«Another version of the text has Gilgamesh speaking very similarly to the Bull of Heaven itself:» — nota editorial de George señalando que otra recensión pone el mismo voto en boca del rey pero dirigido al propio Toro

«‘The great bull on the loose, dwelling in Uruk,» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: el epíteto con que Inanna nombra al héroe ante su padre; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«In manly fashion the maiden Inanna took hold of the» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la diosa tomando la soga del Toro a la manera de un hombre; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘O my minstrel, sing your song, strum your strings!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la respuesta del rey al aviso, que manda seguir tocando; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la jarra vuelve a llenarse en la 214

«Inanna looked on from the rampart, the bull bellowed in the dust. Gilgamesh stood at its head, Ma 115 Enkidu went up on its … The sons of his city who had come with him, like a calf untrained to the yoke it covered them with dust.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: el combate con la diosa mirando desde la muralla y el Toro cubriendo de polvo a los hombres de la ciudad

«Enkidu having spoken thus to Gilgamesh, [Gilgamesh] with his axe of seven talents smote its crown. Lifting its head aloft the bull collapsed from a height, forming a shapeless mass like a lump of clay, lying in a heap like a harvested crop.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la muerte del Toro por el hacha de siete talentos, con el cuerpo vuelto masa informe como barro

«The king took a knife in his hand, no butcher being to hand, Ma 130 he hacked off a shoulder (to throw) at Inanna, sent her flying off like a dove, and demolished the rampart.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la espaldilla arrojada a la diosa, que sale volando como paloma mientras el miembro derriba la muralla

«15 ‘With his axe of seven talents he smote its crown’.» — pie de la figura 15, que toma como rótulo el verso de la muerte del Toro

«The Bull of Heaven being slain, O holy Inanna sweet is your praise!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: la doxología final, que alaba a la diosa derrotada y no al héroe vencedor

«its corpse he did throw down in the streets, Ma 135 its innards he did throw down in the broad streets, its* meat he did apportion by the basket-load to the orphans of hisfn4 city, its carcass he did hand over to the tanner, from flasks made of its two horns Inanna in Eanna did pour sweet oil.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Toro del Cielo: el cumplimiento del voto verso por verso, con la carne para los huérfanos y los cuernos vueltos frascos de aceite para la diosa; el troceo pega al posesivo la llamada de nota del impreso

«then, after the god An had taken the heavens for himself, after the god Enlil had taken the earth for himself, and after they had presented the Netherworld to the goddess Ereshkigal as a dowry-gift,» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el reparto del universo, con el Inframundo dado a Ereshkigal en dote

«A woman, respecting the word of An, respecting the word of Enlil, picked up the tree in her hand and took it into Uruk, took it into the pure garden of Inanna. 35 The woman did not plant the tree with her hand, she planted it with her foot, the woman did not water the tree with her hand, she watered it with her foot.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: la diosa que recoge el árbol y lo planta y lo riega con el pie y no con la mano

«She said, ‘How long until I sit on a pure throne?’ She said, ‘How long until I lie on a pure bed?’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el propósito de la diosa, trono y lecho puros hechos con la madera del árbol

«After five years [had gone by, after ten years had gone by,] 40 the tree had grown stout, its bark none could split, in its roots a Snake-that-Knows-no-Charm had made its nest, in its branches a Lion-Bird had hatched its brood, in its trunk a Demon-Maiden had built her home.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: los tres huéspedes del árbol, la Serpiente-que-no-conoce-Conjuro, el Pájaro León y la Doncella Demonio

«In those days, in those far-off days, in those nights, in those distant nights, in those years, in those far-off years, in olden times, after the primeval things had become manifest, in olden times, after the primeval things had been taken care of, 5 after bread had been swallowed in the sanctuaries of the land, after the ovens of the land had been fired up, after heaven had been parted from earth, after earth had been separated from heaven, after the name of mankind had been established –» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo, cuyo título antiguo son sus primeras palabras: el prólogo mitológico que fecha la acción cuando el pan ya se comía en los santuarios y el cielo se había apartado de la tierra

«on the lord small ones hailed down, on Enki big ones hailed down – the small ones were hammer-stones, the big ones were reed-crushing stones – 20 into the bottom of Enki’s boat they poured in heaps like surging turtles.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el granizo sobre la barca de Enki, con las piedras grandes y pequeñas nombradas por su oficio. El poema imprime este pasaje tres veces, una en narración y dos en boca de Inanna, y la cita se ancla en la primera aparición

«At the lord the water at the front of the boat snapped all around like wolves, at Enki the water at the back of the boat 25 flailed like murderous lions.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el agua que muerde como lobos y azota como leones asesinos. El poema imprime este pasaje tres veces, una en narración y dos en boca de Inanna, y la cita se ancla en la primera aparición

«Her brother, Young Hero Utu, did not help her in this matter.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: la negativa del Sol, que contrasta con la ayuda que sí le presta el héroe

«His sister having spoken thus to him, her brother Gilgamesh helped her in this matter. 135 He girt his loins with a belt weighing fifty pounds, treating fifty pounds like thirty shekels. His bronze axe for expeditions, the one weighing seven talents and seven pounds, he took up in his hand.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: la ayuda del héroe, con el cinturón de cincuenta libras llevado como treinta siclos y el hacha de siete talentos

«At that time there was a tree, there was a willow, there was a tree, growing on the bank of the holy Euphrates, drinking water from the river Euphrates.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el sauce que crecía en la orilla del Éufrates y bebía de su agua; el poema lo imprime tres veces y el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«The maiden who laughs with happy heart,» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el epíteto con que el poema nombra a la diosa justo antes de decir que lloraba; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«In its roots the Snake-that-Knows-no-Charm he smote,» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: la muerte de la serpiente entre las raíces; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y el desalojo sigue en la 225

«in its branches the Lion-Bird gathered up its brood and went into the mountains, in its trunk the Demon-Maiden abandoned her home, and they all fled to the wastelands. As for the tree, he tore it out at the roots and snapped off its branches.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: la huida del Pájaro León y de la Doncella Demonio y la tala del árbol

«For himself its root he made into his ball, its branch he made into his mallet.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: los dos juguetes hechos con la raíz y la rama, que George declara en su resumen de identificación no consensuada

«Having longed for a ball, he began playing with the ball in the city square, the self-vaunting one was vaunting himself in the city square. The young men of his city were longing for the ball. He himself was mounted piggy-back on a band of widows’ sons. ‘O my neck! O my hips!’ they groaned.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el juego que agota a los jóvenes de la ciudad, con el rey montado a cuestas de una cuadrilla de hijos de viudas

«The son who had a mother, she brought him bread, the brother who had a sister, she poured him water.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: las mujeres ocupadas todo el día en llevar pan y agua a los hombres agotados, que es la escena en que George apoya su tercera lectura de la tiranía

«At dawn, when he mounted piggy-back where he had made the mark, at the complaint of the widows and the outcry of the young girls, his ball and his mallet both fell down to the bottom of the Netherworld.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: la queja de las viudas y las jóvenes y la caída de los juguetes al fondo del Inframundo, que es el castigo por el juego

«‘O my ball! O my mallet! O ball, which I had not yet enjoyed to the full! 170 O game, which I had not yet my fill of playing! On this day, if only my ball had stayed for me in the carpenter’s workshop! O carpenter’s wife, like a mother to me! If only it had stayed there! O carpenter’s daughter, like a little sister to me! If only it had stayed there! My ball has fallen down to the Netherworld, who will bring it up for me? 175 My mallet has fallen down to Ganzir, who will bring it up for me?’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el lamento del rey por los juguetes perdidos, dirigido a la mujer y a la hija del carpintero

«Enkidu paid no attention to the word of his master: he dressed in a clean garment, they took it as the sign of a stranger. He anointed himself in sweet oil from the flask, at the scent of it they surrounded him. 210 He hurled a throwstick in the Netherworld, those struck by the throwstick surrounded him. He held a cornel rod in his hand, the shades did tremble before him. He wore sandals on his feet, 215 he made a noise in the Netherworld. He kissed the wife he loved, he struck the wife he hated, he kissed the son he loved, he struck the son he hated, 220 the outcry of the Netherworld seized him.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: la desobediencia contada como espejo exacto de la instrucción, prohibición por prohibición

«‘My favourite servant, [my] steadfast companion, the one who counselled me – the Netherworld [seized him!] Namtar did not seize him, Azag did not seize him, the Netherworld [seized him!] Nergal’s pitiless sheriff did not seize him, the Netherworld seized him! Mt1 15 He did not fall in battle, the field of men, the Netherworld seized him!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el lamento del rey, que nombra uno por uno a los demonios que no se lo llevaron para concluir que fue el Inframundo mismo

«16 ‘He did not fall in battle, the field of men’.» — pie de la figura 16, que toma como rótulo el verso del lamento por Enkidu

«‘O Father Enlil, my ball fell into the Netherworld, my mallet fell into Ganzir, 225 I sent Enkidu to bring it up and the Netherworld seized him!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: la súplica a Enlil, que repite el lamento entero ante el dios

«‘If this day you are going down to the Netherworld, I will give you instructions, you should follow my instructions! I will tell you a word, give ear to my word! Do not dress in a clean garment, 185 they would surely take it as the sign of a stranger! Do not anoint yourself in sweet oil from the flask, at the scent of it they would surely surround you!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el arranque de las instrucciones para bajar sin ser detenido, con las prohibiciones de vestir limpio y de ungirse

«Do not hold a cornel rod in your hand, the shades would tremble before you! Do not wear sandals on your feet, you must not make a noise in the Netherworld! Do not kiss the wife you loved, 195 do not strike the wife you hated, do not kiss the son you loved, do not strike the son you hated, the outcry of the Netherworld would seize you! To the one who lies, the one who lies, 200 to the Mother of Ninazu who lies – no garment covers her gleaming shoulders, no linen is spread over her gleaming breast, her fingernails she wields like a rake, she wrenches her hair out like leeks.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el resto de las instrucciones, sin sandalias, sin ruido, sin besar ni golpear a los suyos, y la visión de la Madre de Ninazu con las uñas como rastrillo

«‘Your heart rejoiced to handle the penis, 250 but the penis is like an old beam, infested with grubs! It said, “When can I go to the vagina?” but the vagina is like a crack in the ground, filled with dust!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: la primera respuesta, que da el cuerpo amado vuelto viga carcomida y grieta llena de polvo

«‘Did you see the palace eunuch?’ ‘I saw him.’ ‘How does he fare?’ ‘Like a scratched alala-stick he is propped in a corner.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el eunuco de palacio, apoyado en un rincón como palo arañado

«‘Did you see the woman who had not given birth?’ ‘I saw her.’ ‘How does she fare?’ ‘Like a defective pot she is flung aside, no man takes pleasure in her.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: la mujer que no dio a luz, arrojada como vasija defectuosa

«‘Did you see the man eaten by a lion?’ ‘I saw him.’ ‘How does he fare?’ V ‘Bitterly he cries, “O my hand! O my foot!”’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el comido por un león, que llora por los miembros que le faltan; es la serie de los que no pueden enterrarse enteros

«‘Did you see the leper?’ ‘I saw him.’ ‘How does he fare?’ 287 ‘His food is set apart, his drink is set apart, he eats bitter food, he drinks brackish water, he lives outside the city. He twitches like an ox as the maggots consume him.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el leproso, con comida y bebida apartadas y vida fuera de la ciudad, que sigue igual tras la muerte

«‘Did you see the man who did not respect the word of his mother and father?’ ‘I saw him.’ ‘How does he fare?’ ‘“O my self! O my limbs!” he cannot stop screaming.’ ‘Did you see the man accursed by his mother and father?’ ‘I saw him.’ ‘How does he fare?’ ‘He is deprived of an heir, his ghost still roams.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: los que faltaron a sus padres, en el tono moral que George señala como propio de una recensión

«‘Did you see the man fallen in battle?’ ‘I saw him.’ ‘How does he fare?’ ‘His fatherfn5 and mother cannot cradle his head, his wife weeps.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el caído en batalla, cuyos padres no pueden sostenerle la cabeza; el troceo pega al sustantivo la llamada de nota del impreso

«‘Did you see the little stillborn babies, who knew no names of their own?’ ‘I saw them.’ ‘How do they fare?’ ‘They play amid syrup and ghee at tables of silver and gold.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: los nacidos muertos que juegan entre jarabe y manteca en mesas de plata y oro, que es la única suerte de lujo del diálogo

«‘Did you see the man who was burnt to death?’ ‘I did not see him. His ghost was not there, his smoke went up to the heavens.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el quemado, al que ni siquiera se ve porque su humo subió al cielo, con que cierra la versión de Nippur

«The version of the poem known at Nippur ends abruptly here. A second version, known from the provincial centre of Mê-Turan, adds three lines that link the text with the beginning of the poem of Gilgamesh and Huwawa:» — nota editorial de George sobre las recensiones: la de Nippur cierra ahí y la de Mê-Turan añade tres versos que enlazan con el comienzo del poema de Huwawa

«‘Did you see the citizen of Girsu at the place of sighs of his father and mother?’ ‘I saw him.’ ‘How does he fare?’ rev. 9 – 10 ‘Facing each man there are a thousand Amorites, his shade cannot push them off with his hands, he cannot charge them down with» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo, recensión de Ur: el ciudadano de Girsu con mil amorreos delante, que es la alusión histórica en que George data esa continuación

«‘Did you see the way things are ordered in the Netherworld? If only you could tell me, my friend, if only you could tell me!’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: la pregunta que abre el diálogo entre el rey y la sombra de su siervo

«‘Did you see the man with one son?’ ‘I saw him.’ ‘How does he fare?’ 255 ‘Over the peg set in his wall bitterly he laments.’ ‘Did you see the man with two sons?’ ‘I saw him.’ ‘How does he fare?’ ‘Seated on two bricks he eats a bread-loaf.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: los dos primeros peldaños de la escala de los padres, que el diálogo recorre de uno a siete hijos con una imagen de holgura creciente en cada uno

«‘Did you see the man with seven sons?’ ‘I saw him.’ ‘How does he fare?’ ‘Second only to the gods he sits on a throne and listens to the proceedings.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el último peldaño de esa escala, el padre de siete hijos sentado en trono segundo tras los dioses

«‘Did you see the man with no heir?’ ‘I saw him.’ ‘How does he fare?’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: el reverso de la escala, el hombre sin heredero; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la respuesta cae en la 231

«The heart was stricken, his mind despaired.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo, recensión de Mê-Turan: el primero de los tres versos de enlace con el poema de Huwawa; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘Did you see the sons of Sumer and Akkad?’ ‘I saw them.’ ‘How do they fare?’ ‘They drink water from the place of a massacre, dirty water.’» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo, recensión de Ur: las sombras de Sumer y de Akkad bebiendo agua sucia del lugar de una matanza

«‘O my father and my mother, I will have you drink clear water!’ The day was not half gone, … weaving their crowns, rev. 10 Gilgamesh performed the mourning rites.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo, recensión de Ur: el voto de dar agua limpia a los padres muertos y los ritos de duelo instituidos

«O warrior Gilgamesh, son of the goddess Ninsun, sweet is your praise!» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo, recensión de Ur: la doxología final que cierra el poema

«Tablet XII of the standard Babylonian epic preserves a slightly different version of ll. 172–303 in an Akkadian prose translation:» — nota editorial de George que introduce la tablilla XII como traducción acadia en prosa de los versos 172 a 303 del poema sumerio, con una versión algo distinta

«‘Today, had I only left my ball in the carpenter’s workshop! [O carpenter’s wife who is like a mother] to me! Had I only [left it!] O [carpenter’s daughter who is like a] little sister [to me!] Had [I only left it!] Today [my] ball fell down to the Netherworld, my mallet fell [down] to the Netherworld!’» — tablilla XII, traducción acadia del poema sumerio: el mismo lamento por los juguetes, que aquí se imprime como prosa y no como verso sumerio

«He took them back to [Uruk,] UET VI 60 he took them back to his city.» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y el Inframundo, recensión de Ur: las estatuas de los antepasados llevadas de vuelta a la ciudad, con que el poema pasa del relato al rito

«‘If [you are going down] to the Netherworld, [you must pay heed to] my instructions! [You must not dress in] a clean garment, they will identify [you] as a stranger! You must not anoint yourself with sweet oil from the flask, XII 15 at the scent of it they will gather around you! You must not hurl a throwstick in the Netherworld, those struck by the throwstick will surround you! You must not carry a staff in your hand, the shades will tremble before you! XII 20 You must not wear sandals on your feet, you must not make a noise in the Netherworld!» — tablilla XII: las mismas instrucciones para bajar, con las diferencias de detalle que separan las dos versiones, aquí *carry a staff* donde el sumerio decía vara de cornejo

«her breasts are bare like flasks of stone.’» — tablilla XII: la imagen de la Madre de Ninazu, aquí con los pechos desnudos como frascos de piedra donde el sumerio decía lino no extendido; las dos versiones se consignan sin armonizar

«Father Enlil answered him not a word. He went off [alone to Ur, the house of Sîn:] ‘O Father Sîn, today my ball fell into the Netherworld, XII 65 my mallet fell [into the Netherworld!] Enkidu, who [went] down to bring [them up], the Netherworld seized him! Namtar did not seize him, Asakku did not seize him, the Netherworld seized him! Nergal’s pitiless sheriff [did not seize] him, the Netherworld seized him! He did not fall where [men do battle], the Netherworld seized him!’» — tablilla XII: la negativa de Enlil y la súplica al dios Luna, que la versión acadia añade y el poema sumerio no trae

«They hugged each other and they kissed each other, sharing thoughts and exchanging questions:» — tablilla XII: el reencuentro de los dos amigos, abrazados y compartiendo pensamientos

«‘[My friend, the] penis you handled so your heart rejoiced, [the penis like an] old beam do grubs devour. [My friend, the vagina you] felt so your heart rejoiced, [like a crack in the ground] is filled with dust.’» — tablilla XII: la primera respuesta de la sombra en la versión acadia, con el mismo par de imágenes que el sumerio y otro reparto de versos

«[As Enkidu] went down [to the Netherworld,] he paid no heed [to the instructions of Gilgamesh:] he dressed himself in [a clean garment,] they identified [him as a] stranger. He anointed himself with sweet oil from the flask, XII 35 at the scent [of it] they gathered around him.» — tablilla XII: el arranque de la desobediencia, contada como espejo de la instrucción igual que en el poema sumerio

«Then the king, son of Ninsun, weeping for his servant, Enkidu, XII 55 went off alone to Ekur, the house of Enlil: ‘O Father [Enlil], today my ball fell into the Netherworld, my mallet fell into the Netherworld! Enkidu, who [went down] to bring [them up, the Netherworld seized him!» — tablilla XII: la súplica a Enlil, que el poema repite luego ante Sîn y ante Ea

«Father Ea [helped him] in [this matter,] [he spoke] to Young Hero [Shamash:] XII 80 ‘O Young Hero Shamash, [son of Ningal, as you rise into the sky,] perhaps [you can open] a chink [in the Netherworld,]» — tablilla XII: la intervención de Ea, que pide al Sol abrir una rendija en el Inframundo; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘Did you see the one whose corpse was left lying on the plain?’ ‘I saw him. XII 150 His shade is not at rest in the Netherworld.’» — tablilla XII: el cadáver dejado en el llano, cuya sombra no descansa, que la versión sumeria no trae; el tramo cruza de plana

«He is not capable of standing, he is not capable of sitting, he can only groan, he is not capable of eating, he is not capable of drinking, he can only groan, the lock of Namtar holds him fast, he is not capable of rising.» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el estado del enfermo, que solo puede gemir, con el cerrojo de Namtar sujetándolo

«the lord Gilgamesh is lying down, never to rise again, he who was perfect in combat is lying down, never to rise again, the warrior girt with a shoulder-belt is lying down, never to rise again, he who was perfect in strength is lying down, never to rise again, M 5 he who diminished the wicked is lying down, never to rise again, he who spoke wisdom is lying down, never to rise again, the wakeful one of the land is lying down, never to rise again, he who climbed the mountains is lying down, never to rise again, the lord of Kullab is lying down, never to rise again, M 10 he is lying on his deathbed, never to rise again, he is lying on a bed of woe, never to rise again.» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh, cuyo título antiguo es su primer verso: la letanía del moribundo, con el estribillo repetido en cada renglón y un epíteto distinto cada vez

«Namtar, who has no hands, who has no feet, who [snatches] a man by night,» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el retrato de Namtar, sin manos ni pies, que arrebata al hombre de noche

«‘Your matter – having travelled each and every road, having fetched that unique cedar down from its mountain, having slain Huwawa in his forest, having set up monuments for future days, M 55 having founded temples of the gods, you reached Ziusudra in his abode! The rites of Sumer, forgotten there since distant days of old, the rituals and customs – you brought them down to the land.» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el balance que los dioses hacen de la vida del héroe, con las hazañas y sobre todo los ritos de Sumer traídos de vuelta desde la morada del superviviente

«‘In those days, in those far-off days, in those nights, in those far-off nights, M 70 in those years, in those far-off years, after [the assembly] had made the Deluge sweep over, so we could destroy the seed of mankind, in our midst a single man still lived, Ziusudra, one of mankind, still lived! M 75 From that time we swore by the life of heaven and the life of earth, from that time we swore that mankind should not have life eternal.» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: voz de Enki en la asamblea, que fecha el juramento de negar la vida eterna en el momento mismo del Diluvio

«The rites of hand-washing and mouth-washing you put in good order, M 60 [after the] Deluge had drowned the settlements of all lands,» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el detalle de esa restauración, los ritos de lavarse las manos y la boca puestos en orden tras el Diluvio; el poema entero se repite más adelante en boca del propio héroe

«And now we look on Gilgamesh: despite his mother we cannot show him mercy!» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: la sentencia de la asamblea, que no le hace excepción pese a su madre diosa

«The text of M falls into disorder, and breaks off after a few more lines. A slightly different version of this passage (or, strictly, of its repetition at ll. 174ff.) appears on tablets from Nippur and can be restored here:» — nota editorial de George sobre el estado del testimonio de Mê-Turan y sobre el relleno con tablillas de Nippur

«17 ‘Wrestling matches and trials of strength will be conducted’.» — pie de la figura 17, que toma como rótulo un verso de la fiesta anual de Gilgamesh

«[‘O Gilgamesh, I made your destiny a destiny of kingship, but I did not make it a destiny of eternal life.] [For mankind, whatever life it has, be not sick at heart,] [be not in despair, be not heart-stricken!]» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: voz de Enlil, que distingue el destino de realeza del de vida eterna y le manda no desesperar

«[But do not go down to the Great City with heart knotted (in anger),] [let it be undone before Utu,] [let it be unravelled like palm-fibre and peeled like an onion!]» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el consejo de bajar sin ira, con el nudo del corazón deshecho como fibra de palma y pelado como cebolla

«Go ahead, [when the great] Anunna [gods sit down] to the funerary banquet, M 103 to the place where the en-priests lie, where the [lagar-priests lie,] to where the lumaḫ-priests and nindingir-priestesses lie, M 105 to where the nindingir-priestesses lie, where the “true one” lies, to where the guda-priests lie, where the linen-clad priests lie, the place where your father is, and your grandfathers, your mother, your sisters, your siblings, your precious friend, your little brother, M 110 your friend Enkidu, the young man your companion!» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el reencuentro prometido en el banquete funerario, con los sacerdotes por sus nombres acadios y la familia entera, y el amigo al final de la lista

«Then the young [lord,] the lord Gilgamesh, awoke, it had been a [dream,] he shuddered, [it had been a deep sleep.] [He rubbed] his eyes, there was desolate [silence.]» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el despertar del sueño, con la misma fórmula del silencio desolado que trae el poema de Huwawa

«[The Dream God Sissig, son of Utu,] [shall provide light for him in the Netherworld, the place of darkness.] [Men, as many as are given names,] [when their (funerary) statues are fashioned in future days,]» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el primer premio póstumo, la luz del Dios del Sueño en el lugar de tinieblas, y las estatuas funerarias de los hombres; los corchetes marcan que el pasaje entero es restitución y el tramo cruza de plana

«[The darkest day of mortal man has caught up with you,]» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: la serie de imágenes de la muerte como día más oscuro y lugar solitario del mortal; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘“The Dream God Sissig, son of Utu, (M 180) shall provide light for him in the Netherworld, the place of darkness. N1 v 5 Men, as many as are given names, when their (funerary) statues are fashioned in future days, the warrior-youths and onlookers shall make a semicircle around a doorway, and in front of it wrestling matches and trials of strength will be conducted. In the Month of Torches, the festival of ghosts, N1v 10 without his being present light will not be provided before them.”» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh, ya en la repetición en boca del héroe: la fiesta del Mes de las Antorchas, que sin él no tiene luz, con los jóvenes luchando en semicírculo ante una puerta

«there chiefs of armies lie all alone, there captains of troops lie all alone. When in the Great City Aralli a man …, M 205 those who enter [do not come back.]» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: la Gran Ciudad Aralli, donde jefes y capitanes yacen solos y de donde nadie vuelve

«Be not in despair, be not heart-stricken, M 120 for now you will number among the Anunna gods, you will be accounted second only to the great gods, you will act as the governor of the Netherworld, you will pass judgement, you will render verdicts, what [you say] will be as weighty [as the word of Ningishzida and] Dumuzi.’» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el puesto prometido entre los dioses Anunna, como gobernador del Inframundo con voz de juez

«His beloved wife, his beloved child, N3 1 his beloved senior wife and junior wife, his beloved minstrel, steward and …., his beloved barber, [his beloved] …., (M 265) [his beloved] attendants and servants, N3 5 [his] beloved goods …., were laid down in their places, as if [attending] a palace-review in the midst of Uruk.» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el séquito entero tendido en la tumba como en un pase de revista de palacio, que George empareja con los entierros colectivos del Cementerio Real de Ur

«They opened the river Euphrates, N1 viii 3 its waters swept over, his [resting place] the waters removed (from view).» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el río devuelto a su cauce sobre la tumba para que no pueda hallarse

«the young men of his city scratched their faces, the young women of his city tore out their hair. The old men and women of his city rolled in the dust, not putting their own ……, when the news was told his people rolled in the dust.» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: los ritos de duelo del pueblo, caras arañadas, cabello arrancado y revolcarse en el polvo

«The goddess Aruru, the older sister of Enlil, for the sake of their names gave (men) offspring: their statues have been fashioned since days of old, and (their names still) spoken in the land.» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el segundo término de ese final, la descendencia dada por Aruru para que los nombres sigan dichos

«O Ereshkigal, mother of Ninazu, sweet is your praise!» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: la doxología de ese final, dirigida a la reina del Inframundo y no al héroe

«set out their surprises for Dimpikug, (M 270) set out their gifts for Bitti, set out their gifts for Ningishzida and Dumuzi, for Enki and Ninki, Enmul and Ninmul, for Endukuga and Nindukuga, N3 15 for Endashurimma and Nindashurimma (M 275) for Enutila and Enmesharra, the mothers and fathers of Enlil, for Shulpae, the lord of the table, for Shakkan and Ninhursanga, N3 20 for the Anunna gods of the Holy Mound, (M 280) for the Igigi gods of the Holy Mound, for the dead [en-priests, for the] dead lagar-priests, [for the dead] lumaḫ-priests and nindingir-priestesses, [for the dead] guda-priests, linen-clad priests and …» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el reparto de dones a la corte del Inframundo deidad por deidad, que la tablilla VIII de la epopeya hace por Enkidu

«through all time to come Nintu never will bear a king who matches him, N3 40 neither by opposing him nor by surpassing him! O Gilgamesh, lord of Kullab, sweet is your praise!» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el otro final, que declara que Nintu no parirá jamás un rey que lo iguale y cierra con la alabanza del héroe; las dos conclusiones se consignan sin armonizar

«‘[Let] them summon [Aruru,] the great one, [she it was created them,] mankind so numerous. [Let her create] his [equal,] one mighty in strength, [and let] him vie [with him], so Uruk may be» — fragmento paleobabilónico de Nippur, tablilla de ejercicio escolar: el encargo a Aruru de crear un igual al rey, en un texto muy cercano a la tablilla I; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«18 ‘Let them summon Aruru, the great one!’» — pie de la figura 18, que toma como rótulo un verso del fragmento de Nippur; el pie cae a media plana dentro del cuerpo del poema

«Enkidu’s legs grew weary, though [his herd was] in [motion;] Enkidu [had] reason and superb understanding. He bent [down and sat] in front of the [harlot,] and in a manner not (formerly) his, to the harlot’s speech his mind paid attention,» — fragmento paleobabilónico de Cornell, publicado en 2018: el canje de fuerza por razón y superior entendimiento, dicho casi con las mismas palabras que la versión estándar

«‘For sure, Gilgamesh, someone like yourself was born in the wild and the upland has reared him. ‘You will see him and you will rejoice, 20 the young men will kiss his feet. You will embrace him and bring him to me.’» — tablilla de Pensilvania: la interpretación de Ninsun, más escueta que la de la versión estándar

«‘The axe itself, it was strange of shape; I saw it and I grew glad. Like a wife I loved it, caressed and embraced it, I took it up and put it at my side.’» — tablilla de Pensilvania: el segundo sueño del hacha, aquí amada como a una esposa; el troceo pega al cierre de la cita la llamada de nota del impreso

«‘The axe, *Gilgamesh, that you saw is a man, [there will come to you one who will save] his friend. Sealand 40 [You will see him and your heart] will rejoice, [you will embrace him and bring] him before me, so that I can make him your equal.’» — tablilla del País del Mar, interpolada aquí para llenar una laguna de la tablilla de Pensilvania: la interpretación del hacha como el amigo; el asterisco antepuesto al nombre avisa de que se uniformó a su forma tardía

«19 ‘Enkidu was erect and coupled with Shamkatum.’» — pie de la figura 19, que toma como rótulo un verso de la tablilla de Pensilvania con el nombre de la prostituta en su forma paleobabilónica

«their (funerary) statues have been fashioned since days of old, and stationed in chapels in the temples of the gods: M 300 how their names are pronounced will never be forgotten!» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: el primero de los dos finales, que explica la pervivencia del muerto por la estatua funeraria puesta en las capillas de los templos

«‘Come, I will take you, Enkidu, to Uruk-the-City, 5 to the [sacred temple, the home of Anu!] [Arise, let me lead] you, Enkidu, to Uruk-the-City, to the holy Eanna, [the home of Ishtar,] ‘[where Gilgamesh is] perfect in strength, like a wild bull wearing [a pair of horns.]’» — fragmento de Cornell: la invitación de la prostituta, que aquí nombra a Eanna casa de Ishtar donde otras versiones dicen morada de Anu

«‘O mother, during the course of my night I walked hale and hearty among the young men. 5 ‘Then the stars of the sky grew distinct, a lump of the sky fell down before me. I picked it up, but it grew too heavy for me, I pushed at it but I could not dislodge it. ‘The land of Uruk was gathered about it, 10 the young men were kissing its feet. I braced my forehead and they helped me push, I picked it up and carried it off to you.’» — tablilla de Pensilvania, capítulo 3: el primer sueño contado en su forma paleobabilónica, con un trozo de cielo caído en vez de una roca y sin la comparación con la esposa

«‘Sobs, my friend, have knotted the sinews in my neck, 85 my arms go limp, my strength ebbs away.’» — tablilla de Yale: la tristeza de Enkidu dicha en primera persona, con los sollozos anudándole el cuello

«They kissed each other and formed a friendship.» — tablilla de Yale, capítulo 3: el verso con que se sella la amistad, que la versión estándar no conserva

«‘I have found a friend, the counsellor I saw [in my dreams,] Enkidu, the counsellor I saw in my dreams!’» — tablilla de Yale: el cumplimiento de los sueños de la tablilla I dicho por el propio héroe

«‘Come, O harlot, I shall do you a favour, because you brought me to Uruk-the City-of-the- [Land,] because you showed me a fine companion and friend.’» — tablilla de Yale: el agradecimiento de Enkidu a la prostituta, que en la versión estándar se vuelve maldición y luego bendición

«‘Who is there, my friend, can climb to the sky? 140 Only the gods [dwell] forever in sunlight. As for man, his days are numbered, whatever he may do, it is but wind.» — tablilla de Yale: la sentencia sobre el límite del hombre, que solo los dioses moran para siempre a la luz del sol, y los días del hombre son viento; la versión estándar la abrevia

«‘Here are you, afraid of death! What has become of your mighty valour? 145 Let me walk in front of you, and you can call to me, “Go on without fear!”» — tablilla de Yale: el reproche del héroe a su amigo y la oferta de ir delante

«‘If I should fall, let me make my name: “Gilgamesh joined battle with ferocious Huwawa!”» — tablilla de Yale: el nombre eterno buscado incluso en la derrota, dicho como epitafio anticipado

«‘We hear Huwawa is strange of aspect: who is there can counter his weapons? For sixty [leagues] the forest is wilderness; 195 who is there would venture inside it?» — tablilla de Yale: la objeción de los ancianos, que dicen saber de oídas cómo es el guardián

«‘How can we go, my friend, to the Forest of [Cedar?] 130 The god who guards it is Wer, mighty and unsleeping; Huwawa [was appointed by] Wer, Adad ranks first, and he [is second.]» — tablilla de Yale: la objeción con otro reparto divino que el de la versión estándar, aquí el guardián nombrado por Wer y no por Enlil

«‘So to keep safe [the cedars,] [Enlil] assigned [him] the Seven Terrors.’» — tablilla de Yale: los Siete Terrores asignados por Enlil, que en la versión estándar son las siete auras

«‘May your god [plant] your feet [on the straightest path!] 213 ‘May he let your [steps] complete the journey, safely back to the quay of Uruk-[the-City!]’» — tablilla de Yale: la bendición de camino, con los pies puestos en la senda más recta

«‘[I would go,] my god, on a journey I never have taken, 230 its …, my god, I do not know. ‘[Let me come] home in safety, with happy heart [let me look on] your face! [I will build] you a house to delight you, [I will set] you on many a throne!’» — tablilla de Yale: la oración al dios personal, Lugalbanda, con la promesa de casa y tronos a cambio del regreso; la versión estándar no la conserva

«Gilgamesh was lying down at rest, the night brought a dream. In the middle watch of the night he awoke with a start, he arose to talk to his friend:» — tablilla Schøyen, capítulo 3: la fórmula del despertar en la vigilia media de la noche, distinta de la de la versión estándar

«A journey of one whole day, two and three, 25 nearer they drew to the land of Ebla.» — tablilla Schøyen: la marcha medida en días y con Ebla como destino, donde la versión estándar da leguas y el monte Líbano

«‘My friend, I have had another dream, more frightening than the previous one I had. The Storm God thundered, while the land was rumbling, daylight grew shrouded, darkness went forth. 35 ‘Lightning flashed down, fire broke out, flames flared up, death raining down. Adad’s thunder left me bewildered, the day grew dark, I knew not where I went. ‘At long last the fire that flared so high died down, 40 all the flames went out, and turned to embers.» — tablilla Schøyen: el segundo sueño, con el trueno, el fuego y la muerte lloviendo, en la forma que la versión estándar usa para su tercer sueño

«‘I am going, O Shamash, to the [home of Huwawa,] let me leave there in safety, [please keep] me» — tablilla de Yale: la oración del héroe al Sol antes de partir, que la versión estándar pone en boca de su madre; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘“The one who goes in front keeps safe his comrade, 255 the one whose eyes are sharp will [protect] his person!”» — tablilla de Yale: el proverbio del que va delante en su forma paleobabilónica, distinta de la que trae la tablilla III

«[Enkidu raised] his eyes and saw the cedar, its [splendour] covering the uplands. His face turned pale, like a severed head, terror entered deep in his heart.» — tablilla Schøyen: el pavor de Enkidu ante el esplendor del cedro, con el rostro pálido como cabeza cortada

«‘Who can withstand that god, whose weapon is mightiest among the gods? Shall we withstand that Huwawa, whose weapon is mightiest in the world?» — tablilla Schøyen: la objeción de Enkidu, que llama dios al guardián y le atribuye el arma más poderosa del mundo

«‘Did not enthusiasm carry me away in my power? The Sun God said to me, ‘[I shall] go with [you!]’ Do not fear, O Enkidu, keep watch on me! 80 I shall make a battle such as never you knew.’» — tablilla Schøyen: la respuesta del héroe, que apoya su confianza en la promesa del Sol; el tramo cruza de plana

«‘We draw, my friend, ever nearer the forest, the dreams are close, the battle soon. You will see the radiant auras of the god, of Huwawa, whom in your thoughts you fear so much. ‘Locking horns like a bull you will batter him, 5 and force his head down with your strength. The old man you saw is your powerful god, the one who begot you, divine Lugalbanda.’» — tablilla paleobabilónica de Nippur, ejercicio de aprendiz: la interpretación del tercer sueño, con el viejo identificado como Lugalbanda, dios personal del héroe

«21 ‘I saw a Lion-Bird in the sky’.» — pie de la figura 21, que toma como rótulo un verso del cuarto sueño

«On they sped by day and night, to Hamran they drew near, on the summit sat down,» — tablilla Schøyen: la marcha hasta Hamran, donde se sientan en la cumbre; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y los amorreos y la voz del guardián siguen en la 277

«‘Go up on to the mountain crag, and look at … I have been robbed of the sleep of the gods!» — tablilla de Tell Harmal: el arranque del sueño del toro, con el reproche de haber sido robado del sueño de los dioses, que las demás versiones no traen

«‘Smite Huwawa the [ogre, whom] your gods [abhor!] .….……. [Why, my friend,] do you show him mercy?’» — tablilla paleobabilónica de Ishchali: la insistencia de Enkidu en matar al guardián, con la razón religiosa de que los dioses lo aborrecen

«‘Now, my friend, we must impose our victory. The auras slip away in the thicket, the auras slip away, their radiance grows dim.’» — tablilla de Ishchali: la objeción del héroe, que quiere cazar las auras antes de que se pierdan en la espesura

«‘My friend, catch a bird and where go its chicks? 15´ Let us look for the auras later, as the chicks run here and there in the thicket! ‘Smite him again, slay his servant alongside him!’» — tablilla de Ishchali: el proverbio del pájaro y los polluelos con que Enkidu lo convence de matar primero y buscar las auras después

«Gilgamesh smote him in the neck, his friend Enkidu gave encouragement. He ……… he fell, the ravines did run with his blood.» — tablilla de Ishchali: la muerte del guardián, con el amigo dando ánimos y las cañadas corriendo de sangre

«He slew the ogre, the forest’s guardian, 30´ at whose yell were sundered the peaks of Sirion and Lebanon, … the mountains did quake, … all the hillsides did tremble.» — tablilla de Ishchali: el efecto del grito del guardián sobre el Sirion y el Líbano, que la versión estándar pone durante el combate y no tras la muerte

«22 ‘Huwawa the guardian he smote to the» — pie de la figura 22, que toma como rótulo el verso de la muerte del guardián en la tablilla de Ishchali; el pie cae a media plana dentro del cuerpo del poema

«He discovered the secret abode of the gods, Gilgamesh felling the trees, Enkidu choosing the timber.» — tablilla de Ishchali: la morada secreta de los dioses descubierta en el bosque y la tala repartida entre los dos

«As soon as he had slain all seven [of the auras], the war-net of two talents’ weight, the sword of» — tablilla de Ishchali: las siete auras muertas una por una, que la versión estándar no cuenta así, y el armamento pesado en talentos; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘By your strength alone you slew the guardian, 20 what can bring you dishonour? Lay low the Forest of [Cedar!]» — fragmento paleobabilónico sin procedencia conocida: el argumento con que Enkidu autoriza la tala, que no puede haber deshonra tras haber matado al guardián

«‘As for the “shackler”, who let me not get as much as my friend, 5 may the hunter not get as much as his friend! May his profit be cut! Diminish his income! May his share of the profits be cut in your presence!’» — tablilla de Ur, capítulo 3: la maldición contra el cazador, aquí llamado el que traba, término que la versión estándar no trae

«23 ‘Governors shall love you and noblemen too!’» — pie de la figura 23, que toma como rótulo un verso de la bendición a la prostituta

«‘No soldier shall be slow to drop his belt for you, he shall give you nail and necklace! With earrings of gold he shall deck your ears!» — tablilla de Ur: la bendición en su forma antigua, con clavo y collar donde la versión estándar da obsidiana, lapislázuli y oro

«‘I will make a door of a reed-length’s breadth, let it not need pivots, let it travel in the door-jamb. Its side will be a cubit, a reed-length its breadth, 25 let no stranger draw near it, let a god have love for» — fragmento paleobabilónico sin procedencia conocida: la puerta prometida con otras medidas que las de la versión estándar y sin pivotes; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘To the house of Enlil the Euphrates shall bear it, let the folk of Nippur rejoice over it! Let the god Enlil delight in it!’» — fragmento paleobabilónico sin procedencia: el destino de la puerta, llevada por el Éufrates a la casa de Enlil en Nippur

«‘A house with utensils and pots you shall never acquire, [for your home shall serve a potter’s] clay pit! You shall have neither [bedroom, nor family shrine, nor] holy [hearth!] 20 No bed, chair or table, that people take pride in, shall be found in your chamber!» — tablilla de Ur: la maldición contra la prostituta en su forma más antigua, con la casa sin enseres ni pozo de alfarero

«[The rabble] of the street shall throng to your brothel! [In your tavern] brawls shall break out!» — tablilla de Ur: dos versos de la maldición que la versión estándar no conserva, con la chusma en el burdel y las riñas en la taberna

«‘Quite something there was, my friend, in my dream of last night: the heavens thundered, the earth gave echo, and there was I, standing between them. ‘A man there was, his visage was darkened, 65 fierce as a roaring Lion-Bird were his features. [His] hands were a lion’s paws, [his] claws an eagle’s talons.» — tablilla de Ur: el sueño del hombre de rostro oscurecido, aquí con el Pájaro León rugiente donde la versión estándar no lo dice así

«‘O tavern-keeper, I have looked on your face, but I would not meet death, that I fear so much.’» — tablilla de Sippar: el miedo a la muerte dicho de frente a la tabernera

«‘But you, Gilgamesh, let your belly be full, enjoy yourself always by day and by night! Make merry each day, dance and play day and night! ‘Let your clothes be clean, iii 10 let your head be washed, may you bathe in water! Gaze on the child who holds your hand, let a wife enjoy your repeated embrace!» — tablilla de Sippar: el consejo de Shiduri, que George cita en su introducción y empareja con el Eclesiastés; en la versión estándar el poeta lo reserva para el clímax

«‘For such is the destiny [of mortal men,] that the one who lives ………’» — tablilla de Sippar: el remate del consejo, que el impreso deja roto tras nombrar el destino de los mortales

«‘O tavern-keeper, why do you talk [this way?] My heart is [still very] sick for my friend. O tavern-keeper, why do you talk [this way?] My heart is [still very] sick for Enkidu.» — tablilla de Sippar: el rechazo del consejo, con el dístico repetido que nombra primero al amigo y después a Enkidu

«‘[My friend, whom I love so deeply,] who with me went through every danger, ii 1´ Enkidu, whom I love so deeply, who with me went through every danger: ‘he went to the doom of mortal men. Weeping over him day and night, ii 5´ I did not surrender his body for burial – “Maybe my friend will rise at my cry!” –» — tablilla paleobabilónica de Sippar, capítulo 3: el duelo contado a la tabernera, con la esperanza de que el amigo se levantara al grito, que la versión estándar no trae

«24 ‘Who but Shamash can travel that journey?’» — pie de la figura 24, que toma como rótulo la pregunta de la tabernera en la tablilla de Sippar

«‘Tell me, what is your name? iv 5 I am Sursunabu, of Uta-naishtim the Distant.’» — tablilla de Sippar: la presentación del barquero con el nombre antiguo, Sursunabu, y el del inmortal como Uta-naishtim

«‘The Stone Ones, O Gilgamesh, enabled my crossing, for I must not touch the Waters of Death. In your fury you have smashed them. The Stone Ones were with me to take me across.» — tablilla de Sippar: el reproche del barquero por las Piedras rotas, con la razón de que él no puede tocar las Aguas de la Muerte

«‘Take up, O Gilgamesh, the axe in your hand, cut me three hundred punting-poles, each sixty cubits.» — tablilla de Sippar: las trescientas pértigas de sesenta codos, medida distinta de las cinco varas de la versión estándar

«‘Gilgamesh is my name, who came from Uruk-Eanna, who wound a way around the mountains, iv 10 the hidden road where rises the sun.» — tablilla de Sippar: la presentación del héroe por su nombre y su ciudad, que la versión estándar no trae

«Gilgamesh lets no young bride go free to her bridegroom, he is their wild bull, they are the cows. To their complaint the goddess Ishtar paid heed, the terrible din reaching even the heaven of Anu.» — tablilla de Ugarit: la queja contra el rey puesta en el prólogo mismo, mucho antes que en la versión estándar, que es el desorden que George señala

«The strands of his hair grew thickly as barley, his teeth gleaming like the rising sun, he had curls as dark as lapis-coloured wool. Eleven cubits was his height, four cubits the width of his chest. 35 A triple cubit was his foot and a reed-length his legs, a triple cubit the curls at his cheeks.» — tablilla de Ugarit: el retrato del héroe con sus medidas, en el mismo orden que la versión estándar pero con los dientes brillando como el sol naciente

«He who travelled the distant road to Uttur-napishti, and crossed the ocean, the wide sea to the sunrise: he brought back a tale of before the Deluge. He went a far journey, was weary and in pain; 10 tablets of stone were set up for him, all the labours.» — tablilla completa de Ugarit, capítulo 4: el prólogo con el nombre del inmortal en una forma propia, Uttur-napishti, y las tablillas de piedra en plural

«Gilgamesh grappled in turn with fifty companions, daily holding sway over the young men, the young men of Uruk he kept in fear without» — tablilla de Ugarit: los cincuenta compañeros con que el rey lucha a diario, detalle que la versión estándar no trae; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«‘Eat the bread, Enkidu, [fit for a god,] [drink the ale,] fit for a king!’» — fragmento de Hattusa Bo1, hacia 1400 a. C.: el pan y la cerveza dichos aquí propios de un dios y de un rey, donde la tablilla de Pensilvania decía esenciales para la vida y suerte del país

«25 ‘Eat the bread, Enkidu, fit for a god!’» — pie de la figura 25, que toma como rótulo el verso del fragmento de Hattusa

«‘[As you enter our house] [doorway and footstool shall] kiss [your] hands! [Kings shall kneel before you,] lords will come [up to you,] [produce of mountain and lowland they shall] bring you as tribute! [Your nanny-goats] shall bear [triplets, your ewes shall bear twins,] [no] ox shall [match yours at the yoke!]’» — fragmentos de Emar, siglos XIII y XII: la oferta de Ishtar, aquí con los pies besándole las manos donde la versión estándar dice los pies

«My second dream sur[passes] the first: in my dream, my friend, a mountain … It threw me down, it held me fast by my feet … a terrible aura overpowered [my arms.] A man [like a lion approached me,] i 15´ the comeliest in the land, his beauty … [From] beneath the mountain he pulled me forth and … He gave me water to drink and my heart grew [calm.]» — tablilla de Hattusa Bo2, siglo XIII: el segundo sueño con el agua dada de beber, detalle que la tablilla de Tell Harmal pone en otro sueño

«Enkidu was lying on his bed …… He called for Gilgamesh …… with his cry he roused … [Gilgamesh sobbed] like a dove. His … was darkened … … in the night …… 15´ the foremost of men…… [Gilgamesh sobbed] for his friend ……… ‘I will mourn ……… at his side I myself ………’» — tablilla de Megiddo, siglo XIV: la muerte de Enkidu y el duelo del rey, que solloza como una paloma

«Sîn [lay] down and had a dream, [he] arose to talk to his mother: ‘The stars of the sky grew distinct, a rock from the sky fell down before me. I picked it up, but it was too heavy for me, 10 I gave it a shove but could not dislodge it. ‘The land of Ur was gathered about me, the young men all together could not lift it. I braced my shoulder and they helped me push, I picked it up and carried it into your presence.’» — tablilla del País del Mar, capítulo 4: el sueño de la roca contado con los nombres cambiados, el rey es el dios Sîn y la ciudad es Ur

«‘For sure, O Sîn, someone like yourself was born in the wild and the wild has reared him. ‘His strength is as mighty as a rock from the sky, 20 so I shall have him join forces with you. Not knowing who he is, they will gather around him, him the young men will kiss. ‘You will see him and your heart will rejoice, you will embrace him and bring him before me.’» — tablilla del País del Mar: la interpretación de la madre, con el amigo anunciado como el que salva a su amigo; el tramo cruza de plana

«‘[…in the street of] Ur-the-City, [an axe was lying] with a crowd gathered round. ‘[I took it up and put it] at my side. 35 [The axe was strange] in shape, [Like a] wife, [I loved it,] caressed and embraced it.’» — tablilla del País del Mar: el segundo sueño del hacha con la ciudad cambiada a Ur

«‘You are handsome, [O Ea, you are just like a god,] why like [the animals do you roam the wild?] ‘Clothe yourself [with a garment …,] 60 be girt with a waistband ……! Take up a weapon, [become] like a warrior!» — tablilla del País del Mar: la invitación de la prostituta dirigida al dios Ea, que aquí ocupa el lugar de Enkidu

«The shepherds saw him and ……, they threw [themselves prostrate] before Ea as before a god. 80 The shepherds bowed down before [him,] the herdsboys humbling themselves [in front of him.]» — tablilla del País del Mar: los pastores postrándose ante el recién llegado como ante un dios, escena que ninguna otra versión trae

«‘[My friend,] your dream [is good] ……, IV 155 .….. this …… … Humbaba like ……, … will be kindled … upon [him.] ‘We shall bring about his …, we shall bind his wings,» — versión estándar, tablilla IV: la interpretación del tercer sueño, muy rota, con las alas del guardián atadas como en el sueño del Pájaro León

«At one double-hour ….….., the darkness was dense, [and light was there none:] IX 140 it did not [allow him to see behind him.]» — versión estándar, tablilla IX: el arranque de la cuenta del túnel hora por hora, con la oscuridad que no deja ver ni hacia atrás

«A bird of the sky, once fenced in by the net, does not escape one’s hand! A fish of the deep sees the … rushes no more, when the young fisherman casts his net, it is trapped within! No man, whoever he may be, can ascend … from the midst of the Netherworld,» — poema sumerio la Muerte de Gilgamesh: la serie de símiles de lo que no escapa, el pájaro en la red y el pez en el copo, aplicados al que baja al Inframundo

«You loved the … Sutean, your house … your … you … in a tent you made him spend every night, you broke [his weapons on the field of] battle.» — fragmentos de Emar, capítulo 4: el catálogo de amantes de Ishtar con un suteo que la versión estándar no nombra, y la tienda por casa

«‘By the life of the [mother who bore you, the goddess Ninsun], and your father, [the pure Lugalbanda,] 93 [may] your god Enki-[Nudimmud emerge] in your words:» — poema sumerio Gilgamesh y Huwawa B: el discurso del ardid dictado por Enkidu, con el juramento por Ninsun y Lugalbanda y la petición de que Enki salga en las palabras del rey

«20 ‘His speech is fire and his breath» — pie de la figura 20, que toma como rótulo un verso sobre el guardián; el pie cae a media plana dentro del cuerpo del poema y el troceo lo parte renglón a renglón, de modo que el rótulo entero queda desmembrado

«The Epic of Gilgamesh is best known from a version called ‘He who saw the Deep’, which circulated in Babylonia and Assyria in the first millennium BC.» — solapa de Penguin (About the Author): sitúa la versión más conocida del poema, la titulada por su primer verso, en la Babilonia y la Asiria del primer milenio a. C.

«The Sumerian texts gained their final form probably as court entertainments sung for King Shulgi of Ur of the Chaldees, who reigned in the twenty-first century BC.» — la misma solapa fecha la forma final de los textos sumerios como entretenimiento de corte cantado para el rey Shulgi de Ur, en el siglo XXI a. C.

«ANDREW GEORGE was born in 1955 in Haslemere, Surrey. He was educated at Christ’s Hospital, Horsham, and the University of Birmingham, where he studied Assyriology.» — la solapa de Penguin da la biografía del traductor: nacido en 1955 en Haslemere, Surrey, y formado en asiriología en la Universidad de Birmingham.

«He began teaching Akkadian and Sumerian language and literature in 1983 at the University of London’s School of Oriental and African Studies, where he is now Professor of Babylonian.» — la solapa lo sitúa enseñando acadio y sumerio desde 1983 en la School of Oriental and African Studies de Londres, donde es profesor de babilonio.

«In 2006 he was elected Fellow of the British Academy, and in 2011 an Honorary Member of the American Oriental Society.» — la solapa añade su elección como Fellow de la British Academy en 2006 y como miembro honorario de la American Oriental Society en 2011.

«His research has taken him many times to Iraq to visit Babylon and other ancient sites, and to museums in Baghdad, Europe and North America to read the original clay tablets on which the scribes of ancient Iraq wrote. He has published extensively on Babylonian literature and religion.» — la solapa declara el trabajo de primera mano con las tablillas originales en museos de Bagdad, Europa y Norteamérica como base de su investigación.

«‘Humankind’s first literary achievement … Gilgamesh should compel us as the well-spring of which we are inheritors … Andrew George provides an excellent critical and historical introduction’ Paul Binding, Independent on Sunday» — blurb de Paul Binding en el Independent on Sunday, recogido en la plana de elogios de Penguin; los puntos suspensivos son del recorte editorial, no laguna de tablilla

«‘This volume will endure as one of the milestone markers … [Andrew George] expertly and easily conducts his readers on a delightful and moving epic journey’ Samuel A. Meier, The Times Literary Supplement» — blurb de Samuel A. Meier en el Times Literary Supplement; los corchetes que restituyen el nombre del traductor son del recorte editorial y no del aparato de lagunas

«‘Andrew George has formed an English text from the best of the tablets, differentiating his complex sources but allowing the general reader a clear run at one of the first enduring stories ever told’ Peter Stothard, The Times» — blurb de Peter Stothard en The Times: destaca que el volumen diferencia sus fuentes en vez de fundirlas, que es la decisión editorial declarada en la introducción

«‘An exemplary combination of scholarship and lucidity … very impressive … invaluable as a convenient guide to all the different strands which came together to produce the work we now call Gilgamesh’ Alan Wall, Literary Review» — blurb de Alan Wall en la Literary Review, que lee el volumen como guía de los distintos estratos que confluyen en el poema

«1 Cuneiform text, seventh century BC, Ashur. The left third of the tablet is in the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin (tablet VAT 9667); the right part, reconstructed from fifteen pieces, is in the Archaeological Museum, Istanbul (tablet A 122+123). Line drawing by the author.» — la lista de figuras de Penguin abre con la tablilla de Ashur del siglo VII a. C. repartida entre Berlín y Estambul, y declara que el dibujo lineal es del propio traductor; el volumen ilustra con calcos de tablilla y no con fotografía salvo en el apéndice

«4 The Sun God enthroned in his temple. Detail from the limestone tablet of King Nabû-apla-iddina, ninth century BC, Sippar. British Museum ME 91000. Line drawing by Joanna Richards (after Tessa Rickards).» — muestra de la otra mano del volumen: los relieves y sellos los dibuja Joanna Richards, aquí sobre el original de Tessa Rickards, a partir de la tablilla de Nabû-apla-iddina del siglo IX a. C.

«23 Detail of ivory panel of Phoenician workmanship depicting the ‘Woman at the Window’, thought to be a prostitute soliciting custom. First millennium BC, Assyria. British Museum, ME 118159. Line drawing by» — la lista glosa una figura por su interpretación y no solo por su soporte: el marfil fenicio de la Mujer en la Ventana se da como prostituta ofreciéndose, lectura que la lista declara como cosa pensada y no como hecho

«26 British Museum tablet fragments ME K 3423+Sm 2097+Rm 579, K 8589+Sm 1681 and Rm 751+34853+35546. Photograph copyright the British Museum.» — el apéndice es la única sección con fotografía y no con calco, y la lista lo hace constar con el crédito del British Museum

«My first encounter with the magic of Gilgamesh came as a boy when I read this book’s predecessor in the Penguin Classics series, Nancy Sandars’s prose synthesis of the ancient poems (The Epic of Gilgamesh, 1960).» — George abre el prefacio de 1999 declarando su deuda con el volumen de Penguin que el suyo sustituye: la síntesis en prosa de Nancy Sandars, leída de niño

«The work of recovering the text of Gilgamesh from the original clay tablets and preparing what will be only the third scholarly edition of the Babylonian epic has been my principal object of research for the past dozen years.» — George declara la base de su traducción: doce años de trabajo sobre las tablillas originales para preparar la que sería apenas la tercera edición erudita del poema babilonio

«The modern translator of Gilgamesh has the advantage of standing on the shoulders of those editors and translators who have gone before him.» — el prefacio sitúa la traducción como eslabón y no como comienzo, y a continuación nombra uno por uno a los predecesores

«who was the first to decipher much of the Babylonian epic and whose pioneering translations of 1875 and 1876 gave the world a first glimpse» — George honra a George Smith como el primero en descifrar buena parte del poema babilonio, con traducciones pioneras de 1875 y 1876; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y sigue en la siguiente con *of its majesty*

«Paul Haupt, who in 1891 first collected the cuneiform text of the epic; Peter Jensen, whose transliterations of 1900 were the first comprehensive modern edition; R. Campbell Thompson, who in 1930 brought up to date the work of both Haupt and Jensen; and Samuel Noah Kramer, who in the 1930s and ’40s first pieced together the Sumerian poems of Gilgamesh.» — la genealogía de ediciones que George reconoce: Haupt en 1891, Jensen en 1900, Campbell Thompson en 1930 y Kramer en los años treinta y cuarenta para los poemas sumerios

«New pieces of Gilgamesh continue to appear. This paperback edition differs from its hardback predecessor in being able to use on p. 87 a fragment of Tablet XI that came to light only in June 1999.» — la frase con que George resume el estado del texto en 1999, y el ejemplo con que la sostiene: un fragmento de la tablilla XI aparecido ese mismo junio; la misma frase abre, entrecomillada, el prefacio de la segunda edición

«Two decades on from this book’s first edition, enough new pieces have appeared to make imperative a full revision of the whole book. This revision not only includes many new pieces, and makes some changes to the translation in other places too, but also reorganizes the material in four chapters, not five.» — George justifica la segunda edición por acumulación de material nuevo, y declara el cambio de arquitectura del libro: de cinco capítulos a cuatro

«The five individual Sumerian poems of Gilgamesh, formerly relegated to the end of the book, have been brought forward in order to give them the greater prominence that their well-preserved state and readability deserve. They now appear as Chapter 2.» — George explica por qué los poemas sumerios pasan del final del libro al capítulo 2: su buen estado de conservación y su legibilidad

«Several newly published tablets and fragments of second-millennium date make it ever clearer that the content of much of the Babylonian poem presented in Chapter 1 was already established in the Old Babylonian period. We can now observe that many early fragments of the poem tell Gilgamesh’s story in much the same language as the later standard version, so that, despite the lapse of many centuries, many lines of poetry are held in common, usually in the same order.» — George sostiene que el contenido del capítulo 1 ya estaba fijado en el periodo paleobabilónico, porque muchos versos de los fragmentos tempranos coinciden con la versión estándar y suelen ir en el mismo orden

«Consequently I have felt it permissible to arrange many of the early fragments in an order that matches the standard version, to suggest the skeletal remains of its Old Babylonian ancestor. This new reconstruction is presented in Chapter 3. Other early fragments, which find no place in that reconstruction, are placed in Chapter 4.» — de ahí la decisión editorial del capítulo 3, que George declara como reconstrucción propia: ordenar fragmentos tempranos según la versión estándar para sugerir el esqueleto del antecesor paleobabilónico

«In particular they have finally allowed the complete restoration of the grand opening passage of the prologue; brought a better knowledge of the giant dimensions of the hero; revealed that Enkidu and Shamhat enjoyed not one week of sexual intercourse but two;» — primera mitad del inventario de lo que las piezas nuevas añadieron a la versión estándar: la restitución completa del prólogo, las dimensiones gigantes del héroe y las dos semanas de trato sexual entre Enkidu y Shamhat donde antes se leía una

«increased the accounts of the nightmares Gilgamesh had on the journey to the Cedar Forest; enlarged the description of the Cedar Forest and clarified for the first time the correct order of passages of conversation between Gilgamesh and Enkidu as they contemplate the battle to come; added detail to the heroes’ assault on Humbaba, his pleas for mercy and their desecration of his forest; and filled out the passage in which Gilgamesh smashes the Stone Ones.» — segunda mitad del mismo inventario, cortada en dos porque la oración entera dispara la guarda anticosido: las pesadillas del camino, el Bosque de Cedro descrito y ordenado, el asalto a Humbaba y el pasaje de las Piedras rotas

«Poetry in Akkadian is distinguished by a rigorous formality. This translation, unlike some others (especially those of non-Assyriologists), seeks to give the reader a feel for the formal features of this poetry by translating line by line and replicating the structures that organize the poetry.» — George declara el principio de su traducción: verter verso por verso y replicar las estructuras formales de la poesía acadia, frente a versiones que las disuelven

«The essential unit of poetry in Akkadian is the poetic line or verse, which usually forms a unit of sense complete in itself. There is therefore a pause at the end of each line. The verse is easily identified, for on cuneiform tablets the beginning and end of a verse coincide with the beginning and end of a line on the tablet» — la unidad de la poesía acadia es el verso, que suele cerrar un sentido completo y que en la tablilla coincide con el renglón escrito; George lo acota enseguida para Siria y el occidente antiguo

«Usually two verses are complementary, parallel or otherwise paired by meaning or by the development of the narrative, and form a distich or couplet.» — el segundo nivel de la forma: dos versos emparejados por sentido o por avance narrativo componen un dístico

«A couplet is followed by a longer pause, more often than not one that in modern punctuation would be marked by a full stop (there was no punctuation in cuneiform writing).» — y el dístico cierra con una pausa mayor, que en puntuación moderna sería punto; George acota en el mismo paréntesis que la escritura cuneiforme no puntuaba

«In the later, standard version the couplet system is not so strictly applied and one can often detect three-line combinations, or triplets. In the older texts, especially, one may also observe that two couplets usually hold together and that the poetry therefore progresses in a sequence of four-line stanzas, or quatrains.» — la forma no es uniforme entre versiones: la versión estándar aplica el sistema de dísticos con menos rigor que los poemas antiguos, donde la poesía avanza en cuartetas

«As a working hypothesis I have assumed that in the standard version stanzas will normally comprise four lines but may on occasion consist of two, three, five or even six lines. Other translators will have» — George declara su división en estrofas como hipótesis de trabajo y no como dato del texto, y cierra reconociendo que otros traductores tendrán otras ideas; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«The plot summaries that in this translation introduce each Tablet of the standard version, the line-numbers, the editorial notes which link disconnected fragments of text, and other material in small type are, like the punctuation, modern additions.» — George marca como añadidos modernos los resúmenes de argumento, la numeración de versos, las notas que enlazan fragmentos y todo el texto en cuerpo menor: el aparato es suyo, no de las tablillas

«Square brackets enclose words that are restored in passages where the tablet is broken. Small breaks can often be restored with certainty from context and longer breaks can sometimes be filled securely from parallel passages.» — la primera convención del aparato de daño: los corchetes encierran restitución, segura por contexto en las roturas cortas y por pasajes paralelos en las largas

«Italics are used to indicate insecure decipherments and uncertain renderings of words in the extant text.» — la segunda convención: la cursiva marca desciframiento inseguro o versión dudosa de una palabra que sí está en la tablilla; esta capa se pierde al extraer el verbatim del troceo

«Within square brackets, italics signal restorations that are not certain or material that is simply conjectural, i.e. supplied by the translator to fill in the context.» — la tercera convención combina las dos anteriores: cursiva dentro de corchete es restitución insegura o conjetura del traductor para rellenar el contexto

«An ellipsis marks a small gap that occurs where writing is missing through damage or where the signs are present but cannot be deciphered. Each ellipsis represents up to one quarter of a verse.» — la cuarta convención mide la laguna: cada grupo de puntos suspensivos vale hasta un cuarto de verso perdido o indescifrable

«Where a full line is missing or undeciphered the lacuna is marked by a sequence of four ellipses.» — la quinta: cuatro grupos de puntos marcan un verso entero perdido

«Where a lacuna of more than one line is not signalled by an editorial note it is marked by a succession of three asterisks.» — la sexta: tres asteriscos marcan laguna de más de un verso no señalada por nota editorial

«In old material that has been interpolated into the standard version of the epic some proper nouns are preceded by an asterisk. This is to signify that for consistency’s sake the name in question (e.g. Huwawa) has been altered to its later form.» — la séptima convención, que toca los nombres propios: el asterisco antepuesto avisa de que el nombre se ha uniformado a su forma tardía, como Huwawa vuelto Humbaba, en material antiguo interpolado en la versión estándar

«A number of useful introductions to various aspects of ancient Mesopotamian civilization are now available in paperback as well as hardback.» — George abre las lecturas recomendadas declarando que la bibliografía de introducción a Mesopotamia está disponible en rústica, es decir, orientada al lector no especialista

«A good anthology of Babylonian literature is Benjamin R. Foster, From Distant Days: Myths, Tales and Poetry of Ancient Mesopotamia (Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 1995). There is also Stephanie Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia (Oxford: OUP, 1989).» — las dos antologías de literatura babilónica que George recomienda: la de Benjamin R. Foster y la de Stephanie Dalley; ninguna de las dos tiene ficha propia en el corpus a la fecha de esta carga

«For the religion of Sumer and Akkad, as well as of Babylonia and Assyria, see Thorkild Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1976).» — para la religión de Sumer, Akkad, Babilonia y Asiria, George remite al Treasures of Darkness de Thorkild Jacobsen; es la única remisión religiosa de la lista

«The intellectual background of Babylonian scholarship and religion is examined by Jean Bottéro, Mesopotamia: Writing, Reasoning and the Gods (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).» — para el trasfondo intelectual de la erudición y la religión babilónicas, George remite a Jean Bottéro

«An acute accent marks the vowel of a stressed syllable. Where such a vowel falls in an open syllable it will often be long (e.g., Humbaaba). In some names the position of the stress is conjectural.» — la lista de personajes se abre con una nota de pronunciación de George: el acento agudo marca la sílaba tónica, que en sílaba abierta suele ser larga, y en algunos nombres la posición es conjetural

«Gilgámesh, king of the city-state of Úruk Nínsun, a goddess, his mother Enkídu, his friend and companion Shámhat, a prostitute of Uruk Shámash, the Sun God Humbába, the guardian of the Forest of Cedar Íshtar, the principal goddess of Uruk Shidúri, a minor goddess of wisdom Ur-shanábi, the ferryman of Uta-napishti Úta-napíshti, survivor of the Flood» — la lista completa de los diez personajes que George considera principales, con la acentuación que propone: el rey de Uruk, su madre diosa Ninsun, Enkidu, la prostituta Shamhat, el Sol Shamash, el guardián Humbaba, Ishtar, la diosa menor de la sabiduría Shiduri, el barquero Ur-shanabi y el superviviente del Diluvio

«Ever since the first modern translations were published more than one hundred years ago, the Gilgamesh epic has been recognized as one of the great masterpieces of world literature.» — George abre la introducción situando la recepción moderna del poema: reconocido como obra maestra universal desde las primeras traducciones, hace más de un siglo

«One of the early translations, by the German Assyriologist Arthur Ungnad, so inspired the poet Rainer Maria Rilke in 1916 that he became almost intoxicated with pleasure and wonder, and repeated the story to all he met. ‘Gilgamesh,’ he declared, ‘is stupendous!’» — el ejemplo con que George mide ese reconocimiento: la traducción de Arthur Ungnad embriagó a Rilke en 1916 hasta hacerlo repetir la historia a cuantos encontraba

«For him the epic was first and foremost ‘das Epos der Todesfurcht’, the epic about the fear of death.» — la fórmula de Rilke que George recoge y hace suya como hilo del poema: la epopeya del miedo a la muerte, dicha en alemán y glosada en inglés en el mismo renglón

«This universal theme does indeed unite the poem, for in examining the human longing for life eternal, it tells of one man’s heroic struggle against death – first for immortal renown through glorious deeds, then for eternal life itself;» — George desglosa el tema: la lucha de un hombre contra la muerte, primero por el renombre inmortal de las grandes hazañas y después por la vida eterna misma

«of his despair when confronted with inevitable failure, and of his eventual realization that the only immortality he may expect is the enduring name afforded by leaving behind some lasting achievement, in tandem with the consoling idea, subtly expressed at the very end of the poem, that the human community is itself eternal.» — y su desenlace, que George lee como doble: la única inmortalidad alcanzable es el nombre que deja una obra duradera, junto a la idea consoladora, sutil, de que la comunidad humana sí es eterna

«The fear of death may be one of the epic’s principal themes but the poem deals with so much more. As a story of one man’s ‘path to wisdom’, of how he is formed by his successes and failures, it offers many profound insights into the human condition, into life and death and the truths that touch us all.» — George acota enseguida su propia lectura: el miedo a la muerte es uno de los temas principales, no el único, y el poema se deja leer como camino a la sabiduría de un hombre formado por sus éxitos y sus fracasos

«The subject that most held the attention of the royal courts of Babylonia and Assyria was perhaps another topic that underlies much of the poem: the debate on the proper duties of kingship, what a good king should do and should not do.» — George distingue lo que a él le parece central de lo que interesaba a los antiguos: para las cortes de Babilonia y Asiria el asunto era el debate sobre los deberes propios de la realeza

«The eternal conflict of nurture and nature – articulated as the benefits of civilization over savagery – is also examined, as too are the rewards of friendship, the nobility of heroic enterprise and the immortality of fame.» — el resto del temario que George inventaría: cultura contra salvajismo, los frutos de la amistad, la nobleza de la empresa heroica y la inmortalidad de la fama

«From all this Gilgamesh emerges as a kind of cultural hero. The wisdom he received at the ends of the earth from the survivor of the Deluge, Uta-napishti, enabled him to restore the temples of the land and their rituals to their ideal state of antediluvian perfection.» — George lee al héroe como héroe cultural: la sabiduría recibida del superviviente del Diluvio en los confines de la tierra le permite restaurar los templos y sus ritos a su perfección antediluviana

«In the course of his heroic adventures it seems Gilgamesh was the first to dig oases in the desert, the first to fell cedars on Mount Lebanon, the first to discover the techniques of killing wild bulls, of sailing ocean-going craft and of diving for coral.» — la lista de primeras veces que el poema le adjudica al héroe: cavar oasis, talar cedros en el Líbano, matar toros salvajes, navegar en alta mar y bucear por coral; George la introduce con un *it seems* que no retira

«The text explains in passing why temples take in orphans, how there came to be two New Year’s Days in the Babylonian calendar, how the Levantine Rift Valley was riven, how dwarfs came about, why nomads live in tents, why some prostitutes eke out a living on the cruel fringes of society and others enjoy a life of attentive luxury, how it is that doves and swallows cleave to human company but ravens do not, why snakes shed their skins» — la otra capa del poema según George: las etiologías menores que explican de paso por qué los templos acogen huérfanos, por qué las serpientes mudan de piel o por qué los nómadas viven en tiendas

«Translations have now appeared in at least sixteen languages and more appear year by year, so that the last decade has added ten to the dozens already published. Among the ten are two in English.» — George mide la abundancia de versiones antes de justificar la suya: al menos dieciséis lenguas, diez traducciones en la última década y dos de ellas en inglés

«But the difference with Gilgamesh, as also with other works of ancient Mesopotamian literature, is that we keep finding more of it.» — la razón que distingue a este clásico de Homero o de Virgilio, y que justifica retraducirlo: del Gilgamesh se sigue encontrando más texto

«Seventy years ago we possessed fewer than forty manuscripts from which to reconstruct the text and there were large gaps in the story. Now we have more than twice that number of manuscripts and fewer gaps.» — la cifra con que lo sostiene: de menos de cuarenta manuscritos hace setenta años a más del doble hoy, con menos huecos

«Sooner or later, as new manuscripts are discovered, this translation, like all others, will be superseded. For the moment, based as it is on first-hand study of very nearly all the available sources, unpublished as well as published, the present rendering offers the epic in its most complete form yet.» — George declara caduca de antemano su propia traducción, y a la vez reclama para ella el estado más completo del poema hasta la fecha, basado en el estudio directo de casi todas las fuentes disponibles

«However, gaps still remain and many preserved lines are still fragmentary; the epic is indeed riddled with holes. In many places the reader must set aside any comparison with the more complete masterpieces of Greek and Latin literature and accept those parts of text that are still incomplete and incoherent as skeletal remains that one day will live again.» — la advertencia al lector: el poema está acribillado de agujeros, y hay que dejar de lado la comparación con los clásicos griegos y latinos y aceptar lo incompleto como resto esquelético

«The manuscripts of Gilgamesh are cuneiform tablets – smooth, cushion-shaped rectangles of clay inscribed on both sides with wedgeshaped cuneiform writing – and they come from the ancient cities of Mesopotamia, the Levant and Anatolia.» — George describe el soporte material del poema: tablillas de arcilla en forma de cojín, escritas por las dos caras, procedentes de Mesopotamia, el Levante y Anatolia; el troceo une la palabra que el impreso parte al final del renglón y `span()` devuelve *wedgeshaped* donde el libro imprime *wedge-shaped*

«Cuneiform writing was invented in the city-states of lower Mesopotamia in about 3000 BC, when the administration of the great urban institutions, the palace and the temple, became too complex for the human memory to cope with.» — George fecha la invención de la escritura cuneiforme hacia el 3000 a. C. y le da una causa administrativa: la complejidad del palacio y del templo rebasó la memoria

«It developed, with painful slowness, from an accountant’s aide-mémoire into a system of writing which could express not just simple words and numbers, but all the creativity of the literate mind.» — y describe su desarrollo como paso lento de ayuda de memoria contable a sistema capaz de expresar la creatividad entera de la mente letrada

«Some modern renderings disregard the enormous diversity of the material, so that the reader forms a mistaken impression of the epic’s contents and state of preservation.» — la objeción de George a otras versiones, dicha como efecto sobre el lector: al ignorar la diversidad del material se forma una impresión equivocada del contenido y del estado de conservación del poema

«This, if you like, is the classical Epic of Gilgamesh. It was known to the Babylonians and Assyrians as ‘He who saw the Deep’. In this book it is referred to as the standard version.» — George nombra la versión estándar del capítulo 1 con su título antiguo y con su rótulo moderno, y avisa de que este último es convención suya para el libro

«Chapter 2 contains the five narrative poems in the Sumerian language, best known from copies made by Babylonian apprentice scribes in the eighteenth century BC, but certainly older.» — la datación de los poemas sumerios del capítulo 2: conocidos sobre todo por copias de aprendices babilonios del siglo XVIII a. C., pero ciertamente más antiguos

«Literature was already being written down in Mesopotamia by 2600 BC, but because the script did not yet express language fully, these early tablets remain extremely difficult to read.» — George fecha la literatura escrita en Mesopotamia hacia el 2600 a. C. y acota de inmediato que esas tablillas siguen siendo dificilísimas de leer porque la escritura aún no expresaba la lengua entera

«One was Sumerian, a language without affinities with any known tongue, and this appears to be the medium of the earliest writing. The other was Akkadian, which is a member of the Semitic family of languages and thus related to Hebrew and Arabic.» — las dos lenguas de la baja Mesopotamia: el sumerio, sin parentesco conocido, y el acadio, semítico y emparentado con el hebreo y el árabe

«This geographical division was enshrined in the terminology of later tradition, according to which the homeland of the ‘black-headed ones’, as these people called themselves, comprised two regions: Sumer, the southern part of lower Mesopotamia, and Akkad, the northern part.» — George explica los nombres: el país de los de cabeza negra, como se llamaban a sí mismos, se dividía en Sumer al sur y Akkad al norte

«The bilingualism of the urban civilization of lower Mesopotamia in the third millennium BC perhaps resembled the division between French and Flemish in modern-day Belgium.» — el símil con que George hace entender ese bilingüismo: la división entre francés y flamenco en la Bélgica de hoy

«My mother, a priestess, conceived me and bore me in secret, she put me in a basket of reeds, sealed its lid with pitch; she cast me adrift on the river from which I could not arise,» — voz de la leyenda de Sargón que George cita en el cuerpo de la introducción, y que presenta como paralelo del Moisés niño: la sacerdotisa que pare en secreto y echa al río la cesta de juncos calafateada

«According to tradition, Sargon rose to power by winning the favour of the goddess Ishtar.» — George da la versión tradicional del ascenso de Sargón: ganarse el favor de la diosa Ishtar

«Sumerian seems to have been losing ground to Akkadian as a spoken language from at least this time, but its function as the primary language of writing was bolstered by a Sumerian renaissance in the last century of the third millennium.» — George traza la curva de las dos lenguas: el sumerio pierde terreno como lengua hablada pero se sostiene como lengua de escritura, apuntalado por el renacimiento sumerio del final del tercer milenio

«The perfect prince was an intellectual as well as a warrior and an athlete, and among his many achievements King Shulgi was particularly proud of his literacy and cultural accomplishments.» — el retrato de Shulgi que George recoge: príncipe perfecto, intelectual además de guerrero y atleta, orgulloso sobre todo de su alfabetización

«In later life he was an enthusiastic patron of the arts and claims to have founded special libraries at Ur and at Nippur, further north in central Babylonia, in which scribes and minstrels could consult master copies of, as it were, the Sumerian songbook.» — y su mecenazgo: bibliotecas fundadas en Ur y en Nippur donde escribas y trovadores pudieran consultar copias maestras, el cancionero sumerio

«For all eternity the Tablet House is never to change, for all eternity the House of Learning is never to cease» — voz del propio Shulgi en el himno que George cita: la Casa de las Tablillas no ha de cambiar nunca y la Casa del Saber no ha de cesar; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota que el troceo pega al verso siguiente

«Artfully woven into Gilgamesh’s own story are the traditional tale of the Deluge, the great flood by which early in human history the gods sought to destroy mankind» — George señala como injerto en la historia propia del héroe un material que viene de fuera: el relato tradicional del Diluvio con que temprano en la historia humana los dioses quisieron destruir a los hombres; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la frase sigue con la descripción del reino de los muertos

«Chapter 3 gives a translation of older material in Akkadian, organized to form the skeletal remains of the poem at a time» — el capítulo 3 es material acadio más antiguo ordenado para formar el esqueleto del poema en fecha cercana a su composición; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la frase termina en la 26 dando el título antiguo, *Surpassing all other kings*

«In this enlightened atmosphere the courts of the kings of Ur and the succeeding dynasty of Isin were witness to the composition of much literature in Sumerian.» — George sitúa la composición del grueso de la literatura sumeria en las cortes de Ur y de la dinastía siguiente de Isin

«This literature we know best not from tablets written at the time, though some survive (including a fragment of a Gilgamesh poem), but from the scribal curriculum of the Babylonians.» — y hace la distinción que gobierna todo su capítulo 2: esa literatura se conoce sobre todo por el currículo escolar babilonio, no por tablillas escritas en su propia época

«Though the people of Sumer and Akkad did not themselves refer to their homeland as Babylonia, which is a Greek term, it is customary to call them» — George advierte que Babilonia es término griego y que sus habitantes no llamaban así a su tierra: el nombre con que los llamamos es convención nuestra; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y sigue con *Babylonians from this time onwards*

«Sumerian had by then died out among the people as a spoken language, but it was still much in use as a written language. Mesopotamian culture was nothing if not conservative and since Sumerian had been the language of the first writing, more than a thousand years before, it remained the principal language of writing in the early second millennium.» — George explica la paradoja de la lengua escolar: el sumerio ya estaba muerto como habla y seguía siendo la lengua principal de escritura, porque la cultura mesopotámica era conservadora y el sumerio había sido la lengua de la primera escritura

«Its primacy as the language of learning was enshrined in the curriculum that had to be mastered by the student scribe. In order to learn how to use the cuneiform script, even to write Akkadian, the student had to learn Sumerian, for, as the proverb said, ‘A scribe who knows no Sumerian, what sort of scribe is he?» — voz del proverbio escolar sumerio que George cita para medir ese prestigio: un escriba que no sabe sumerio, qué clase de escriba es; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota que el troceo pega al signo de interrogación

«The door monitor said, ‘Why did you go out without my say-so?’ and he beat me. The water monitor said, ‘Why did you help yourself to water without my say-so?’ and he beat me. The Sumerian monitor said, ‘You spoke in Akkadian!’ and he beat me. My teacher said, ‘Your handwriting is not at all good!’ and he» — voz del aprendiz de escriba en el texto escolar que George cita: el monitor de la puerta, el del agua, el del sumerio y el maestro, cada uno con su golpe; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota pegada al último *beat me*

«To prove he could write, the would-be scribe copied out, on dictation and from memory, texts in Sumerian. The most advanced Sumerian texts that he had to master were a prescribed corpus of traditional Sumerian literary compositions.» — el método de la escuela según George: copia al dictado y de memoria, con un corpus prescrito de composiciones literarias sumerias como texto más avanzado

«Nearly all the literature that we have in Sumerian derives from the tablets written by these young Babylonian scribal apprentices, many of which were found in the remains of the houses of their teachers.» — el dato de procedencia que sostiene todo lo anterior: casi toda la literatura sumeria que tenemos viene de tablillas de aprendices babilonios halladas en las casas de sus maestros

«That now we are reading the songs of Shulgi again, four thousand years later, would probably have exceeded even his expectations, and it would have surprised him too that his libraries of Sumerian lived anew, as it were, in the tablet collections of Philadelphia, London, and other strange and far-away places.» — y la remata: que sus bibliotecas sumerias revivan en las colecciones de Filadelfia y de Londres habría sorprendido al propio Shulgi

«The pioneering task of identifying, joining and reading the thousands of fragments of clay tablets from Nippur, many of them tiny, was largely the work of the late Samuel Noah Kramer and his students at the University Museum in Philadelphia.» — George adjudica a Samuel Noah Kramer y a sus alumnos en Filadelfia la tarea pionera de identificar, juntar y leer los miles de fragmentos de Nippur

«This was a completely new literature, the oldest large body of literature in human history, and its existence came as a total surprise to all but a tiny band of professional scholars.» — la escala del hallazgo según George: el cuerpo de literatura más antiguo de la historia humana, desconocido para todos salvo un puñado de especialistas

«Many of these Sumerian literary texts are difficult and imperfectly understood, but it remains a serious failure of modern scholarship that their riches are not known more widely.» — y su juicio sobre el estado del asunto, dicho como falla de la erudición moderna y no como reproche a los textos: sus riquezas no se conocen más ampliamente

«These are not the same as the Babylonian Gilgamesh epic, which was written in Akkadian, but separate and individual tales without common themes.» — la distinción central del capítulo 2: los cinco poemas sumerios no son la epopeya babilónica sino relatos separados e individuales, sin temas comunes

«They were probably first committed to writing under the Third Dynasty of Ur, whose kings felt a special bond with Gilgamesh as a legendary hero whom they considered their predecessor and ancestor.» — George fecha su puesta por escrito bajo la Tercera Dinastía de Ur, cuyos reyes tenían a Gilgamesh por predecesor y antepasado

«Even so, it is entirely possible that the poems stem ultimately from an older, oral tradition.» — y deja abierto el estrato anterior: es enteramente posible que los poemas vengan en último término de una tradición oral

«To some extent these Sumerian poems were source material for the Babylonian epic, but they can be enjoyed for their own sake too.» — la acotación con que George cierra el punto: los poemas sumerios fueron en alguna medida material de origen para la epopeya babilónica, y a la vez se dejan disfrutar por sí mismos

«A few Old Babylonian literary tablets derive from the same schools as the literary tablets in Sumerian and also appear to be the work of apprentice scribes.» — George clasifica por procedencia las tablillas acadias paleobabilónicas: unas pocas vienen de las mismas escuelas que las sumerias y parecen también obra de aprendices

«What narrative poems in Akkadian that we do have from the schools may instead have been copied down by students for fun, or even composed by them ad lib.» — de ahí su conjetura sobre cómo llegaron esos poemas acadios a la escuela: copiados por gusto, o incluso compuestos por los propios estudiantes sobre la marcha

«Among these are three Old Babylonian tablets of Gilgamesh which contribute significantly to our knowledge of the story: the Pennsylvania and Yale tablets and the fragment reportedly from Sippar.» — los tres testimonios paleobabilónicos que George declara decisivos para el relato: las tablillas de Pensilvania y de Yale y el fragmento dado por procedente de Sippar

«Another masterpiece of Babylonian literature known from late in the Old Babylonian period is the great poem of Atramhasis, ‘When the gods were man’, which recounts the history of mankind from the Creation to the Flood.» — George presenta el poema de Atramhasis por su primer verso y por su asunto, del origen de la humanidad al Diluvio; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota pegada a *Flood*

«It was this text’s account of the Flood that the poet of the standard version of Gilgamesh used as a source for his own telling of the Deluge myth. It also provided a striking model for the story of Noah’s Flood in the Bible.» — y traza la doble filiación del relato del Diluvio: de Atramhasis lo toma el poeta de la versión estándar de Gilgamesh, y de ahí también el modelo del Diluvio de Noé en la Biblia

«Other Akkadian literature begins to appear at this time, such as texts expounding the Babylonian sciences, divination, astrology and mathematics, and incantations in both Sumerian and Akkadian whose purpose was to ward off evil by magic means.» — el resto de la literatura acadia que aparece en esa época según George: adivinación, astrología, matemáticas y conjuros en sumerio y en acadio cuyo fin era apartar el mal por medios mágicos

«The Old Babylonian Gilgamesh tablets reveal that there was already, at this time, an integrated Gilgamesh epic, which, as the Pennsylvania tablet reports, bore the title Shūtur eli sharrī, ‘Surpassing all other kings’.» — el dato que funda el capítulo 3: ya en época paleobabilónica existía una epopeya integrada, y la tablilla de Pensilvania da su título antiguo en acadio y en traducción

«Works of ancient Mesopotamian literature were rarely created out of nothing and the origins of this epic probably also go back to an oral tradition.» — George aplica también aquí su regla general: las obras de la literatura mesopotámica rara vez se crean de la nada, y también el origen de esta epopeya se remonta probablemente a tradición oral

«Certainly the Old Babylonian Gilgamesh tablets are far from being translations of the individual Sumerian poems of the scribal curriculum, though the two traditions hold in common several episodes» — y niega la relación de traducción entre las dos tradiciones: las tablillas paleobabilónicas no traducen los poemas sumerios del currículo, aunque compartan episodios; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«The Old Babylonian texts bear witness to a wholesale revision of Gilgamesh material to form a connected story composed around the principal themes of kingship, fame and the fear of death.» — George describe el paso de materiales sueltos a relato: una revisión general del material de Gilgamesh para formar una historia trabada en torno a la realeza, la fama y el miedo a la muerte

«For this reason one suspects that the Old Babylonian epic was essentially the masterpiece of a single, anonymous poet.» — y de ahí infiere autor, sin nombrarlo: la epopeya paleobabilónica sería en lo esencial obra maestra de un solo poeta anónimo; George lo dice con *one suspects*

«This epic, ‘Surpassing all other kings’, is only a fragment as it is now preserved, but many find the simple poetry and spare narrative of this poem and of the other Old Babylonian material more attractive than the more wordy standard version.» — George consigna la preferencia de muchos lectores por la poesía escueta del material paleobabilónico frente a la versión estándar, más palabrera, y la separa de su propio juicio atribuyéndola a *many*

«Foremost among these late libraries is the collection of clay tablets amassed at Nineveh by the last great king of Assyria, Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC).» — la biblioteca que George pone en primer lugar entre las tardías: las tablillas reunidas en Nínive por Asurbanipal

«Like Shulgi before him, King Ashurbanipal claimed to have been trained in the scribal tradition and to have had a special talent for reading and writing.» — George empareja a los dos reyes coleccionistas: como Shulgi, Asurbanipal decía haberse formado en la tradición escribal y tener talento especial para leer y escribir

«The god Nabû, scribe of all the universe, bestowed on me as a gift the knowledge of his wisdom. The gods (of war and the hunt) Ninurta and Nergal endowed my physique with manly hardness and matchless strength.» — voz del propio Asurbanipal en el pasaje que George cita: Nabû le da la sabiduría y los dioses de la guerra y de la caza la dureza viril; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota pegada a *strength*

«This is clearly a statement of the ideal schooling for a royal prince, the same then as in Shulgi’s day and as now.» — y la lectura que George hace de ese pasaje: es declaración del ideal educativo de un príncipe, el mismo entonces que ahora

«To these were added the collections of at least one distinguished Assyrian scholar and, in due course, the libraries of many Babylonian scholars which were apparently appropriated as part of the reparations that followed the bitter hostilities of the great Babylonian revolt (652–648 BC).» — y su ampliación por confiscación: las bibliotecas de eruditos babilonios apropiadas, según George, como parte de las reparaciones tras la gran revuelta babilonia

«They did not risk incurring Ashurbanipal’s wrath: ‘We shall not neglect the king’s command,’ they told him. ‘Day and night we shall strain and toil to execute the instruction of our lord the king!» — voz de los eruditos de Babilonia y Borsippa en la carta que George cita: no descuidarán la orden del rey y se afanarán día y noche; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota

«Some of the copyists were prisoners-of-war or political hostages and worked in chains.» — el dato con que George cierra el retrato del escritorio de Nínive: algunos copistas eran prisioneros de guerra o rehenes políticos y trabajaban encadenados

«But though it seems that some literature in Akkadian was studied in the schools of this period, literary tablets in this language are so rare among the huge quantities of Sumerian tablets that it is clear they were not part of the prescribed curriculum.» — George saca la consecuencia del recuento: la rareza de las tablillas literarias acadias entre la masa de sumerias muestra que el acadio no formaba parte del currículo prescrito

«had at their core a small nucleus of tablets that had been written more than four hundred years earlier in the reign of King Tiglath-pileser I (1115–1077 BC).» — continuación de esa misma frase ya en la plana siguiente: el núcleo de las bibliotecas de Nínive eran tablillas escritas más de cuatrocientos años antes, bajo Tiglat-pileser I

«The private dwelling-houses of Nippur and Ur were not the royal Tablet Houses inaugurated by King Shulgi but they amply fulfilled the purpose he» — George anota la ironía del hallazgo: las casas particulares de Nippur y de Ur no eran las Casas de las Tablillas de Shulgi y sin embargo cumplieron con creces el propósito que él imaginó; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la frase sigue con la preservación de la literatura sumeria

«the Gilgamesh epic, of which the library may have possessed as many as four complete copies on clay tablets. Whatever was inscribed on wax has perished, of course.» — George mide lo que se salvó y lo que no: hasta cuatro copias completas del poema en arcilla en la biblioteca de Asurbanipal, y todo lo escrito en cera perdido

«After the sack of Nineveh by the Median and Babylonian alliance in 612 BC, Ashurbanipal’s copies of the epic, like his other tablets, lay in pieces on the floors of the royal palaces, not to be disturbed for nearly 2,500 years.» — el saqueo de Nínive del 612 a. C. dejó las copias del poema en pedazos sobre el suelo de los palacios, sin que nadie las tocara durante casi dos mil quinientos años

«The royal libraries of Nineveh were the first great find of cuneiform tablets to be discovered, in 1850 and 1853, and are the nucleus of the collection of clay tablets amassed in the British Museum.» — George sitúa el hallazgo de 1850 y 1853 como el primer gran encuentro de tablillas cuneiformes y como núcleo de la colección del British Museum

«They are also the foundation stone upon which the discipline of Assyriology was built and for much research they remain the most important source of primary material.» — y como piedra fundacional de la asiriología, que para mucha investigación siguen siendo la fuente primaria más importante

«The first to find these tablets were the young Austen Henry Layard and his assistant, an Assyrian Christian called Hormuzd Rassam, as they tunnelled in search of Assyrian sculpture through the remains of the ‘Palace without Rival’, a royal residence built by Sennacherib, Ashurbanipal’s grandfather.» — los dos nombres del hallazgo según George: el joven Austen Henry Layard y su ayudante, el cristiano asirio Hormuzd Rassam, cavando túneles en busca de escultura por el Palacio sin Rival de Senaquerib

«Neither Layard nor Rassam was able to read the tablets they sent back from Assyria, but of the find he made in what he called the Chamber of Records Layard wrote, ‘We cannot overrate their value.’» — voz de Layard en la frase que George rescata: ninguno de los dos podía leer las tablillas que mandaban, y aun así del hallazgo de la Cámara de los Registros escribió que no se podía sobrestimar su valor

«The huge importance of the royal libraries found at Nineveh by Layard and Rassam first became widely known in 1872 when, sorting through the Assyrian tablets in the British Museum, the brilliant George Smith came across what remains the most famous of Gilgamesh tablets, the best-preserved manuscript of the story of the Deluge.» — George fecha en 1872 el momento en que esas bibliotecas se hicieron famosas: George Smith da con la tablilla más célebre del poema, el testimonio mejor conservado del Diluvio

«Smith took the tablet and began to read over the lines which Ready [the conservator who had cleaned the tablet] had brought to light; and when he saw that they contained the portion of the legend he had hoped to find there, he said, “I am the first man to read that after two thousand years of oblivion.” Setting the tablet on the table, he jumped up and rushed about the room in a great state of excitement, and, to the astonishment of those present, began to undress himself!» — voz de E. A. Wallis Budge, en su historia de los estudios cuneiformes, describiendo la reacción de George Smith: se declaró el primero en leer ese texto tras dos mil años de olvido, y acto seguido empezó a desvestirse

«One hopes the George Smith who made his discovery public was a figure more composed and fully clad, since the occasion was a formal paper delivered to the Society of Biblical Archaeology in the presence of Mr Gladstone and other notables. This must be the only occasion on which a British Prime Minister in office has attended a lecture on Babylonian literature.» — el comentario de George sobre la presentación pública del hallazgo, ante la Society of Biblical Archaeology y con Gladstone presente: la única vez, dice, que un primer ministro británico en activo ha asistido a una conferencia sobre literatura babilónica

«While other libraries of clay tablets from ancient Mesopotamia seem to belong to individual scholars and often comprise the work of the scholar’s family and students as part of their scribal apprenticeship, King Ashurbanipal’s library, which was far bigger than any other, was the result of a deliberate programme of acquisition and copying.» — George distingue la biblioteca de Asurbanipal de las demás: las otras parecen de eruditos particulares y sus familias, y la suya fue un programa deliberado de adquisición y copia

«The purpose of this labour was to provide Ashurbanipal with the best possible expertise to govern in the manner that would please the gods.» — y le da un fin de gobierno: dotar al rey de la mejor pericia disponible para gobernar de modo grato a los dioses

«‘Send me,’ he commanded, ‘tablets that are beneficial for my royal administration!» — voz del propio Asurbanipal en la orden que George cita: que le manden las tablillas provechosas para su administración real; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota pegada al signo de admiración

«With its reflections on good and bad government the Gilgamesh epic certainly came into this category, but it is clear from the contents of the libraries of Nineveh that the phrase summed up the entire scribal tradition current at the time.» — George acota su propio ejemplo: el poema entra en esa categoría por sus reflexiones sobre el buen y el mal gobierno, pero la frase del rey abarcaba la tradición escribal entera

«The scribal tradition then current comprised a very different body of texts from that copied by the apprentices of the Old Babylonian period.» — la tesis de la ruptura de currículo: la tradición escribal del primer milenio es un cuerpo de textos muy distinto del que copiaban los aprendices paleobabilónicos

«Almost without exception, those few texts that survived from it had been supplied with line-by-line Akkadian translations.» — el destino del sumerio en esa tradición: casi sin excepción, los pocos textos supervivientes llevaban ya traducción acadia renglón a renglón

«Many of the treatises on divination had been enormously expanded and the incantations of the exorcists had been organized and placed in series.» — y el de las profesiones: los tratados de adivinación enormemente ampliados y los conjuros de los exorcistas organizados en series

«This work of revision, organization and expansion is known to have taken place at the hands of many different scholars between seven and four hundred years earlier, in the last centuries of the second millennium. The labour of these individual Middle Babylonian scholars resulted in the creation of standard editions of most texts, editions which remained little altered until the death of cuneiform writing a thousand years later.» — George fecha esa labor entre los eruditos medobabilónicos de los últimos siglos del segundo milenio, y le adjudica el resultado: ediciones estándar que apenas cambiaron hasta la muerte de la escritura cuneiforme, mil años después

«The Babylonian Gilgamesh epic did not escape the attentions of a redactor. This by tradition was a learned scholar by the name of Sîn-leqi-unninni, which means ‘The Moon God Accepts my Prayer!’» — aquí entra el nombre que el encabezado de esta ficha consigna: el redactor que la tradición adjudica al poema, Sîn-leqi-unninni, con su nombre traducido; el troceo parte el nombre en el salto de renglón y span() lo reúne como lo imprime el libro

«By profession he was an exorcist, which is to say that he was trained in the art of the expulsion of evil by prayer, incantation and magic ritual. This was a very important skill, whose principal applications were treating the sick, absolving sin, averting bad portents and consecrating holy ground.» — el oficio que George le atribuye y lo que ese oficio hacía: expulsar el mal por oración, conjuro y ritual mágico, para tratar enfermos, absolver pecados, conjurar presagios y consagrar suelo sagrado

«We know nothing else about Sîn-leqi-unninni, except that he was considered their ancestor by several well-known scribal families of Uruk, in southern Babylonia, that flourished in the late first millennium.» — y el límite de lo que se sabe de él, dicho sin rellenar: nada más, salvo que varias familias escribales de Uruk lo tenían por antepasado

«Current opinion supposes that he lived some time in the thirteenth to eleventh centuries.» — George da la datación como opinión corriente y no como hecho propio: entre los siglos XIII y XI

«He could not have been the original composer of the Babylonian epic, for a version of it already existed in the Old Babylonian period, but probably he gave it its final form and was thus responsible for the edition current in first-millennium libraries, the text that here we call the standard version.» — la acotación decisiva para la atribución: no pudo componer la epopeya, porque ya existía en época paleobabilónica, y probablemente le dio su forma final; George lo dice con *probably*

«Even so, we cannot rule out the possibility that, between Sîn-leqi-unninni’s lifetime and the seventh century, changes were made in the text he established.» — y ni siquiera eso queda cerrado: George no descarta cambios posteriores entre el tiempo de Sîn-leqi-unninni y el siglo VII

«The long epic poem that the ancients attributed to Sîn-leqi-unninni was called in antiquity Sha naqba īmuru, ‘He who saw the Deep’, a title taken from its first line.» — el título antiguo del poema en acadio y su procedencia: los antiguos lo llamaban por su primer verso, como era costumbre; George atribuye la obra a Sîn-leqi-unninni solo en boca de los antiguos

«The later epic often follows the Old Babylonian epic, ‘Surpassing all other kings’, line-for-line, sometimes with almost no changes in vocabulary and word order, sometimes with minor alterations in one or the other.» — cómo se ve la revisión al comparar las dos versiones: a veces la tardía sigue verso a verso a la paleobabilónica, casi sin cambios de léxico ni de orden

«Elsewhere one finds that the late text is much expanded, whether by repetition or by invention, and even that passages present in the Old Babylonian epic have been dropped and new episodes inserted.» — y a veces no: el texto tardío se amplía por repetición o por invención, deja caer pasajes que la versión antigua traía e inserta episodios nuevos

«This material falls into two groups: texts that come from within Babylonia and texts that come from outside it.» — la partición de los testimonios intermedios que gobierna los capítulos 3 y 4: los de dentro de Babilonia y los de fuera

«On grounds of content and style it is hard to say whether these tablets are witness to the text as it was immediately before Sîn-leqi-unninni’s editorship, or immediately after it.» — y el límite que George pone a lo que ese material puede decidir: por contenido y por estilo no se puede saber si las dos tablillas de Nippur y de Ur son anteriores o posteriores a la mano de Sîn-leqi-unninni

«In the fourteenth century, at the height of the Late Bronze Age when the eastern Mediterranean was dominated by the great powers of the Egyptian New Kingdom and the Hittite Empire, the lingua franca of international communications in the Near East was the Akkadian language.» — la explicación de por qué hay Gilgamesh fuera de Babilonia: en el siglo XIV el acadio era la lengua franca de la comunicación internacional en el Próximo Oriente

«Kings of Assyria and Babylonia naturally wrote to Pharaoh in Akkadian, but Pharaoh replied in Akkadian too. The Hittite king and Pharaoh likewise corresponded in Akkadian, and, when writing to their overlords, the minor rulers of the Levantine coast and Syria used the same language, though often shot through with local Canaanite and Hurrian idioms.» — el alcance de esa lengua franca: Faraón respondía en acadio, el rey hitita también, y los señores menores del Levante escribían en el mismo idioma, salpicado de giros cananeos y hurritas

«In order to learn to compose their lords’ letters, treaties and other documents in Akkadian, local scribes far from Babylonia were trained in cuneiform writing, and they were trained in the time-honoured way, by rote-learning of the lists, vocabularies and literature of the Babylonian scribal tradition.» — y el mecanismo por el que la literatura viajó con la lengua: para redactar cartas y tratados los escribas locales aprendían cuneiforme al modo tradicional, memorizando listas, vocabularios y literatura babilónica

«This was not the first time that the cuneiform script had made the journey to the West. The first known occasion was in the mid-third millennium, when cuneiform was exported to Ebla and elsewhere in Syria and texts in both Sumerian and Akkadian went with it as part of the skills that trainee scribes had to master in order to acquire the new technology.» — George avisa de que ese viaje al occidente no era el primero: en el tercer milenio el cuneiforme se exportó a Ebla con textos en sumerio y en acadio como parte de la técnica

«Except for Amarna, all these sites have produced tablets of Gilgamesh, as too has Megiddo in Palestine.» — y cuáles de ellos dieron tablillas de Gilgamesh: todos menos Amarna, más Megiddo en Palestina

«Some of the material from Hattusa, which is the oldest in this group, is very similar to the Old Babylonian epic that we know from the Pennsylvania and Yale tablets and clearly predates Sîn-leqi-unninni.» — George data el material de Hattusa como el más antiguo del grupo y anterior con claridad a Sîn-leqi-unninni, por su parecido con las tablillas de Pensilvania y de Yale

«The texts from Emar, which are several centuries younger, are much more like his text, though again, it is impossible at present to determine whether they precede his work or not.» — y deja sin decidir los de Emar: más parecidos a su texto, pero sin que hoy pueda determinarse si lo preceden

«Indeed, the epic fired the imagination then as it does now and adaptations of it were composed in local languages.» — la lectura que George hace de las adaptaciones: la epopeya encendió la imaginación entonces como ahora y se rehízo en lenguas locales

«So far a Hittite version and a Hurrian version have come to light, both found in the archives of the Hittite capital.» — las dos adaptaciones aparecidas hasta la fecha, hitita y hurrita, ambas en los archivos de la capital hitita

«Though Hittite is pretty well understood, Hurrian is still barely comprehensible and our understanding of both versions of the Gilgamesh story is badly hampered by their fragmentary state of preservation. Therefore no rendering of them is given here.» — y por qué no entran en el volumen: el hurrita es apenas comprensible y las dos versiones están muy fragmentarias; George declara la exclusión en vez de callarla

«The standard version of the Babylonian epic is known from a total of 73 manuscripts extant: the 35 that have survived from the libraries of King Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, 8 more tablets and fragments from three other Assyrian cities (Ashur, Kalah and Huzirina), and 30 from Babylonia, especially the cities of Babylon and Uruk.» — el censo de manuscritos de la versión estándar que sostiene la traducción: 73 en total, 35 de las bibliotecas de Nínive, 8 de otras tres ciudades asirias y 30 de Babilonia

«Rassam is something of an unsung hero in Assyriology.» — el juicio de George sobre el reparto del crédito, dicho en su propia voz: Rassam es algo así como el héroe no cantado de la asiriología

«The result was that tablets inscribed with Akkadian scholarly and literary texts were copied out at Hattusa (modern Boğazköy), the Hittite capital in Anatolia, at Akhetaten (el-Amarna), the royal city of Pharaoh» — los sitios donde se copiaron textos acadios fuera de Babilonia: Hattusa, capital hitita, y Akhetaten, ciudad real del faraón; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la lista sigue en la 36 con Ugarit y Emar

«Akhenaten in Upper Egypt, at Ugarit (Ras Shamra), a principality on the Syrian coast, and at Emar (Tell Meskene), a provincial town on the great bend of the Euphrates – just to list the principal sites.» — continuación de esa misma lista ya en la plana siguiente: Ugarit en la costa siria y Emar en el gran recodo del Éufrates, declarados como los sitios principales y no como todos

«Not so long ago it seemed that a Gilgamesh text had also been composed in Elamite, the language of a people who occupied what became Susiana and is now Khuzestan in Iran. The tablet, discovered in Armenia, far from Elam, was published promptly and in due course translations followed. However, further study revealed that the text was, in fact, a private letter with no connection to Gilgamesh at all.» — el caso elamita, que George consigna como corrección de un error publicado: la tablilla hallada en Armenia se publicó y se tradujo como Gilgamesh, y el estudio posterior mostró que era una carta privada sin relación alguna

«This development elicited from one scholar the wry comment that the document was ‘a good illustration of the fact that Elamite remains the worst-known language of the ancient Near East» — voz de un estudioso que George no nombra, en el comentario irónico que recoge: el episodio ilustra que el elamita sigue siendo la lengua peor conocida del Próximo Oriente antiguo

«written in about 130 BC by one Bel-ahhe-uṣur (‘O Lord, Protect the Brothers!’), a trainee temple-astrologer of Babylon.» — el manuscrito más tardío que George registra: hacia el 130 a. C., de mano de un aprendiz de astrólogo del templo de Babilonia, con su nombre traducido

«By that time this once mighty city was much diminished in power and population» — y el contexto de ese último copista: una Babilonia disminuida en poder y en población; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la frase sigue en la 37 con el templo como último bastión de la erudición cuneiforme

«and Greek, its ancient temple was the last surviving bastion of cuneiform scholarship. From the 73 surviving manuscripts it is possible to reconstruct much of Sîn-leqi-unninni’s epic but there are still considerable gaps.» — continuación de esa frase ya en la plana siguiente: en un país que hablaba arameo y griego, el templo antiguo era el último bastión de la erudición cuneiforme, y de sus 73 manuscritos aún no sale el poema entero

«To fill these lacunae it is sometimes possible to fall back on the older material in Akkadian and for one episode it is even necessary to utilize the Hittite version. The result of this reconstruction is the text given in Chapter 1.» — cómo se rellenan los huecos del capítulo 1: con material acadio más antiguo y, para un episodio, con la versión hitita

«There, in order clearly to distinguish between text of different periods, old material used to bridge lacunae in the standard version is explicitly identified in editorial notes.» — y la regla editorial que acompaña ese relleno: el material antiguo usado como puente se identifica de modo explícito en nota, para que el lector no confunda estratos

«The definition of a section is that it is the text customarily contained on an individual clay tablet, and so the sections are called, in accordance with Babylonian custom, ‘tablets’.» — de dónde sale la palabra tablilla como división del poema: es el texto que cabía por costumbre en una sola tablilla de arcilla, y así lo llamaba la costumbre babilónica

«The ‘series of Gilgamesh’, in fact, comprises twelve tablets, not just the eleven of the epic.» — la distinción que explica la tablilla XII: la serie babilónica tiene doce tablillas y la epopeya, once

«Tablet XII, the last, is a line-by-line prose translation of the latter half of one of the Sumerian Gilgamesh poems.» — qué es esa tablilla XII: traducción en prosa, renglón a renglón, de la segunda mitad de uno de los poemas sumerios

«Somehow this partial translation survived into the first millennium while the original Sumerian text, like the other Sumerian poems of Gilgamesh, did not.» — y su rareza: la traducción parcial llegó al primer milenio mientras el original sumerio, como los demás poemas sumerios de Gilgamesh, se perdió

«Though some have tried to show that Tablet XII had a real place in the epic, most scholars would agree that it does not belong to that text but was attached to it because it was plainly related material.» — George consigna la disputa sin arbitrarla en su propia voz: algunos han querido darle a la tablilla XII un lugar real en la epopeya, y la mayoría sostiene que se le agregó por ser material afín

«The eleven tablets of the epic vary in length from 183 to 326 lines of poetry, so that the whole composition would originally have been about 3,000 lines long.» — la medida del poema: entre 183 y 326 versos por tablilla y unos tres mil versos en total

«As the text now stands, only Tablets I, VI, X and XI are more or less complete.» — y su estado: solo cuatro de las once tablillas están más o menos completas

«Leaving aside lines that are lost but can be restored from parallel passages, overall about 575 lines are still completely missing, that is, they are not represented by so much as a single word.» — la cifra del daño, con su acotación dentro: unos 575 versos faltan por completo, sin una sola palabra, descontando ya los que se restituyen por pasajes paralelos

«Many more are too badly damaged to be useful, so that considerably less than the four-fifths of the epic that is extant yields a consecutive text.» — y la consecuencia: bastante menos de las cuatro quintas partes conservadas da texto seguido

«In the translation offered here the damaged state of the text is all too evident, pock-marked as it is by the clutter of brackets and ellipses.» — George declara que su traducción deja el daño a la vista, acribillada por corchetes y puntos suspensivos; es la decisión que explica el aspecto de las citas de esta ficha

«The gaps are themselves important in number and size, for they remind us how much is still to be learnt of the text. They prevent us from assuming that we have Gilgamesh entire.» — por qué los huecos son dato: recuerdan cuánto queda por aprender del texto e impiden suponer que se tiene el poema entero

«Whatever we say about the epic is provisional, for new discoveries of text may change our interpretation of whole passages.» — la consecuencia que George extrae para toda lectura, incluida la suya: cuanto se diga del poema es provisional, porque hallazgos nuevos pueden cambiar la interpretación de pasajes enteros

«Approach what lies ahead not as you might the poems of Homer but as a book part-eaten by termites or a scroll half-consumed by fire. Accept it for what it is, a damaged masterpiece.» — la instrucción de lectura con que George cierra el punto: acercarse al poema no como a Homero sino como a un libro medio comido por termitas o a un rollo medio quemado, y aceptarlo como obra maestra dañada

«for such is the lack of professional Assyriologists everywhere that we have yet to study properly many thousands of tablets that have long been in museum collections.» — la razón por la que George espera que los huecos se llenen y a la vez la explicación de por qué no se han llenado: faltan asiriólogos, y hay miles de tablillas sin estudiar en los museos

«Not even a genius like George Smith always came up with the right identification.» — George introduce con esta frase el ejemplo de una identificación errónea del propio descubridor del poema

«The Daily Telegraph was so impressed with his famous lecture on the Deluge story from the Gilgamesh epic that in 1873, in the hope of recovering the missing portions of text, they provided the splendid sum of one thousand guineas (£1,050) to enable him to reopen for the British Museum the old excavations at Nineveh.» — el episodio: el Daily Telegraph pagó mil guineas en 1873 para que Smith reabriera las excavaciones de Nínive en busca de los pasajes perdidos

«but the expedition was a victim of its own success. The desired fragment so exactly met the newspaper’s requirements that the news of its discovery led to the expedition’s early recall.» — y su desenlace irónico: el fragmento hallado cumplió tan exactamente lo pedido que la noticia provocó el regreso anticipado de la expedición

«1 A damaged masterpiece: the front side of one of the better preserved tablets of the Gilgamesh epic» — pie de la figura 1, que retoma como rótulo la fórmula con que George acaba de definir el poema: obra maestra dañada

«In fact, we now know that this particular fragment of the Deluge story is part of a late version of the poem of Atram-hasis and not a piece of Gilgamesh at all.» — la corrección que George consigna sin cargarla al descubridor: el fragmento que Smith trajo del Diluvio pertenece a una versión tardía de Atram-hasis

«Smith had no way of knowing that at the time. His identification was the best that could then be expected, and went unchallenged for many years.» — y la acota en el mismo renglón: era la mejor identificación posible entonces y nadie la discutió durante años

«He was among the first in a long line of scholars who have sifted through the libraries of Ashurbanipal and, by sorting, joining and identifying thousands of pieces of Assyrian clay tablets, have over a period of 130 years steadily increased our knowledge of the literature of the Babylonians.» — George sitúa a Smith en una serie y no en un pedestal: el primero de una larga fila de eruditos que en ciento treinta años han ido juntando e identificando fragmentos

«It is in this continuing work of discovery and identification of manuscripts, from Nineveh and elsewhere, in the field as well as in museums, that the Gilgamesh epic (along with most other literary texts written in cuneiform on clay tablets) differs from fragmentary texts in Greek and» — la diferencia que George señala entre este poema y los textos fragmentarios griegos y latinos: el trabajo de hallazgo e identificación de manuscritos sigue en curso; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«Latin. The eventual recovery of this literature is assured by the durability of the writing medium. It is only a matter of time – providing, of course, that the society in which we live continues to place value on such things and to support the scholars who study them.» — y la condición con que la acota: la recuperación está asegurada por la durabilidad de la arcilla, siempre que la sociedad siga valorando estas cosas y sosteniendo a quienes las estudian

«The central setting of the epic is the ancient city-state of Uruk in the land of Sumer. Uruk, the greatest city of its day, was ruled by the tyrannical Gilgamesh, semi-divine by virtue of his mother, the goddess Ninsun, but none the less mortal.» — George fija el escenario y la condición del héroe: Uruk en Sumer, gobernada por el tiránico Gilgamesh, semidivino por su madre la diosa Ninsun y mortal pese a ello

«His enduring achievement was to rebuild the wall of Uruk on its antediluvian foundations, and his military prowess ended the hegemony of the northern city-state of Kish.» — los dos hechos que la leyenda le adjudica: reconstruir la muralla de Uruk sobre cimientos antediluvianos y acabar con la hegemonía de Kish

«He appears as a god in early lists of deities and in the later third millennium he benefited from a cult.» — y el rastro cultual: aparece como dios en listas tempranas de deidades y recibió culto en el tercer milenio tardío

«Later tradition made it his function, as explained in one of the Sumerian poems, to govern the shades of the dead in the Netherworld.» — la función que la tradición posterior le da, con el poema sumerio como fuente: gobernar las sombras de los muertos en el Inframundo

«Because we have actual records from kings whom the ancients held to be his contemporaries, it is possible that, as perhaps there was once a real King Arthur, so there was once an actual King Gilgamesh.» — George plantea la historicidad como posibilidad y con un símil, no como afirmación: como quizá hubo un rey Arturo real, quizá hubo un rey Gilgamesh

«Certainly the native historical tradition held this to be the case, for Gilgamesh appears in the list of Sumerian kings as the fifth ruler of the First Dynasty of Uruk.» — y separa de ello lo que sí es dato: la tradición histórica nativa lo tenía por histórico y lo pone como quinto rey de la Primera Dinastía de Uruk

«He would thus have flourished about 2750 BC, though some would place him a century or so earlier.» — la fecha que se sigue de esa lista, con su margen: hacia 2750 a. C., aunque algunos lo pondrían un siglo antes

«His reign, which the list of kings holds to have lasted a mythical 126 years, falls in the shadowy period at the edge of Mesopotamian history, when, as in the Homeric epics, the gods took a personal interest in the affairs of men and often communicated with them directly.» — y el reinado de 126 años que la lista le atribuye, que George llama mítico y sitúa en el periodo de penumbra donde, como en Homero, los dioses trataban directamente con los hombres

«Foremost among the gods was the supreme triad, which comprised the Sky God Anu, remote in his celestial palace, the more important Enlil, who presided over the affairs of gods and men from his temple on earth, and the clever Ea, who lived in his freshwater ocean beneath the earth (the Ocean Below) and sent the Seven Sages to civilize mankind.» — la tríada suprema del panteón según George: Anu remoto en su palacio celeste, Enlil que preside desde su templo terrestre y Ea en el océano dulce de abajo, que manda a los Siete Sabios a civilizar a los hombres

«Then there were the kindly Mother Goddess, Lady of the Gods, who first created men with Ea’s help, the violent Adad, god of the storm, and the Moon God, Sîn, the majestic son of Enlil.» — el segundo rango: la Diosa Madre que crea a los hombres con ayuda de Ea, el violento Adad de la tormenta y el dios lunar Sîn

«The Moon’s children were Shamash, the Sun God, the patron of travellers and Gilgamesh’s special protector, and the Babylonian Venus, the impetuous Ishtar, whose responsibilities were sexual love and war, and whose appetite for both was inexhaustible.» — los dos hijos de la Luna que mueven la trama: Shamash, protector especial de Gilgamesh, e Ishtar, la Venus babilónica, con el amor sexual y la guerra por dominio

«Netherworld, the gloomy realm of the dead, lived its queen, the bitter Ereshkigal. There she lay prostrate in perpetual mourning, attended by her minister, the gruesome Namtar, and the rest of her fell household.» — continuación de esa frase en la plana siguiente: la reina amarga Ereshkigal, postrada en duelo perpetuo, con su ministro Namtar y su casa

«Men lived in cities and cultivated the land. Where irrigation could not reach, the farmland gave way to rougher country in which shepherds grazed their flocks, ever on the look-out for wolves and lions.» — la geografía humana del poema por círculos: la ciudad y el campo regado, y más allá el país áspero donde pastan los rebaños

«And further off still was the ‘wild’, the empty country prowled by hunters, outlaws and bandits, where legend had it there once roamed a strange wild man whom the gazelles brought up as their own. Enkidu was his name.» — el círculo siguiente, el de lo salvaje: el país vacío de cazadores y bandidos donde la leyenda ponía al hombre criado por las gacelas

«Several months’ journey across this wilderness, over many ranges of mountains, there was a sacred Forest of Cedar, where some said the gods dwelt. It was guarded for the gods by a fearsome ogre, the terrible Humbaba, cloaked for his protection in seven numinous auras, radiant and deadly.» — el Bosque de Cedro y su guardián: un ogro envuelto para su protección en siete auras numinosas, radiantes y mortales

«Somewhere at the edge of the world, patrolled by monstrous sentries who were half man and half scorpion, were the twin mountains of Mashu where the sun rose and set.» — los montes gemelos de Mashu en el confín del mundo, vigilados por centinelas mitad hombre y mitad escorpión

«Further still, at the other end of the Path of the Sun, was a fabulous Garden of Jewels, and nearby, in a tavern by the great impassable ocean that surrounded the earth, lived the mysterious goddess Shiduri, who dispensed wisdom from behind her veils.» — y más allá el Jardín de las Joyas y la taberna junto al océano infranqueable donde Shiduri dispensa sabiduría tras sus velos

«Across the ocean were the lethal Waters of Death, and beyond them, on a remote island where the rivers Euphrates and Tigris welled up again from the deep, far outside the ken of men and visited only by his ferryman Ur-shanabi, dwelt Uta-napishti the Distant, a primeval king who survived the great Deluge sent by Enlil early in human history and as a consequence was spared the doom of mortals.» — el último confín: las Aguas de la Muerte y la isla donde vive Uta-napishti el Lejano, rey primordial que sobrevivió al Diluvio y por eso quedó exento del destino de los mortales

«Many other powers populated the Babylonian cosmos – deities, demons and demigods of legend – but these are the principal characters of the Babylonian Gilgamesh epic.» — George cierra el mapa acotándolo: hay muchas más potencias en el cosmos babilonio y estas son solo los personajes principales del poema

«The Gilgamesh epic is one of the very few works of Babylonian literature which can be read and enjoyed without special knowledge of the civilization from which it sprang.» — el rasgo que George le atribuye frente al resto de la literatura babilónica: se deja leer y disfrutar sin conocimiento especial de su civilización

«The names of the characters may be unfamiliar and the places strange, but some of the poet’s themes are so universal in human experience that the reader has no difficulty in understanding what drives the epic’s hero and can easily identify with his aspirations, his grief and his despair.» — y por qué: los temas del poeta son tan universales que el lector entiende sin dificultad lo que mueve al héroe

«While there is a temptation for a modern editor to ignore the gaps, to gloss them over or to join up disconnected fragments of text, I believe» — George razona en primera persona contra la tentación del editor moderno de ignorar los huecos, disimularlos o empalmar fragmentos sueltos; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la frase termina en la 38

«The Assyriologist William L. Moran has recently expounded Gilgamesh’s story as a tale of the human world, characterized by an ‘insistence on human values’ and an» — voz del asiriólogo William L. Moran, que George cita: el poema como relato del mundo humano, con insistencia en los valores humanos; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la segunda mitad de la fórmula sigue en la 42

«‘acceptance of human limitations’. This observation led him to describe the epic as ‘a document of ancient humanism’» — continuación de la fórmula de Moran ya en la plana siguiente, con la etiqueta a que lo lleva: documento de humanismo antiguo; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota que el troceo pega al guillemet

«than what it is to serve the gods. As the beginning and end of the epic make clear, Gilgamesh is celebrated more for his human achievement than for his relationship with the divine.» — la consecuencia que George saca de la fórmula de Moran: el poema celebra a Gilgamesh más por su logro humano que por su trato con lo divino, y el principio y el final del texto lo dejan claro

«Though the story of Gilgamesh is certainly fiction, Moran’s diagnosis is also a warning not to read the epic as myth.» — George advierte contra la lectura mitológica del poema y a la vez declara su ficcionalidad; en las planas siguientes razona por qué el poema no es mito

«There is little consensus as to what myth is and what it is not, and ancient Mesopotamian mythological texts show considerable variety.» — y acota de entrada el terreno: hay poco consenso sobre qué es mito, y los textos mitológicos mesopotámicos son muy variados

«Two features are particularly characteristic of these mythological compositions: on the one hand, the story centres on the deeds of a god or gods, and, on the other, its purpose is to explain the origin of some feature of the natural or social world.» — los dos rasgos con que George define lo mitológico en esa literatura: el relato gira sobre los hechos de un dios y su fin es explicar el origen de algo del mundo natural o social

«More of the characters of the Epic of Gilgamesh are divine than not, but set beside the protagonist they are insignificant.» — primer argumento contra la lectura mitológica: hay más personajes divinos que humanos y, junto al protagonista, son insignificantes

«The gods even attract unfavourable similes: in Tablet XI the poet compares them to dogs and flies, as if the rulers of the universe were parasitical scavengers.» — y el ejemplo con que lo sostiene: en la tablilla XI el poeta compara a los dioses con perros y con moscas, como si los amos del universo fueran carroñeros parásitos

«In the main the function of the poem is not to explain origins. It is more interested in examining the human condition as it is.» — segundo argumento: la función del poema no es explicar orígenes sino examinar la condición humana tal como es

«It certainly contains myths – the myth of the snake which shed its skin in Tablet XI being the purest example, the Flood story the most famous» — George acota su propia tesis en la misma frase: el poema sí contiene mitos, el de la serpiente que muda de piel como el más puro y el del Diluvio como el más famoso

«But most such myths are incidental to the story and the epic is certainly much more than the sum of its mythological parts – unlike, for example, Ovid’s Metamorphoses.» — y cierra la acotación con un contraste: los mitos son incidentales y el poema es mucho más que la suma de sus partes mitológicas, a diferencia de las Metamorfosis de Ovidio

«Nevertheless, the text of Gilgamesh is often studied alongside compositions which are truly mythological. Indeed, no book on the mythology of ancient Mesopotamia can resist it.» — George consigna la práctica contraria a su tesis sin negarla: el poema se estudia junto a composiciones propiamente mitológicas y ningún libro de mitología mesopotámica renuncia a él

«Above all [the epic] retains, in spite of its long and literate history, an unmistakable aura of the mythical – of that kind of emotional exploration of the permanent meaning of life, by the release of fantasy about the distant past, that Greek myths, at least as we experience them, so often fail to exemplify in their own right.» — voz de G. S. Kirk, que George cita para dar su razón: el poema conserva un aura inconfundible de lo mítico, una exploración emocional del sentido permanente de la vida que los mitos griegos a menudo no logran; los corchetes que restituyen el sujeto son del recorte de George

«If not truly mythological, in the sense defined above, what is this poem? Moran’s phrase, ‘a document of ancient humanism’, is again a» — George vuelve a la pregunta por el género con la fórmula de Moran; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y sigue en la 43 con la tesis de que tampoco es poema religioso

«useful one, for it highlights the fact that the epic is not a religious poem either, at least not in the same way as, for example, John Henry Newman’s ‘Dream of Gerontius’.» — continuación en la plana siguiente, con el término de comparación elegido: el poema no es religioso al modo del Dream of Gerontius de John Henry Newman

«A visitant Is knocking his dire summons at my door, The like of whom, to scare me and to daunt, Has never, never come to me before.» — voz de Gerontius en los versos de Newman que George cita: el visitante que llama con su citación terrible a la puerta del moribundo

«These are words that could also have been placed in Gilgamesh’s mouth.» — George declara la equivalencia emocional entre los dos poemas antes de marcar la diferencia: esas palabras cabrían en boca de Gilgamesh

«Gerontius in his anguish puts himself in the hands of his God, and in religious poetry this is the proper recourse of the pious afflicted.» — la diferencia, primer término: en poesía religiosa el afligido piadoso se pone en manos de su dios

«Gilgamesh, however, in his terror and misery spurns the help of his gods – specifically rejecting the good advice of Shamash, the god who protects him – and, even at the last, turns for solace to his own achievements rather than to his creator.» — y segundo: Gilgamesh desdeña la ayuda de sus dioses, rechaza el consejo de Shamash que lo protege y busca consuelo en sus propias obras y no en su creador

«The poem concludes with Gilgamesh proudly showing his companion the monument for which he became famous:» — George señala el final del poema como apoyo de esa lectura: el héroe enseñando a su compañero el monumento que lo hizo famoso

«For it was Gilgamesh who in Babylonian tradition rebuilt his city’s wall on its primordial foundations, and it was the fame won him by this enduring monument that would be his comfort.» — y la glosa que él mismo le pone: la muralla reconstruida sobre cimientos primordiales, y la fama ganada con ese monumento duradero, son el consuelo del héroe

«The late Thorkild Jacobsen, a renowned Sumerologist who wrote on ancient Mesopotamian religion with considerable vision, once described the epic as a ‘story of learning to face reality, a story of “growing up”» — voz de Thorkild Jacobsen, que George cita: el poema como relato de aprender a encarar la realidad, un relato de crecer; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota pegada al guillemet

«Gilgamesh begins as an immature youth, capable of anything and accepting no check; eventually he comes to accept the power and reality of Death, and thus he reaches reflective maturity.» — George resume esa lectura en una curva: de joven inmaduro que no acepta freno a la aceptación del poder y la realidad de la Muerte, que es su madurez reflexiva

«But there is more to the epic than that. In charting the hero’s progress, the poet reflects profoundly on youth and age, on triumph and despair, on men and gods, on life and death.» — y la desborda enseguida: al trazar el camino del héroe el poeta reflexiona sobre la juventud y la vejez, el triunfo y la desesperación, los hombres y los dioses, la vida y la muerte

«As a poem which explores the truth of the human condition the epic bears a message for future generations, then as now. Maturity is gained as much through failure as success. Life, of necessity, is hard, but one is the wiser for it.» — la moral que George le lee, dicha como mensaje del poema y no como suya: la madurez se gana tanto por el fracaso como por el éxito, y la vida es dura por necesidad

«There is in fact a formal indication that the epic is a work from which one is expected to learn. In the prologue the poet asks the reader to believe that his poem was set down on stone by Gilgamesh himself for all to read. In other words, we are to imagine that the epic is an autobiography of the great hero, written in the third person.» — el indicio formal que George aduce: el prólogo pide al lector creer que el propio Gilgamesh grabó el poema en piedra, de modo que el texto se presenta como autobiografía en tercera persona

«The epic accordingly bears some relation to the well-established literary genre of ‘royal counsel’. Kings, by virtue of their many counsellors and the special trappings and rituals of kingship, were expected to be wise and sagacious.» — y el género al que eso lo emparenta: el consejo real, con reyes a quienes se suponía sabios por sus consejeros y por los ritos de la realeza

«Many ancient Near Eastern collections of proverbial sayings purport to be the teachings of a king or other notable to his son or successor.» — la forma característica de ese género en el Próximo Oriente: colecciones de dichos que se presentan como enseñanza de un rey a su hijo o sucesor

«The biblical Proverbs are the ‘wisdom of King Solomon’ addressed to his son, and the wise author of the book of Ecclesiastes introduces himself as ‘the son of David, king over Israel in Jerusalem’.» — los ejemplos bíblicos que George alinea con el poema: los Proverbios como sabiduría de Salomón a su hijo y el Eclesiastés presentándose como hijo de David

«In ancient Mesopotamia the genre is represented by the ‘Instructions of Shuruppak’, a Sumerian composition that is among the very oldest extant works of literature, appearing first in copies from about the twenty-sixth century BC.» — el representante mesopotámico del género según George: las Instrucciones de Shuruppak, de las obras literarias más antiguas conservadas, con copias desde el siglo XXVI a. C.

«In this text the wise old Shuruppak, son of Ubar-Tutu, counsels his son Ziusudra. It is this same Ziusudra who was known to the Babylonians by the twin names of Atram-hasis and Uta-napishti, and who survived the Deluge and dispensed sage counsel to Gilgamesh at the ends of the earth.» — y el enlace que George traza con el poema: el hijo aconsejado, Ziusudra, es el mismo que los babilonios llamaron Atram-hasis y Uta-napishti, el que sobrevivió al Diluvio y aconsejó a Gilgamesh

«More particularly the epic can be compared with a small group of Babylonian texts that have been described as ‘fictional royal autobiography’.» — el subgénero al que George acerca el poema con más precisión: la autobiografía real ficticia

«Another example of such a text is the composition we know as the ‘Cuthean Legend of Naram-Sîn’, in which an Old Babylonian poet adopts the identity of this famous third-millennium king of Akkade and warns future rulers of the dire consequences that attend failure to rule in the manner prescribed by the gods.» — el ejemplo con que lo ilustra: la Leyenda Cutea de Naram-Sîn, donde un poeta paleobabilónico toma la identidad del rey y advierte a los gobernantes futuros

«Naram-Sîn’s lapse was to go into battle without their consent.» — y la falta concreta que allí se castiga: entrar en batalla sin el consentimiento de los dioses

«The lesson for the future rulers who were the target of the text about Naram-Sîn is one of patience: wait for the gods, do nothing without their say-so.» — la lección de ese texto según George: paciencia, esperar a los dioses y no hacer nada sin su venia

«One theme of the Gilgamesh epic is the vanity of the hero’s quest: pursuit of immortality is folly, the proper duty of man is to accept the mortal life that is his lot and enjoy it to the full.» — y el tema paralelo en el poema: la búsqueda de la inmortalidad es vanidad y el deber propio del hombre es aceptar su vida mortal y gozarla

«So too advises the author of Ecclesiastes: ‘Go thy way, eat thy bread with joy, and drink thy wine with a merry heart … Let thy garments be always white; and let not thy head lack ointment. Live joyfully with the wife whom thou lovest all the days of thy life.’» — el paralelo bíblico que George pone al lado: el Eclesiastés aconsejando comer con gozo, beber con alegre corazón y vivir gozoso con la mujer amada

«The themes of the vanity of human endeavour and of taking one’s pleasure in one’s family are typical of ‘wisdom’ literature of the kind found elsewhere in the ancient Near East.» — y el género en que George los inscribe: la vanidad del afán humano y el gozo en la familia son temas de la literatura de sabiduría del Próximo Oriente

«In the ancient world, religion permeated intellectual activity in a way that it does not now. Read as ‘wisdom’, ultimately the epic bears a message of serious religious content.» — George matiza aquí su propia tesis del poema no religioso: leído como sabiduría, el poema sí trae un mensaje de contenido religioso serio, porque en el mundo antiguo la religión permeaba la vida intelectual

«Its views on the proper duties of men and kings are strictly in line with the gods’ requirements and conform to the religious ideology of ancient Mesopotamia: do the will of the gods, fulfil your function as they intended.» — y lo precisa: sus ideas sobre los deberes de hombres y reyes están en línea con lo que los dioses exigen, que es hacer su voluntad y cumplir la función para la que fueron hechos

«We know from many ancient Mesopotamian sources, in Sumerian and in Akkadian, that the Babylonians believed the purpose of the human race to be the service of the gods.» — la premisa del cosmos babilonio que George expone para leer el poema: el propósito de la raza humana era servir a los dioses

«Before mankind’s creation, the myth tells us, the cities of lower Mesopotamia were inhabited by the gods alone and they had to feed and clothe themselves by their own efforts.» — el relato de origen: antes de la creación del hombre, las ciudades de la baja Mesopotamia estaban habitadas solo por dioses, que se alimentaban y vestían por su propio trabajo

«Under the supervision of Enlil, the lord of the earth, the lesser deities grew and harvested the gods’ food, tilled the soil and, most exhaustingly, dug the rivers and waterways that irrigated the fields.» — y el reparto de ese trabajo: los dioses menores cultivaban bajo Enlil y cavaban, lo más agotador, los ríos y canales; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota

«The first humans were duly born from the womb of the Mother Goddess and allotted their destiny, ‘to carry the yoke, the task imposed by Enlil, to bear the soil-basket of the gods’.» — el destino que se les asigna al nacer del vientre de la Diosa Madre: llevar el yugo y cargar el cesto de tierra de los dioses

«Enkidu is thus a replica of the first man, born without a mother’s cries of pain.» — la lectura que George hace de ese acto: Enkidu es réplica del primer hombre, nacido sin gritos de parto

«not just Gilgamesh’s glorious deeds but also the suffering and misery that beset his hero as he pursues his hopeless quest. ‘Read out’, the poet enjoins us in the prologue, ‘the travails of Gilgamesh, all that he went through!» — el acento que George considera significativo: el poeta no atiende solo a las hazañas gloriosas sino al sufrimiento del héroe, y cita el propio prólogo, que manda leer en voz alta los trabajos de Gilgamesh

«Whoever you may be, governor, prince or anyone else, whom the gods may choose to exercise kingship, I have made you a tablet-box and written a stone tablet. I have deposited them for you in Cutha, in the cella of Nergal in the temple E-meslam. Behold this stone tablet, give ear to what this stone tablet says!» — voz del propio Naram-Sîn en su autobiografía ficticia, que George pone en paralelo con el prólogo del poema: la caja de tablillas y la tablilla de piedra depositadas en Cutha para quien venga después; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota

«But you, Gilgamesh, let your belly be full, enjoy yourself always by day and by night! Make merry each day, dance and play day and night! Let your clothes be clean, let your head be washed, may you bathe in water! Gaze on the child who holds your hand, let a wife enjoy your repeated embrace!» — voz de Shiduri en la versión paleobabilónica, citada por George dentro de la introducción: llenar el vientre, celebrar cada día, ropa limpia, cabeza lavada, el niño de la mano y el abrazo de la esposa. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces: aquí y en el capítulo 3, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«Eventually the labour became too much for them and they mutinied. The resourceful god Ea (called Enki in the poem of Atram-hasis) devised first the technology to produce a substitute worker from raw clay and then the means by which this new being could reproduce itself.» — el motín y la solución: la labor se vuelve excesiva para los dioses menores y Ea idea la técnica para producir un trabajador sustituto de arcilla cruda y luego el medio de que se reproduzca

«The goddess Aruru, she washed her hands, took a pinch of clay, threw it down in the wild. In the wild she created Enkidu, the hero, offspring of silence, knit strong by Ninurta.» — voz del poema, tablilla I, citada por George dentro de la introducción: Aruru se lava las manos, toma un pellizco de arcilla y crea a Enkidu en lo salvaje. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 1, y la cita se ancla en esta primera aparición

«moving, however; it was all the work that went into looking after the gods in their temples on earth, from irrigating their fields, raising their crops and pasturing their livestock to baking their bread, butchering their meat and clothing their statues.» — en qué consistía el servicio a los dioses según George: regar sus campos, criar sus rebaños, hornear su pan, despiezar su carne y vestir sus estatuas

«The ideology was that soon after the sundering of heaven from earth the rulers of gods had divided up the land between the major deities of the pantheon, allocating to each a city and its surrounding territory. Though many cities possessed more than one temple – Babylon traditionally had forty-three – the notion remained that the city and its hinterland belonged in principle to its patron deity, the god to whom they had been given in the original partition of the land, and that they were his to exploit.» — el reparto del mundo según esa ideología: poco después de separarse el cielo de la tierra, los dioses se dividieron el país y cada ciudad quedó en principio como propiedad de su dios patrono

«Accordingly, the patron deity occupied a large complex in the centre of town. This, the chief temple of the city, functioned as his house or, better, his palace, for the domestic arrangements of the great gods were in all essentials modelled on those of the king.» — de ahí la forma del templo: el complejo del dios patrono es su casa o mejor su palacio, porque lo doméstico de los grandes dioses se modelaba sobre lo del rey

«Here in his palace the god (or goddess) was looked after by means of elaborate rituals. He was seated on a throne, fed regular meals, clothed in expensive garments woven with gems, and entertained with music, dance and song.» — el trato ritual que recibía el dios: entronizado, alimentado con comidas regulares, vestido con telas engemadas y entretenido con música, danza y canto

«All these deities, from the greatest to the smallest, were resident in the temple and received some kind of cult there: ritual offerings of meat and incense, ritual worship with prayer and song.» — el culto no era de uno solo: todas las deidades de la casa, de la mayor a la menor, residían en el templo y recibían ofrendas de carne e incienso y culto de oración y canto

«The ideology was that the god was served by his divine court. The reality was that his needs were cared for by a body of human personnel specially inducted into temple service.» — George marca la distancia entre ideología y realidad sin resolverla a favor de ninguna: la corte divina servía al dios y quien lo atendía era un cuerpo de personal humano

«We call these men priests, but not all of them are properly so described. For the great temples were centres of economic activity, too.» — y acota la palabra sacerdote: no todos lo eran propiamente, porque los grandes templos eran además centros de actividad económica

«In line with the belief that the land was divided among the gods in remotest history, many of these temples possessed huge holdings of arable land let out to tenant farmers. They also owned vast herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and goats.» — la consecuencia económica de la creencia en el reparto divino: enormes propiedades de tierra arable arrendadas y vastos rebaños en manos de los templos

«As Gilgamesh’s mother declares when she adopts Enkidu for her son, orphans brought up by the temples were considered the latter-day counterparts of Enkidu, the foundling par excellence:» — y el enlace que traza con el poema: los huérfanos criados por los templos se tenían por equivalentes tardíos de Enkidu, el expósito por excelencia

«‘O mighty Enkidu, you are not sprung from my womb, but henceforth your brood will belong with the votaries of Gilgamesh, the priestesses, the hierodules and the women of the temple.’ She put the symbols on Enkidu’s neck.» — voz de Ninsun adoptando a Enkidu, citada por George dentro de la introducción: no salido de su vientre, pero su prole irá con las devotas de Gilgamesh, y le pone los símbolos al cuello. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 1

«This was right and proper, for the purpose of all mankind, as Ea created him, was to till the land, tend the flocks and engage in every other activity that was conducive to the comfort, satisfaction and best advantage of his divine lords.» — George cierra el circuito entre el templo y el mito de la creación: el propósito de todo hombre, tal como Ea lo hizo, era labrar, cuidar rebaños y todo lo que sirviera al provecho de sus amos divinos

«The long life of this ideology, from at least the third millennium BC until the coming of Islam, long after the demise of Babylonian civilization, is confirmed by Sura 51 of the Koran, which makes a particular point of rejecting the old belief» — la vigencia larguísima de esa ideología según George, medida por su rechazo: desde el tercer milenio hasta la llegada del islam, atestiguada por la sura 51 del Corán

«I have not created genii (jinn) and men for any other end than that they should serve me. I require not sustenance from them; neither will I that they feed me.» — voz del Corán en la sura 51, citada por George como testimonio en contra de la creencia babilónica: no creó a los genios y a los hombres sino para que lo sirvan, y no requiere sustento de ellos

«There was a flaw built into Ea’s creation of man, a flaw that explains how it was that something made by the gods for their own purposes was nevertheless a very imperfect tool. The clay that Ea gave to the Mother Goddess as the raw material from which she bore mankind was animated – given spirit – by mixing it with the blood of a god:» — el defecto de fábrica que George señala en la criatura: la arcilla se animó mezclándola con la sangre de un dios, y de ahí que algo hecho por los dioses resultara herramienta muy imperfecta

«Let one god be slaughtered and the gods be thereby cleansed. With his flesh and his blood let the Lady of the Gods mix some clay, so that god and man are mixed together in the clay. In future time let us hear the drumming of the heartbeat, from the flesh of a god let the spirit be produced.» — voz del poema de la creación que George cita: un dios degollado, su carne y su sangre mezcladas con la arcilla por la Señora de los Dioses, y del latido del corazón el espíritu; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota

«The divine element in mankind’s creation explains why, in obvious distinction from the animals, the human race has selfconsciousness and» — lo que ese elemento divino explica según George: la autoconciencia y la razón que distinguen al hombre de los animales; el troceo funde *self-consciousness* en el salto de renglón y el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«reason. It also explains why, in Babylonian belief, men live on after death as spirits or shades in the Netherworld – as reported in Enkidu’s dream of the Netherworld in Tablet VII and in the Sumerian poem of Gilgamesh and the Netherworld.» — y lo segundo que explica: que los hombres sigan viviendo como sombras en el Inframundo, según el sueño de Enkidu y el poema sumerio

«But the trouble was that the god who was executed to provide the blood was not the best material. In one tradition, at least, he was the leader of the rebels, who had instigated a mutiny. Small wonder, then, that mankind could be wayward.» — el vicio de origen que George saca de ahí: el dios ejecutado era, al menos en una tradición, el cabecilla del motín, de modo que no sorprende que el hombre resulte díscolo

«napishti tells his wife in Tablet XI, ‘Man is deceitful, he will deceive you’, and Gilgamesh duly confirms this unpalatable aspect of human nature by lying to him.» — y el ejemplo dentro del poema: Uta-napishti advierte a su mujer que el hombre engaña, y Gilgamesh lo cumple mintiéndole; el troceo parte el nombre en el cruce de plana y el tramo arranca en la segunda mitad

«The innately rebellious and unruly nature of man encapsulated in this myth of his creation also informs one tradition about early human history, first found in several Sumerian literary compositions, that in the beginning the human race roamed the land like the beasts of the field, naked but hairy, and for sustenance grazing on grass.» — la otra tradición sobre los orígenes que George recoge: en el principio la raza humana vagaba como bestias, desnuda pero peluda, pastando hierba

«He knows not a people, nor even a country. Coated in hair like the god of the animals, with the gazelles he grazes on grasses.» — voz del poema, tablilla I, citada por George como alusión a esa tradición: Enkidu no conoce pueblo ni país, cubierto de pelo como el dios de los animales y paciendo hierba con las gacelas. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 1

«The myth of man’s early barbarism is at odds with the tradition in which the human race is created to take up the tools of the city-dwelling gods; but the mythology of many civilizations is oral and diverse in origin, so that different traditions of how things came to be tend to coexist without difficulty.» — George consigna la contradicción entre las dos tradiciones sin armonizarla, y la explica por el carácter oral y diverso de la mitología: las versiones distintas conviven sin dificultad

«As is well known, the first two chapters of Genesis preserve two quite different accounts of God’s creation of man.» — y le pone un paralelo conocido: los dos relatos distintos de la creación del hombre en los dos primeros capítulos del Génesis

«The civilization of mankind, according to Babylonian mythology, was the work of the gods, who sent kingship from heaven, and especially of the god Ea, who despatched the Seven Sages to Eridu and other early cities, and with them all the arts and crafts of city life.» — de dónde viene la civilización según la mitología babilónica: de los dioses que mandan la realeza desde el cielo y sobre todo de Ea, que despacha a los Siete Sabios con todas las artes de la vida urbana

«Foremost among these Sages was the fish-man Oannes-Adapa, who rose from the sea.» — el primero de esos Sabios según George: el hombre pez Oannes-Adapa, salido del mar

«Government, society and work were thus imposed on men.» — y la consecuencia que George extrae: el gobierno, la sociedad y el trabajo le fueron impuestos al hombre desde fuera

«The text that tells us most in this regard is known from a single tablet from Babylon written in the middle or late first millennium BC, but coronation prayers from seventh-century Assyria quote part of it and the text itself may be older.» — George data ese texto con su límite dentro: un solo ejemplar de Babilonia del primer milenio medio o tardío, pero citado en parte por oraciones de coronación asirias del siglo VII

«Ea opened his mouth to speak, saying a word to the Lady of the Gods: ‘You are Belet-ili, the sister of the great gods, you have created man the human, fashion now the king, the counsellor-man! Gird the whole of his figure sweet, make perfect his countenance and well formed his body!’ The Lady of the Gods fashioned the king, the counsellor-man! They gave to the king the task of doing battle for the [great] gods. Anu gave him his crown, Enlil gave him his throne, Nergal gave him his weapons, Ninurta gave him his corona of splendour; the Lady of the Gods gave him his features (of majesty), Nuska commissioned counsellors, stood them before him.» — voz de Ea en el texto de la creación del rey que George cita: la Señora de los Dioses ha de modelar al rey, el hombre consejero, y cada dios le da corona, trono, armas, corona de esplendor, rasgos de majestad y consejeros; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota

«This image, of the king as a man of perfect beauty, ready for battle but guided by divinely inspired counsel, is one that informs the Gilgamesh epic.» — la lectura que George hace de ese texto para el poema: la imagen del rey de belleza perfecta, listo para la batalla pero guiado por consejo de inspiración divina

«It was the Lady of the Gods drew the form of his figure, while his build was perfected by divine Nudimmud … When he grew tall his beauty was consummate, most handsome was he by the standards of men.» — voz del poema, tablilla I, citada por George: la Señora de los Dioses traza la forma de su figura y Nudimmud perfecciona su hechura, y su belleza resulta consumada. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 1

«Not only this, but as king he exhibits an instinctive longing for trustworthy counsel, and at the end of the same tablet he looks forward with enthusiasm to the predicted arrival of Enkidu:» — el segundo rasgo real que George encuentra en el héroe: el anhelo instintivo de consejo fiable, que explica su entusiasmo ante la llegada anunciada de Enkidu

«Let me find a friend to counsel me, a friend to counsel me I will acquire!» — voz de Gilgamesh al cierre de la tablilla I, citada por George dentro de la introducción: quiere hallar un amigo que lo aconseje. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 1

«Aside from fighting the gods’ battles for them – maintaining law and order in the land by repelling the advance of the enemy and subduing internal revolt – the principal duty of the Babylonian king was to oversee the repair and maintenance of the gods’ cult-centres and to ensure that they were stocked with foodstuffs and treasure.» — el deber principal del rey babilonio según George, aparte de pelear las batallas de los dioses: cuidar la reparación de los centros de culto y su abastecimiento

«he created the king for the task of provisioning, he created men to be the workforce.» — voz de la oración del ritual de construcción de templos que George cita: Ea creó al rey para la tarea de aprovisionar y a los hombres para ser la fuerza de trabajo; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota

«This passage is much broken, but the gist of it seems to be that, just as the moon and constellations (‘the gods of the night’) mark out the regular progression of month and year, so the king must ensure the delivery of the regular offerings required by the gods’ temples.» — George declara roto el pasaje antes de interpretarlo: el sentido parece ser que, como la luna y las constelaciones marcan la marcha del mes y del año, el rey ha de asegurar las ofrendas regulares de los templos

«In the epic, Uta-napishti fills the role of the quintessential wise man who knows the secrets of the cosmos – as it were, the meaning of life.» — el papel que George le adjudica a Uta-napishti dentro del poema: el sabio por excelencia que conoce los secretos del cosmos, el sentido de la vida

«Uta-napishti’s counsel and story form the climax of the epic and it is here, in Tablets X and XI, that we should expect the poet’s message to come through most strongly.» — y dónde sitúa por eso el mensaje del poeta: en las tablillas X y XI, donde el consejo y el relato del sabio hacen clímax

«The principal deities of the Babylonian pantheon lived, embodied in anthropomorphic statues, in palatial houses, surrounded by their divine» — George pasa de la ideología al hecho material: los dioses principales vivían encarnados en estatuas antropomorfas y en casas palaciegas, rodeados de los suyos; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la frase termina en la 47

«In the case of a god, his wife occupied a suite of rooms close by his own, where a suitably outsize marriage bed was ready for their conjugal bliss.» — la estancia conyugal del templo: la esposa del dios ocupaba habitaciones contiguas, con un lecho matrimonial de tamaño adecuado

«According to Berossus, a Babylonian scholar of the fourth century BC who wrote in Greek, at this stage men ‘lived without laws just as wild animals» — voz de Beroso, erudito babilonio del siglo IV a. C. que escribió en griego, citado por George: en esa etapa los hombres vivían sin leyes como animales salvajes; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota

«The tradition that the first men roamed free and lawless and were not subject to kings helped to give rise to a myth that kings were created as» — de la tradición del hombre primero libre y sin ley sale, según George, otro mito: el del rey creado aparte; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la frase termina en la 50 nombrando aspecto, facultades y deberes

«widows, orphans and foundlings, who wore a symbol of some kind that disclosed their status.» — el personal dependiente del templo que a George le interesa para el poema: viudas, huérfanos y expósitos, que llevaban un símbolo revelador de su condición; la frase arranca en la plana anterior con los dedicados al servicio del templo sin otro sustento

«Another implication is that it was the duty of kings to help those who could not help themselves.» — la segunda implicación: era deber del rey socorrer a quienes no podían valerse

«This is what Gilgamesh should have been doing instead of wandering the wild: looking after the gods, his masters, and the people, his subjects.» — lo que el héroe debería estar haciendo en vez de vagar por lo salvaje: cuidar de los dioses, sus amos, y del pueblo, sus súbditos

«The third part of Uta-napishti’s counsel – and certainly the most important – is his discourse on life and death and on the futility of Gilgamesh’s search for immortality.» — y la tercera parte del consejo, que George declara la más importante: el discurso sobre la vida y la muerte y sobre la futilidad de la búsqueda de la inmortalidad

«The life that you seek you never will find: when the gods created mankind, death they dispensed to mankind, life they kept for themselves.» — voz de Shiduri en la versión paleobabilónica, citada por George: la vida que buscas no la hallarás, porque al crear a la humanidad los dioses le repartieron la muerte y guardaron para sí la vida. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 3

«These lines, and the advice that follows, do not appear in the episode of the late epic where Gilgamesh talks with Shiduri. It seems that the poet of the standard version wanted to keep the wisdom for the climax and intentionally held it in reserve for Uta-napishti.» — el hallazgo de composición que George señala al comparar versiones: esos versos faltan en el episodio correspondiente de la versión tardía, y el poeta parece haberlos reservado para el clímax

«As the poem of Atram-hasis relates, three times, at intervals of 1,200 years, the god Enlil tired of the relentless hubbub of the new creation, which kept him awake in his chamber. Each time he resolved to reduce the human population, first by plague, then by drought and finally by famine.» — el relato de Atram-hasis según George: tres veces, cada mil doscientos años, Enlil se cansa del bullicio de la nueva creación que no lo deja dormir y reduce la población, por peste, por sequía y por hambre

«But inevitably he was thwarted by the god Ea, who each time communicated the method of man’s salvation to Atram-hasis (another name for Uta-napishti), king of the city Shuruppak.» — y la contramedida: cada vez Ea frustra el plan comunicando el modo de salvarse a Atram-hasis, otro nombre de Uta-napishti; el troceo parte el nombre en el salto de renglón

«Eventually the exasperated Enlil came up with the final solution, which all the gods, including Ea, swore to keep secret: he would send the Deluge to wipe out mankind.» — la solución final de Enlil, jurada en secreto por todos los dioses, Ea incluido: mandar el Diluvio para borrar a la humanidad

«By subterfuge, however, Ea managed to warn Atram-hasis in advance, and Atram-hasis built his curious ark, ostensibly so that he could sail down to Ea’s cosmic domain, the Ocean Below.» — el subterfugio de Ea y el pretexto del arca: construida en apariencia para bajar navegando al dominio cósmico del propio Ea

«But the gods were stricken with hunger and thirst. Their temples were flooded. The human servants who fed and watered them were dead. Enlil’s final solution was exposed as fatally flawed. The gods were about to die of want.» — la consecuencia que el plan no previó: inundados los templos y muertos los siervos que alimentaban a los dioses, estos estaban a punto de morir de necesidad

«In the meantime the flood had abated and the ark had grounded on a high mountain peak. Then, as incense rose from where Atram-hasis offered thanks for his survival, the sweet smell of food wafted up to heaven and the gods all rushed down to feed.» — y su desenlace: al subir el humo del incienso con que el superviviente daba gracias, el olor de la comida llegó al cielo y los dioses bajaron en tropel a comer

«In the story as adapted for the Gilgamesh epic, Ea then asks the gods in assembly to determine what to do with the survivor. Enlil gives Uta-napishti and his wife life ‘like the gods’ – they will live for ever – and removes them to the ends of the earth.» — cómo termina el episodio en la adaptación del poema: la asamblea decide sobre el superviviente y Enlil le da a él y a su mujer vida como la de los dioses, lejos, en los confines de la tierra

«He has the Mother Goddess redesign man slightly so that the human race does not reproduce so effectively. Women are to be barren as well as fertile. Stillbirth and infant mortality are introduced. Certain classes of women are to be chaste as a religious requirement, like nuns.» — la solución de Ea al problema del ruido humano en Atram-hasis: rediseñar a la especie para que se reproduzca menos, con esterilidad, muerte al nacer, mortalidad infantil y clases de mujeres castas por obligación religiosa

«O mother goddess, maker of destiny, [assign death] to the people!» — voz de Enki en el pasaje restituido que George cita: la diosa madre, hacedora del destino, ha de asignar la muerte a la gente; los corchetes son la restitución del aparato y el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota

«The implication is that before this reform men could die, as indeed gods could, from acts of violence, from disease and otherwise at the will of the gods, but not naturally from old age. From the time of the Deluge onwards, death is to follow life as a matter of course.» — la implicación que George extrae: antes de esa reforma los hombres podían morir de violencia, de enfermedad o por voluntad divina, pero no naturalmente de vejez

«The Anunnaki, the great gods, held an assembly, Mammitum, maker of destiny, fixed fates with them: both Death and Life they did establish, but the day of Death they do not disclose.» — voz de Uta-napishti en la tablilla X, citada por George como desenlace mitológico de todo lo anterior: la asamblea fijó destinos, repartió la Muerte y la Vida y no revela el día de la Muerte. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 1

«In fact, the context of this momentous change in man’s destiny is now confirmed by the newly available text of the Death of Gilgamesh, in the words of the god Enki to his partners, An and Enlil:» — George declara que el nuevo texto de la Muerte de Gilgamesh respalda ese contexto, y lo atribuye a la disponibilidad reciente de ese poema

«After the assembly had made the Deluge sweep over … Ziusudra, one of mankind, still lived! … From that time we swore that mankind should not have life eternal.» — voz del dios Enki en la Muerte de Gilgamesh, citada por George: tras el Diluvio, Ziusudra siguió viviendo, y desde entonces juraron que la humanidad no tendría vida eterna. El poema sumerio se ficha aparte en el capítulo 2

«The sole exception to the new doom of mankind is the survivor of the Flood, who is made immortal.» — la única excepción a esa sentencia general según George: el superviviente del Diluvio, hecho inmortal

«But, as he himself explains, Uta-napishti’s elevation to immortal status was an isolated event born of a particular set of circumstances never to be repeated. Gilgamesh may acquire the ‘secret of the gods’, the knowledge of how Uta-napishti ‘found life’ in the company of the gods, but he cannot follow in his footsteps.» — y por qué el héroe no puede imitarlo: la elevación del sabio fue hecho aislado, nacido de circunstancias irrepetibles; puede obtener el secreto de los dioses y no puede seguir sus pasos

«To underline his message of the futility of Gilgamesh’s quest Uta-napishti challenges his visitor to defeat Sleep, the younger brother of Death, knowing that he will fail.» — la primera prueba con que el sabio subraya esa futilidad: vencer al Sueño, hermano menor de la Muerte, sabiendo que fracasará

«Then he arranges that Gilgamesh should find the ‘plant of rejuvenation’, knowing that he will lose it by his own hand. Only the snake is destined to benefit from it.» — y la segunda: hacerle hallar la planta del rejuvenecimiento sabiendo que la perderá por su propia mano, y que solo la serpiente se beneficiará

«And aware at last of his own capabilities he becomes reconciled to his lot, and wise. In the words of the prologue, to which we return: ‘He came a far road, was weary, found peace.» — el desenlace que George lee como sabiduría ganada, cerrado con el verso del prólogo: vino por un camino largo, se fatigó, halló la paz

«The story of Gilgamesh’s ‘growing up’ is, in fact, the story of a hero who grows wise, wise in the sense of learning his place in the divinely ordained scheme» — y la definición de esa sabiduría, que acota la fórmula de Jacobsen: crecer aquí es aprender el propio lugar en el orden dispuesto por los dioses

«The poet makes it clear right at the beginning that we should expect this:» — George señala que el poema anuncia ese desenlace desde el primer verso, y cita a continuación el prólogo

«The change wrought in Gilgamesh occurs only after a long history of heroic misdemeanours. At first he does everything wrong.» — y a la vez marca el trayecto: el cambio llega solo tras una larga historia de desmanes heroicos

«In Babylonian ideology, as throughout the ancient Near East, the king should be to his people as a shepherd to» — el ideal real contra el que George mide al héroe: el rey ha de ser a su pueblo lo que el pastor a sus ovejas; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la frase termina en la 55

«Far from that, Gilgamesh is a cruel tyrant, whose brutality calls forth the complaint of his people. The contrast between the ideal and the actual is implicit in their lament:» — y la distancia entre ese ideal y el poema: el héroe es un tirano cruel cuya brutalidad arranca la queja de su pueblo, y el contraste queda implícito en el lamento

«Yet he is the shepherd of Uruk-the-Sheepfold, Gilgamesh, [the guide of the] teeming [people:] he is their herdsman and they [are the cows.]» — voz del pueblo de Uruk en la tablilla I, citada por George: lo llaman su pastor y su vaquero mientras se quejan de él; los corchetes marcan restitución. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 1

«The nature of Gilgamesh’s tyranny is not explained by the poet, for it is not necessary to know more than that he is a tyrant.» — George consigna el silencio del poema como decisión del poeta y no como hueco: no hace falta saber más que es un tirano

«All that is certain is that his demands mean that filial and conjugal duties are displaced. Daughters have no time to help their mothers nor sons their fathers, and wives are unable to tend the needs of their husbands.» — lo único cierto según George: sus exigencias desplazan los deberes filiales y conyugales, y ni hijas ni hijos ni esposas pueden atender a los suyos

«Some commentators have inferred that Gilgamesh’s abuse is sexual. It is certainly true that in the Old Babylonian version of the epic the Babylonian audience, like Enkidu, would have reacted with horror to the ‘the right of first night’ (ius primae noctis) which the wedding-guest reports as customary in Gilgamesh’s Uruk:» — George atribuye a otros comentaristas la lectura sexual del abuso, y la sostiene solo para la versión paleobabilónica, donde el derecho de pernada aparece como costumbre

«He (Gilgamesh) will couple with the wife-to-be, he first of all, the bridegroom after.» — voz del invitado a la boda en la versión paleobabilónica, citada por George: el rey se une primero a la novia y el novio después. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 3

«Such things did not happen in Babylonia in the historical period. However, according to the text this activity was divinely sanctioned, and therefore could not have been an abuse in the context:» — la doble acotación de George: ni ocurría en la Babilonia histórica ni, dentro del texto, podía contar como abuso, porque el texto lo declara sancionado por los dioses

«By divine consent it is so ordained; when his navel-cord was cut, for him she was destined.» — voz del mismo pasaje que sostiene esa acotación: por consentimiento divino está así ordenado, y al cortarse el cordón umbilical de ella ya le estaba destinada

«Others suppose that Gilgamesh’s tyranny is related to his reputation as the builder of Uruk’s wall. Like new irrigation projects and other grand municipal building works, city walls in ancient Mesopotamia were constructed by public labour. The workforce was conscripted from the citizenry.» — la segunda lectura de la tiranía que George recoge, también atribuida a otros: la muralla y las grandes obras se levantaban con trabajo público reclutado entre los ciudadanos

«From the references that we have to mutinies of labour-gangs – as in the myth of the gods’ revolt in the poem of Atram-hasis – it seems that the regime of such organized labour could be harsh to the point of brutality.» — y lo que la sostiene: las referencias a motines de cuadrillas de trabajo, como el de los dioses en Atram-hasis, sugieren un régimen duro hasta la brutalidad

«At all events, in contrast to his splendidly regal appearance Gilgamesh’s behaviour, here at the beginning of the epic, is far from the royal ideal.» — y cierra el punto: por espléndida que sea su apariencia regia, la conducta del héroe al comienzo del poema está lejos del ideal real

«The arrival of Enkidu brings relief to the people of Uruk but does nothing to make Gilgamesh wise. Full of youthful bravado he turns down sage counsel and makes the perilous journey to the Cedar Forest.» — el giro siguiente según George: la llegada del amigo alivia al pueblo y no vuelve sabio al héroe, que rechaza el consejo prudente y emprende el viaje

«There he and Enkidu kill the ogre Humbaba, in the full knowledge that the god Enlil, the greatest power on earth, had given Humbaba the job of guarding the cedar.» — la primera transgresión: matan al ogro a sabiendas de que Enlil, la mayor potencia en la tierra, le había encargado guardar el cedro

«A similar disregard for the divine powers characterizes the next episode, in which Gilgamesh repudiates the goddess Ishtar with gratuitous insults and then fights and kills the celestial bull she hopes will avenge her.» — y la siguiente: repudiar a Ishtar con insultos gratuitos y matar al toro celeste con que ella pensaba vengarse

«The gods, driven to act by the repeated violation of their order, doom Enkidu to die young and without a family, in fulfilment of Humbaba’s dying curse.» — la sanción divina que sigue: condenar a Enkidu a morir joven y sin familia, cumpliendo la maldición del ogro moribundo

«First Uta-napishti contrasts the lot of kings with the lot of fools. By fools are meant simpletons, halfwits and village idiots, those who» — la primera parte del consejo del sabio según George: el contraste entre la suerte del rey y la del necio, entendido como simple, tonto o idiota de pueblo; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la frase termina en la 52

«One implication seems to be that Gilgamesh, who has been wandering alone clad in ragged skins and eating raw meat, is behaving not as a king but as a fool. His quest is the quest of an idiot.» — la implicación que George le lee, con un *seems* que no retira: el héroe, vagando con pieles andrajosas y comiendo carne cruda, se comporta como necio y no como rey, y su búsqueda es la de un idiota

«But the human race had another defect: it bred with great ease and rapidly became too numerous.» — el segundo defecto de la criatura, además de la rebeldía innata: se reproducía con facilidad y se volvía demasiado numerosa

«But the biggest change, one that will have the greatest effect on the numbers of men, is that the gods establish an end to the natural lifespan.» — el cambio mayor de la reforma de Ea, que es el que importa para el poema: los dioses fijan un término al tiempo natural de vida

«This development is not yet found in the text itself, which is broken at the crucial point, but it is suspected by force of argument.» — George marca el límite de la evidencia en el punto decisivo: el texto está roto justo ahí y la reforma se infiere por fuerza de argumento, no se lee

«Had I only turned back, and left the boat on the shore!’ With these words Gilgamesh laments that he would have been better off had he not made the journey to Uta-napishti at all, when all it has brought him is the cruel realization of his own mortal inadequacy.» — voz de Gilgamesh en el lamento que George cita, y la lectura que le pone: habría estado mejor sin hacer el viaje, que solo le trajo la comprensión cruel de su insuficiencia mortal. El libro imprime el verso dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 1

«A third suggestion turns for inspiration to the Sumerian poem of Gilgamesh and the Netherworld, in which the young men of Uruk are required to share Gilgamesh’s inexhaustible appetite for what appears to be a game of great physical demands, and the city’s women spend all» — la tercera lectura de la tiranía que George recoge, apoyada en el poema sumerio de Gilgamesh y el Inframundo: los jóvenes de Uruk obligados a compartir un juego de gran exigencia física; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y la frase termina en la 56 con las mujeres atendiendo a sus hombres agotados

«This is probably nearest the mark. In the Babylonian epic the line, ‘He has no equal when his weapons are brandished’, suggests that in the Akkadian tradition the games, if that is what they were, have become more martial than they are in the Sumerian.» — George elige entre las tres lecturas con la fórmula más prudente que tiene, y matiza el paso de una tradición a otra: en la acadia los juegos se han vuelto más marciales que en la sumeria

«Gilgamesh abandons all the responsibilities of his position for personal ends. He takes to the wild.» — el punto de quiebre de la trama según George: el héroe abandona las responsabilidades de su cargo por fines personales y se echa a lo salvaje

«When, at the edge of the ocean that surrounds the world, he encounters the wise Shiduri in her tavern, he threatens her with violence so that she tells him how to continue on his road.» — la primera escena de esa etapa: amenaza con violencia a Shiduri en su taberna para que le diga cómo seguir el camino

«Following her instructions to seek out Ur-shanabi, the ferryman of Uta-napishti, he comes across Ur-shanabi’s crew, the mysterious Stone Ones, and smashes them. In doing so he only makes his journey more perilous.» — y la segunda: rompe a las Piedras, la tripulación del barquero, con lo que solo vuelve más peligroso su propio viaje

«It is only when he reaches the realm of the Flood hero beyond the cosmic ocean that Gilgamesh begins to lose his unthinking instinct for violence.» — dónde empieza el cambio según George: solo al llegar al reino del héroe del Diluvio pierde el héroe su instinto irreflexivo de violencia

«I was fully intent on making you fight, but now in your presence my hand is stayed.» — voz de Gilgamesh ante Uta-napishti, citada por George como señal de ese cambio: venía resuelto a pelear y en su presencia se le detiene la mano. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 1

«Uta-napishti’s realm is in some ways an enchanted place, a kind of Prospero’s isle, for it seems that on arriving there Gilgamesh begins to mend his ways. At the old man’s feet he learns the lessons that make him wise.» — la comparación que George elige para ese lugar: una especie de isla de Próspero, donde el héroe empieza a enmendarse y aprende a los pies del viejo

«As a sign of the change wrought in Gilgamesh Uta-napishti sends him home in a magic garment that cannot become dirty.» — el signo material de ese cambio: el sabio lo manda a casa con una vestidura mágica que no puede ensuciarse; el tramo cruza de plana sin perder la frase

«raiment symbolizes his new state of mind. ‘Let your clothes be clean!’ counselled Shiduri. ‘Let thy garments be always white!’ enjoins Ecclesiastes.» — y la lectura que George le pone, enlazando las dos citas que ya había puesto en paralelo: la ropa limpia de Shiduri y las vestiduras siempre blancas del Eclesiastés

«reached through sheer force Uta-napishti the Distant; who restored the cult-centres destroyed by the Deluge, and set in place for the people the rites of the cosmos.» — voz del prólogo, citada por George: el héroe restauró los centros de culto destruidos por el Diluvio y repuso para el pueblo los ritos del cosmos. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 1

«The ancient historical tradition, as reported in the king lists, is that after the Deluge human kingship had to be reestablished by the gods: ‘after the Flood had swept over, then, kingship being sent down from heaven, kingship was in the city of Kish.» — voz de la Lista Real Sumeria que George cita: tras pasar el Diluvio, la realeza bajó del cielo y estuvo en Kish; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota; el troceo une la palabra que el impreso parte al final del renglón y `span()` devuelve *reestablished* donde el libro imprime *re-established*

«The implication is that, when kings began to reign again, the antediluvian civilization was restored, that is, the order ordained by the gods came back into operation.» — la implicación que George extrae: al volver a reinar los reyes se restauró la civilización antediluviana, es decir, el orden dispuesto por los dioses

«This was important, for the traditional belief was that the gods had supplied all that was needed for human beings to flourish – cities, agriculture, the arts of civilization – at the outset of human history, in the antediluvian age.» — por qué importa: la creencia era que los dioses habían dado de una vez, al principio, todo lo necesario para que el hombre prosperara

«Nothing more was to be discovered; the antediluvian model was how human society should be run.» — y la consecuencia de esa creencia, que George enuncia sin matizarla: nada más quedaba por descubrir, y el modelo antediluviano era el modo en que debía regirse la sociedad

«According to one ancient view, most fully reported by Berossus in his Babyloniaca, civilization was restored by those who had accompanied Ziusudra (the Sumerian name of Uta-napishti) on board the ark and thus survived the Deluge.» — la primera versión de cómo se restauró la civilización, atribuida a Beroso: por los que habían embarcado en el arca con Ziusudra

«This tradition is implicit in the Flood story preserved in Tablet XI of Gilgamesh and in the poem of Atram-hasis, where the mention of the craftsmen and animals taken aboard the ark explains how it was that the skills of artisans and herdsmen (and the animal kingdom in general) survived the catastrophe.» — y dónde la ve implícita George: en los artesanos y animales embarcados, que explican cómo sobrevivieron al desastre los oficios y el reino animal

«But there was also a tradition, local to the town of Lagash in the early second millennium, that the gods withheld kingship for a time. During this time they did not require mankind to look after their needs by irrigating and tilling the land, and no agriculture took place:» — la segunda versión, local de Lagash, que George consigna al lado sin armonizarla con la anterior: los dioses retuvieron la realeza un tiempo y no hubo agricultura

«when the gods An and Enlil … had not sent down from heaven (once more) kingship, crown and even city, and for all the overthrown people had not established (once more) mattock, spade, earth-basket and plough, the things which ensure the life of the land, then a man spent one hundred years as a boy, free of duties, another hundred years he spent, after he grew up, (but still) he performed no task of work.» — voz del texto sumerio de Lagash que George cita: sin realeza, corona ni ciudad, y sin azadón, pala, cesto ni arado, el hombre pasaba cien años de niño libre de deberes y otros cien sin hacer tarea alguna; el tramo se corta antes de la llamada de nota

«In this feckless, idle state the human race went hungry and failed to flourish. The tablet is broken at this point but there must have followed a description of the re-establishment of kingship and ordered life, for when the text is again legible the gods are reintroducing the people to the arts of agriculture.» — y lo que George lee en la laguna siguiente, declarándola: la tablilla se rompe ahí y cuando vuelve a leerse los dioses están reintroduciendo al pueblo en las artes de la agricultura

«The implication of the prologue of the epic is that Gilgamesh played a key role in restoring the antediluvian order after the Flood, particularly in restoring the cults of the gods to their proper glory.» — la inferencia que George saca del prólogo: el héroe tuvo papel clave en restaurar el orden antediluviano y sobre todo los cultos

«You reached Ziusudra in his abode! The rites of Sumer, forgotten there since distant days of old, the rituals and customs – you brought them down to the land.» — voz de los dioses en el sueño de muerte del héroe, en la Muerte de Gilgamesh: llegó a la morada del superviviente y bajó a la tierra los ritos de Sumer olvidados desde antiguo. El poema sumerio se ficha aparte en el capítulo 2

«So the wisdom he brought back from his journey was more than personal knowledge. It did not suit the poet’s needs to include more than allusions to it, but evidently Gilgamesh was responsible for recivilizing his country.» — la conclusión de George sobre ese viaje: la sabiduría traída era más que conocimiento personal, y al poeta no le convino más que aludir a ella

«In this he was the tool of the god Ea, like the Seven Sages, for as Ninsun predicted in Tablet III, Gilgamesh grew ‘wise with Ea of the Ocean Below» — cómo se articula eso con el panteón: el héroe fue instrumento de Ea, como los Siete Sabios, según la predicción de Ninsun en la tablilla III

«The Deep signifies Ea’s cosmic domain, especially as the fount of wisdom. From this source Gilgamesh learnt the profound truths that underpinned human society and government.» — y la lectura que George hace del primer verso del poema: el Abismo es el dominio cósmico de Ea y sobre todo la fuente de sabiduría, de donde el héroe aprende las verdades que sostienen la sociedad y el gobierno

«Conditions there are the subject of a large section of Tablet VII, in which Enkidu on his deathbed dreams of being dragged down to the Netherworld by the Angel of Death and, in lines now almost entirely lost, tells of what he saw there.» — dónde trata el poema el Inframundo según George: una sección larga de la tablilla VII, con el sueño de Enkidu arrastrado por el Ángel de la Muerte, en versos hoy casi perdidos

«The funeral and wake of Enkidu, described in the latter part of Tablet VIII, can be understood as the ideal model for the mortuary rites that preceded the burial of a Babylonian noble.» — y cómo lee George el funeral de la tablilla VIII: como modelo ideal de los ritos mortuorios previos al entierro de un noble babilonio

«The ultimate destiny of Gilgamesh would be known to every Babylonian: after death he became the deified ruler and judge of the shades of the dead.» — el dato que todo babilonio traía puesto al leer el poema: tras morir, el héroe fue el gobernante deificado y juez de las sombras

«His posthumous place in the pantheon is not revealed to him, but his mother has foreknowledge of it, as she reminds Shamash in Tablet III:» — la ironía de composición que George señala: el destino póstumo no se le revela al héroe, pero su madre lo sabe de antemano

«Will he not rule with Irnina the black-headed people? Will he not dwell with Ningishzida in the Land-of-No-Return?» — voz de Ninsun ante Shamash en la tablilla III, citada por George: pregunta si su hijo no reinará sobre los de cabeza negra y no morará con Ningishzida en la Tierra sin Retorno. El libro imprime estos versos dos veces, aquí y en el capítulo 1

«It is a neat irony, surely appreciated by every educated Babylonian, that the hero who failed to become a god in life became one in death.» — y George la formula: el héroe que no logró hacerse dios en vida lo fue en la muerte, ironía que todo babilonio culto habría apreciado

«This quotation and other passages from Sumerian and Akkadian literature given in this Introduction are my own translations.» — declaración de George en la primera de sus notas, que gobierna toda la introducción: las citas de literatura sumeria y acadia que da ahí son traducciones suyas y no de otros

«William L. Moran, ‘The Epic of Gilgamesh: A document of ancient humanism’, Bulletin, Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 22» — la referencia completa de la fórmula de Moran que George usa dos veces en la introducción; muestra de las veinte notas bibliográficas, que se citan por muestra y no en bloque

«G. S. Kirk, Myth: Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), Chapter IV.» — la referencia de la cita de Kirk sobre el aura mítica del poema; entrada bibliográfica citada con la guarda anticosido desactivada por traer año entre paréntesis

«Thorkild Jacobsen, ‘The Gilgamesh epic: Romantic and tragic vision’, in Tzvi Abusch, John Huehnergard and Piotr Steinkeller (eds.), Lingering over Words: Studies in Ancient Near Eastern Literature in Honor of William L. Moran, Harvard Semitic Studies 37 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990), pp. 231–49.» — la referencia de la fórmula de Jacobsen sobre crecer, publicada en el homenaje a Moran editado por Tzvi Abusch, John Huehnergard y Piotr Steinkeller; entrada bibliográfica citada con la guarda desactivada

«The Sumerian King List, known in antiquity as ‘Kingship being sent down from heaven’, edited by T. Jacobsen, The Sumerian King List, Assyriological Studies 11» — la referencia de la Lista Real Sumeria, con su título antiguo tomado de su primera línea, como el del propio poema

«The new discovery of text of the Sumerian poem we know as the Death of Gilgamesh confirms this inference.» — lo que respalda esa inferencia: el texto recién descubierto del poema sumerio de la Muerte de Gilgamesh

«Gilgamesh, in the form of his ghost, dead in the underworld, shall be the governor of the Netherworld, chief of the shades! He will pass judgement, he will render verdicts, what he says will be as weighty as the word of Ningishzida and Dumuzi.» — voz de los dioses en la Muerte de Gilgamesh, citada por George dentro de la introducción: el héroe será gobernador del Inframundo y jefe de las sombras, y su palabra pesará como la de Ningishzida y Dumuzi. El libro imprime estos versos tres veces, aquí y dos en el poema sumerio del capítulo 2

«In the epic the explicit wisdom that Gilgamesh gained at the end of the world is knowledge of himself and the story of the Deluge. In Babylonian tradition he also gained another kind of wisdom.» — qué sabiduría explícita gana el héroe dentro del poema, y el aviso de que hay otra: conocimiento de sí mismo y el relato del Diluvio, más la que la tradición babilónica le adjudica aparte

«The five Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh that were copied out, with varying degrees of popularity, by would-be scribes in eighteenth-century Babylonian schools are now much better known than formerly and of two in particular it is possible to give much fuller translations than ever before. They are collected here as individual compositions that can be enjoyed for their own sake, but also to facilitate comparison with the standard Babylonian epic and with the other material written in Akkadian.» — George presenta el capítulo 2: los cinco poemas sumerios copiados por aprendices babilonios del siglo XVIII, dados como composiciones individuales que valen por sí mismas y a la vez sirven para comparar

«The more text that is recovered, the more one can observe the stark differences between the Sumerian poems and the Babylonian epic, and the more also one can appreciate how skilfully the Old Babylonian poet of the latter worked into a seamless whole the traditional themes and stories that were his raw material.» — el hallazgo que George declara al aumentar el texto recuperado: las diferencias entre los poemas sumerios y la epopeya babilónica son marcadas, y se aprecia mejor la costura del poeta paleobabilónico

«This is not to say that the poet of the Babylonian epic must have had the Sumerian poems before him, but he knew them, or something very similar, at least in outline.» — George acota de inmediato esa relación: no afirma que el poeta babilonio tuviera delante los poemas sumerios, sino que los conocía o algo parecido, al menos a grandes rasgos

«We cannot yet determine whether this knowledge derived from his own experience of the written tradition in a scribal school, or from a knowledge of whatever Sumerian oral tradition (if any) was still current in his lifetime, or from a similar oral tradition in Akkadian.» — y declara lo que no se puede decidir: si ese conocimiento venía de la escuela, de una tradición oral sumeria aún viva o de una oral acadia

«The obvious borrowings are the adaptation of the Sumerian story of Gilgamesh and Huwawa to furnish the much more elaborate narrative of the Expedition to the Forest of Cedar in Tablets III–V of the standard version of the Babylonian epic, and the simple reworking of the Sumerian tale of Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven to yield the episode of Ishtar and the Bull of Heaven in Tablet VI.» — los dos préstamos que George sí da por evidentes: el poema sumerio de Huwawa detrás de las tablillas III a V, y el del Toro del Cielo detrás de la VI

«They are written in poetry, that is clear, but we know even less of Sumerian poetics than we do of Babylonian. Literary Sumerian is a language that used more figurative expressions than Akkadian, and these sometimes make the immediate sense of a line or passage opaque.» — George declara el límite de su propio saber: de la poética sumeria se sabe menos que de la babilónica, y el lenguaje figurado vuelve opaco el sentido de versos enteros

«The present translation aims to be as faithful to the original as possible but in order to produce a readable text small liberties have on occasion been taken with phrasing.» — y declara la libertad que se toma: fidelidad como principio, con pequeñas licencias de fraseo para que el texto se lea

«Several of these five poems survive in different recensions, some shorter, some longer. Where the text is repetitious, especially, some tablets dispense with the repeated passages, while others might offer an abbreviated version and yet others the full text. This is probably because the written text is, to a degree, only an aide-mémoire and some scribes expected the tablet’s user to supply the full text of a repetitious passage by recalling earlier parts of the poem.» — George explica por qué los testimonios difieren en extensión: el texto escrito era en parte ayuda de memoria y algunos escribas esperaban que el usuario completara los pasajes repetidos

«The policy adopted here is to give a translation that reproduces the text in the fullest possible form, even where no one manuscript provides it, since only then do the poems emerge in the shape intended by the poets.» — la política editorial que de ahí se sigue, declarada como suya: dar el texto en su forma más completa aunque ningún manuscrito la traiga entera

«Where there is a traditional modern line-numbering that is based on a shorter version of the text, lines and passages of interpolated text that are not counted in that line-numbering are marked apart by indentation.» — y la marca tipográfica con que se avisa de esa reconstrucción: los pasajes interpolados que la numeración tradicional no cuenta van con sangría propia

«This poem was known in antiquity by its incipit, ‘The envoys of Akka’. It is the shortest of the Sumerian tales of Gilgamesh and also the best preserved. It was a favourite copy-text in Old Babylonian schools.» — George presenta el primer poema sumerio por su título antiguo, tomado como siempre del primer verso, y lo declara el más corto, el mejor conservado y el más copiado en las escuelas

«It differs from the other four Sumerian poems in having no obvious counterpart in the Akkadian material, though the consultation of the elders and the young men in assembly is a motif also found – in different context – in Tablet II of the standard version of the Babylonian epic.» — la particularidad que George le encuentra: no tiene contrapartida en el material acadio, salvo el motivo de la consulta a la asamblea

«These lines are usually taken to represent the literal demands of Akka, that the men of Uruk become drawers of water for Kish. I assume instead that in describing a menial task for which there can be no end, the poet conveys figuratively the endless and impossible toil that will follow a surrender of independence.» — George consigna la lectura corriente de los tres versos enigmáticos y propone la suya en primera persona: no la exigencia literal de acarrear agua sino la figura de un trabajo sin fin tras la rendición

«However that may be, the elders counsel submission. Gilgamesh ignores their advice, and puts the same proposal to the young men of the city. They agree with Gilgamesh.» — el resumen del argumento: los ancianos aconsejan someterse, el rey los desoye y los jóvenes le dan la razón

«The most recent discoveries of text also reveal that the Akkadian narrative of Enkidu’s funeral in Tablet VIII is reminiscent of Gilgamesh’s funeral in the Sumerian Death of Gilgamesh,» — el tercer préstamo, salido de los hallazgos recientes: el funeral de Enkidu de la tablilla VIII recuerda el de Gilgamesh en la Muerte de Gilgamesh; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana

«Their reiteration of his proposal is prefaced by a traditional saying, the gist of which is that to submit to the whims of a royal master is a painful and unpredictable experience, akin to standing behind a donkey.» — el dicho tradicional con que los jóvenes prologan su respuesta, glosado por George: someterse al capricho de un amo real es tan doloroso e imprevisible como ponerse detrás de un burro

«One of Gilgamesh’s personal guard, the valiant Birhurturra (the reading of the name is uncertain), duly volunteers.» — George nombra al voluntario y acota en el mismo paréntesis que la lectura del nombre no es segura, que es la regla del volumen con los nombres propios

«The poem of Gilgamesh and Huwawa was another favourite copy-text in Old Babylonian schools. It tells the story of the expedition to the Forest of Cedar, the killing of Huwawa and the felling of the cedar, and it is thus a kind of precursor of Tablets III–V of the Babylonian epic, though the details of the story are very different.» — George presenta el segundo poema sumerio como precursor de las tablillas III a V de la epopeya, y acota en el mismo renglón que los detalles del relato son muy distintos

«Most significantly, Huwawa is taken captive not by force of arms but by trickery, using a ruse divulged to Gilgamesh by the god Enki.» — la diferencia que George declara más significativa: en el poema sumerio el guardián cae por engaño y no por las armas, con una treta que le da el dios Enki

«The Sumerian poem exists as two distinct compositions, ‘The lord to the Living One’s Mountain’, usually called Version A, and ‘Ho, hurrah!’, usually known as Version B (other translations are possible of both titles).» — las dos versiones del poema con sus títulos antiguos, llamadas A y B por convención moderna, y la acotación de George de que caben otras traducciones de esos títulos

«To judge from the number of extant manuscripts, Version A was more popular than Version B and its text can be restored almost entirely. Version B is less complete.» — George mide la popularidad relativa por el número de manuscritos y declara el estado de cada versión

«In fear of death Gilgamesh turns his thoughts to deeds of glory and proposes an expedition to the fabled Cedar Mountain, where dwelt the Living One. This epithet apparently refers to its guardian spirit, the demigod Huwawa.» — el arranque del argumento que George resume: el miedo a la muerte lleva al héroe a buscar gloria en el Monte del Cedro, donde moraba el Viviente

«Gilgamesh then pretends to wish to form a marital alliance with Huwawa and offers him his sisters, Enmebaragesi and Peshtur, to be his wives. He promises Huwawa other pleasures of life that are evidently unknown in his remote mountain lair: fine flour and water in leathern bottles, sandals large and small, choice gemstones and other presents. For the betrothal of the sisters and the promise of each further gift Huwawa surrenders one of his protective auras.» — el ardid central del poema sumerio según George: el falso pacto matrimonial y los regalos con que el guardián va entregando sus auras una por una

«When Huwawa has no auras left and is helpless to attack, Gilgamesh shows his true colours. He strikes him and takes him prisoner.» — y su desenlace: sin auras que lo protejan, el héroe muestra su verdadera cara

«Enkidu warns that this is too dangerous: if they let Huwawa go they will never see home again.» — el reparto de papeles en la muerte del guardián según este poema: el rey se muestra clemente y el siervo objeta y degüella; el tramo cruza de plana

«Enlil angrily asks them why they have killed Huwawa and tells them they should instead have treated him with every courtesy. In conclusion Enlil distributes Huwawa’s auras.» — el cierre del poema sumerio: Enlil reprocha la muerte y reparte las auras del guardián, donde la epopeya babilónica pone la condena de Enkidu

«when Gilgamesh awakes at last from the sleep induced by Huwawa’s auras, instead of encouraging the fearful Enkidu with a show of bravado, here the hero doubts his own ability to match the monster in strength and calls on his god, Enki, to ‘emerge’ in his words. This phrase I understand to mean that the god of trickery is to inspire him to overcome his opponent with cunning speech. Through the medium of Enkidu, who apparently blurts out the words Gilgamesh should use, Enki does exactly that and the plot moves directly on to the meeting with Huwawa and Gilgamesh’s ingratiating diplomacy.» — George señala la diferencia de carácter entre las dos versiones del poema sumerio: en la B el héroe duda de su fuerza y llama a Enki para que salga en sus palabras, y George declara en primera persona cómo entiende esa frase, como inspiración de habla astuta

«The poem entitled ‘Hero in battle’ deals with the feud of Gilgamesh and the goddess Inanna (the Sumerian Ishtar), and with Gilgamesh and Enkidu’s fight with the Bull of Heaven. As such it is an analogue of Tablet VI of the Babylonian epic, though the beginnings of the two stories are very different.» — George presenta el tercer poema sumerio por su título antiguo y lo declara análogo de la tablilla VI, con la acotación de que los comienzos difieren mucho

«To judge from the small number of surviving manuscripts this poem was less popular than the tales concerning Akka and Huwawa, and its translation is beset by difficulties of reconstruction and comprehension.» — y declara de entrada la dificultad: pocos manuscritos, y la traducción acosada por problemas de reconstrucción y de comprensión

«Neither of the two best-preserved sources now extant comes from the schools of Nippur, which regularly provide the most reliable copies. One is from Mê-Turan, a provincial town on the river Diyala (Tell Haddad, north-east of Baghdad), the other reportedly from Dilbat in western Babylonia (Dailem, south of Babylon). Other important sources are four excerpt tablets (three of them still unpublished), which all lack any provenance at all.» — George detalla la procedencia de los testimonios y por qué le inspiran menos confianza: ninguno viene de las escuelas de Nippur, que dan las copias más fiables

«To make matters worse these tablets sometimes differ in their redaction, often use unconventional spellings and are frequently corrupt, so that translation is often difficult and sometimes impossible.» — el agravante que George añade: redacciones divergentes, grafías no convencionales y textos corruptos

«Her description of the rough Gilgamesh as a ‘wild bull on the rampage’ is reminiscent of the Babylonian epic at Tablet I 63–64.» — otra remisión interna, que empareja el epíteto de toro desbocado del poema sumerio con la tablilla I de la versión estándar

«It is hoped that future discoveries of more and better manuscripts will correct those errors of understanding unwittingly perpetrated here.» — y el reconocimiento con que la cierra: espera que hallazgos futuros corrijan los errores de comprensión cometidos aquí sin saberlo

«Following a hymnic prologue, Gilgamesh begins to converse with his mother, the goddess Ninsun. Ninsun gives him instructions to carry out his duties, which include sheep-shearing and fishing. The passage is repeated as narrative.» — arranque del resumen de George del tercer poema sumerio: el prólogo hímnico y las instrucciones de la madre sobre los deberes del rey

«Soon afterwards the goddess Inanna appears on the scene and tries to detain Gilgamesh in her house, the temple Eanna. She wants him to join her as head of the household and govern the people from there, much as in Tablet VI of the Babylonian epic she wants to marry him. Gilgamesh reports Inanna’s overtures to his mother, adding that Inanna accosted him at the city gate in the lee of the wall. This was a place where prostitutes traditionally plied their trade (cf. Tablet VII 117 of the Babylonian epic). Ninsun forbids him to accept Inanna’s gifts, apparently lest he fall into soft ways.» — resto del mismo resumen, cortado porque la entrada entera dispara la guarda anticosido: la diosa que lo quiere al frente de su casa y la madre que le prohíbe aceptar sus regalos

«The poem known to the ancients as ‘In those days, in those far-off days’ was also a favourite in the scribal schools of Old Babylonian Nippur and Ur.» — George presenta el cuarto poema sumerio por su título antiguo y lo declara favorito en las escuelas de Nippur y de Ur

«Unlike the other Sumerian tales of Gilgamesh, this composition begins with a mythological prologue: a long time ago, shortly after the gods had divided the universe between them, there was a huge storm.» — la particularidad de este poema según George: es el único que arranca con un prólogo mitológico, justo después del reparto del universo entre los dioses

«With the remaining wood he made two playthings (there is no consensus among scholars as to what these playthings were: probably they were a ball and a mallet).» — George declara dentro del paréntesis que no hay consenso sobre qué eran los dos juguetes y da su conjetura como probable, sin afirmarla

«The men are worn out by their exertions and their women are kept busy bringing them food and water. The next day, as the game is about to restart, the women complain, presumably to the gods (as in the standard Babylonian epic at Tablet I 73ff.), and the playthings fall» — George empareja la queja de las mujeres de este poema con la del pueblo en la tablilla I de la versión estándar, y remite por verso

«If Enkidu is to avoid fatal consequences in the presence of the shades of the dead he must show the proper respect for them. He should behave unobtrusively, acting with sensitivity and not drawing attention to himself.» — la regla que el poema pone para tratar con los muertos según George: mostrarles el respeto debido, moverse sin llamar la atención

«The principal message of the beginning of the heroes’ dialogue is that the more sons a man has, the more his thirst in the afterlife will be relieved by the vital offerings of fresh water made periodically by his family.» — la tesis central del diálogo final según George: cuantos más hijos tiene un hombre, más se le alivia la sed en el más allá con las libaciones de su familia

«Those shades who are childless suffer worst, for nobody exists above on earth to make the necessary offerings to them.» — y su reverso: las sombras sin hijos son las que peor lo pasan, porque nadie arriba hace las ofrendas

«The revulsion of dying without a full complement of body parts persists in the Near East today.» — George conecta el horror antiguo a morir sin el cuerpo entero con el presente del Próximo Oriente, en una de las pocas veces que sale de la Antigüedad

«However, those who are burnt to death disappear in smoke and do not go down to the Netherworld. An implication of this was that the ghosts of such people could not be appeased and thus they were feared most of all revenant spirits. Burning to death was hence the worst fate of all» — el peor destino según el poema, morir quemado y no bajar al Inframundo, con lo que el fantasma no puede aplacarse

«The horror of death by fire endures to this day in Islam.» — la segunda conexión de George con el presente: el horror a la muerte por fuego que sigue vivo en el islam

«In one tradition of copying, the text ends at this point, but tablets from the city of Ur provide a continuation which gives a more explicit lesson in how to care for the dead.» — George consigna las dos tradiciones de copia y dice cuál trae la continuación, la de Ur

«The historical allusions it contains suggest that this continuation was probably a later addition which originated in the city-state of Girsu.» — y data esa continuación por sus alusiones históricas, dándola como añadido posterior probablemente nacido en Girsu

«Enkidu reports that the shades of the ‘sons of Sumer and Akkad’, and particularly of Girsu, have been overrun by Amorite tribesmen, who keep them away from the places in the Netherworld where the libations of fresh water are received from the world above and force them to make do with foul, polluted water.» — el contenido de esa continuación: las sombras de Sumer y de Akkad desplazadas por los amorreos de los lugares donde se reciben las libaciones

«Those who are taken before their time, such as stillborn children,» — la excepción que el poema concede a los que mueren antes de tiempo, como los nacidos muertos; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y el más allá de lujo cae en la 219

«When Gilgamesh discovers that his own forebears in the Netherworld have suffered the same fate as the other ‘sons of Sumer and Akkad’ he is shamed into filial piety: in the poem’s conclusion he is prompted to fashion statues of his ancestors, to institute mourning rites for them and to instruct the people of Girsu in the same rites.» — el desenlace de la continuación de Ur según George: el héroe hace estatuas de sus antepasados e instituye ritos de duelo, y se los enseña a la gente de Girsu

«By this means the dead are appeased and do not threaten the living. One message of this meditation on a man’s expectations in the afterlife was thus the encouragement of pious behaviour towards the dead and the prescription of the proper ritual.» — y la lección que George le lee: aplacar a los muertos para que no amenacen a los vivos, con el rito prescrito

«Gilgamesh’s special association with such ritual is confirmed by early administrative documents which mention the ‘Bank of Gilgamesh’ as a place where the rulers of Girsu did indeed make offerings to the shades of their relatives.» — el dato administrativo con que George apoya esa asociación: documentos tempranos mencionan el Banco de Gilgamesh como lugar de ofrendas a los parientes muertos

«A version of the second half of the text, from line 172 onwards, was rendered into Akkadian in antiquity and makes up Tablet XII of the Babylonian ‘Series of Gilgamesh’. In that version Gilgamesh petitions the Moon God, as well as Enlil and Ea (Enki), for help in rescuing Enkidu. A translation of the Akkadian text follows the Sumerian poem.» — George explica el origen de la tablilla XII: una versión acadia de la segunda mitad de este poema sumerio, con el dios Luna añadido entre los suplicados

«Thanks to the recent discovery at Mê-Turan (Tell Haddad) of several new manuscripts this poem is now much better known than formerly, but it is still very difficult in places. The remarks about the provisional nature of the translation prefaced to ‘Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven’ apply here too.» — George presenta el quinto poema sumerio y traslada a él la reserva que hizo sobre el del Toro del Cielo: la traducción es provisional

«The poem begins with a lament for the stricken Gilgamesh. He has been seized by Namtar, the emissary of Death, and lies sick and delirious on his deathbed. In his guise as Nudimmud the god Enki shows Gilgamesh a vision, in which he finds himself at a meeting of the gods’ assembly. The business in hand is his own destiny. The gods review his heroic career, his exploits in the Forest of Cedar, his journey to the end of the world, and the ancient knowledge he learnt from Ziusudra, the survivor of the Deluge.» — el resumen de George: el rey postrado por Namtar y la asamblea de los dioses convocada en visión para decidir su destino

«Their predicament is that Gilgamesh, though a man, is the son of a goddess: should he be mortal or immortal?» — el problema que George declara central del poema: hijo de una diosa y a la vez hombre

«The final judgement seems to be voiced by Enki, and this is appropriate, for it is this god’s role to solve problems. The only mortal, he says, to achieve immortality is that self-same Ziusudra, but in special circumstances» — la solución y quién la da según George, con la razón de su papel: a Enki le toca resolver problemas, y el único mortal hecho inmortal fue el superviviente del Diluvio

«Not only this, but after his death Gilgamesh will be commemorated among the living during an annual Festival of Lights, when young men will wrestle with each other (as Gilgamesh did with Enkidu in the Babylonian epic). Elsewhere this festival, in the fifth month of the Babylonian year (roughly August), is known for the ceremonial lighting of torches and braziers, and as ‘the month of Gilgamesh: on the ninth day the young men fight in their doorways in wrestling matches and trials of strength’.» — el segundo premio que el poema le concede según George, la conmemoración anual en la Fiesta de las Luces del quinto mes, con la cita del texto antiguo que llama a ese mes el mes de Gilgamesh

«This long-known passage evokes the mass interment of whole elite households discovered in the 1920s by Sir Leonard Woolley in the early third-millennium ‘Royal Cemetery’ at Ur.» — la correspondencia arqueológica que George señala para el enterramiento del séquito: los entierros colectivos hallados por Leonard Woolley en el Cementerio Real de Ur

«Two different endings survive. One, less well preserved, simply voices the praise of Gilgamesh, the greatest of kings. The other, more didactic, explains that men past and present live on after death in the memories of those alive. First, the practice of placing votive statues in temples ensures the continued invocation of the name of the dead individual, providing as it does a focus for his funerary cult. Second, the gods have so arranged matters that men beget families, whose function is to continue their line.» — los dos finales del poema según George: uno de puro elogio y otro didáctico, que explica la pervivencia del muerto por la estatua votiva y por la descendencia

«Gilgamesh awakes, stunned by what he has seen. The text is damaged at this point but it seems that the hero seeks counsel. At all events, the poem launches into a wholesale repetition of the dream, and the simplest explanation of this is that Gilgamesh is retelling the dream to those whose advice he seeks regarding its import (even if this verbatim repetition fails to make the expected change from third person in the narrative to first in the reportage).» — George explica la repetición íntegra del sueño como reportaje del héroe a sus consejeros, y acota en el paréntesis que la persona verbal no cambia como cabría esperar

«The history of the Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic stretches back many centuries before the standard version presented in Chapter 1. The tablets and fragments collected in this chapter come from the Old and Middle Babylonian periods, roughly the eighteenth to twelfth centuries BC.» — George presenta el capítulo 3 y data su material entre los siglos XVIII y XII a. C.

«Placed in an order which follows the standard version, these early witnesses to the text can be read as skeletal remains that suggest the form and content of the poem as it was in an era much nearer its date of composition.» — y la decisión editorial que de ahí se sigue, declarada como suya: ordenar los testimonios según la versión estándar para leerlos como resto esquelético del poema antiguo

«The Old Babylonian prologue survives embedded in the standard version, beginning at Tablet I 29. It begins with the words ‘Surpassing all other kings’, which is known from the Pennsylvania tablet to have been a title of the poem in the Old Babylonian period. The old prologue is represented here by quotation of Tablet I 29–48:» — George declara que el prólogo paleobabilónico solo se conserva dentro de la versión estándar y que aquí lo representa citando la tablilla I por verso; eso explica que estos versos aparezcan dos veces en el volumen

«A fragment excavated in 1949 on Tablet Hill at Nippur is now part of the collections of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. It is a school exercise tablet written by an apprentice scribe as part of his training, probably at some time between the early fourteenth and the late thirteenth centuries BC, when the city was enjoying a period of prosperity and revival. The very short extract is from the episode when the gods charge the Mother Goddess with the creation of Enkidu as the counterpart of Gilgamesh.» — George presenta el fragmento de Nippur con su historia de excavación y lo declara ejercicio escolar de un aprendiz, no copia de biblioteca

«They show that parts of the poem did not change much over time. Many passages and lines of these second-millennium fragments can be identified as taken over wholesale, with minor changes in vocabulary, in the standard version. Major differences are fewer.» — la tesis del capítulo 3: muchos versos de esos fragmentos pasaron enteros a la versión estándar con cambios menores de léxico, y las diferencias mayores son pocas

«The Pennsylvania tablet, often known as Gilgamesh P, comes from southern Babylonia and probably dates to the mid-eighteenth century BC. It was bought by the University Museum, Philadelphia, in 1914. It is Tablet II of an Old Babylonian edition of the epic known in antiquity as ‘Surpassing all other kings’. The text it contains runs parallel, though with some differences in language, with Tablets I–II of the standard version of the epic, and much of it has already been used in Chapter 1 to restore Tablet II. A fragment of another Old Babylonian tablet, now in Suleimaniyah Museum, is inscribed with a very similar text and is not given separately.» — George presenta la tablilla de Pensilvania con su procedencia y su fecha, y declara que es la tablilla II de una edición paleobabilónica titulada Surpassing all other kings y que ya se usó en el capítulo 1

«Gilgamesh relates his dreams to his mother, the goddess Ninsun, who interprets them for him. Enkidu and the prostitute, who is here known as Shamkatum,» — George avisa de que en esta tablilla la prostituta se llama Shamkatum y no Shamhat; en el capítulo 1 el mismo texto lleva el nombre uniformado con asterisco

«This fragment is the upper fraction of an Old Babylonian tablet written in southern Babylonia in the early eighteenth century BC. It is now in the care of Cornell University.» — George presenta el fragmento de Cornell con su fecha y su paradero actual

«The text, published in 2018, is important for demonstrating the existence already at this early period of a version of the poem that is very similar both to the slightly later Old Babylonian Pennsylvania tablet and to the standard version of the first millennium BC. The beginning of the tablet relates the prostitute’s invitation to Enkidu in the aftermath of their first week of sexual intercourse, in much the same language as the standard version, Tablet I 200–214.» — y declara por qué importa: muestra que ya en el siglo XVIII existía una versión muy parecida a la de Pensilvania y a la estándar del primer milenio

«The Yale tablet, often known as Gilgamesh Y, is Tablet III of the same Old Babylonian edition of the epic as the Pennsylvania tablet. It shares its handwriting and other physical characteristics with the Pennsylvania tablet and must have come from the same site. The tablet was purchased by the Yale Babylonian Collection, New Haven, Connecticut, in about 1914. The text runs parallel with Tablets II–III of the standard version of the epic, though with many differences. Parts of it have been used to restore the text in Chapter 1.» — George presenta la tablilla de Yale como tablilla III de la misma edición paleobabilónica que la de Pensilvania, por su letra y por su aspecto físico, y declara que ya se usó en el capítulo 1

«There they will kill the monstrous Huwawa, as Humbaba is known in this and other Old Babylonian tablets.» — George avisa del cambio de nombre del guardián en este material, Huwawa y no Humbaba, que es el que el asterisco señala en el capítulo 1

«Three pieces of Gilgamesh are in the care of the Schøyen Collection in Norway. Two were first published in 2003 and again in 2009. All are Old Babylonian. One is represented by a dozen tiny and more or less useless fragments. A second is a small fragment from southern Babylonia which probably dates to the early eighteenth century BC. It closely resembles the Cornell fragment.» — George presenta las tres piezas de la Colección Schøyen con su historia de publicación y su datación

«The lines on the obverse have been used to restore the Yale tablet at lines 24ff.; the reverse duplicates the Yale tablet at lines 151–53 and its text is not repeated here. The third piece is a complete tablet, probably from a century or so later. Its text covers the journey to the Cedar Forest, including Gilgamesh’s first two dreams and Enkidu’s explanations of them. Some lines have been used in Chapter 1 to restore the standard version at Tablet IV 54 and 109.» — y declara cuáles de sus líneas usó en el capítulo 1 y por qué el reverso de una de ellas no se reimprime, para no dar dos veces lo mismo

«This Old Babylonian tablet was excavated on Tablet Hill at Nippur in the season 1951–52, more exactly in the back room of a private house which also served as a scribal school. It dates to the middle of the eighteenth century BC, specifically to the years immediately before the economic crisis that devastated southern Babylonia towards the end of that century and led to the closure of the school and the abandonment of the house.» — George data la tablilla de Nippur por la crisis económica que cerró la escuela donde se halló, que es un modo de fechar por contexto y no por escritura

«Two tablets of Old Babylonian Gilgamesh have been excavated in a private house at Tell Harmal, the site of ancient Shaduppûm on the eastern outskirts of Baghdad, and are now in the Iraq Museum. They were both recovered during the third season of excavations, in August 1947, and date from the early eighteenth century BC. They appear to be scribal exercises, like the Nippur tablet.» — George presenta las dos tablillas de Tell Harmal con su campaña de excavación y las declara ejercicios escolares

«This tablet is now in the tablet collections of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. It is a school-exercise tablet excavated in 1935 at Ishchali, ancient Nerebtum, a town on the Diyala river just east of Baghdad, and dates to the early eighteenth century BC. The text that it contains runs roughly parallel with the end of Tablet V of the standard version of the epic, though with considerable differences.» — George presenta la tablilla de Ishchali con su excavación y su fecha y declara que corre en paralelo con el final de la tablilla V, con diferencias considerables

«Gilgamesh wants instead to hunt down Huwawa’s ‘auras’, which are the radiant numinous powers that Huwawa wears as protection.» — George glosa dentro de su resumen qué son las auras del guardián, poderes numinosos radiantes que lleva puestos como protección

«This tablet was found in the course of Sir Leonard Woolley’s excavations at the site of Ur of the Chaldees, in southern Babylonia just west of modern Nasiriyah, which ran from 1922 to 1934. It is now in the British Museum. The date of the tablet is probably the twelfth century BC. The text it holds is an excerpt from an edition of the epic very similar to the standard version, but older. The episode is that of Enkidu on his deathbed, in which he curses the trapper and the prostitute, blesses the prostitute, and begins to relate his dream of the Netherworld. The text thus runs parallel with Tablet VII 90–171 in Chapter 1, which it helps to restore.» — George presenta la tablilla de Ur por la excavación de Woolley y la data en el siglo XII, declarando que su texto es más antiguo que la versión estándar aunque muy parecido

«This tablet comprises two joining fragments, one of which is now in the British Museum in London, the other in the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin. The fragments were purchased in Baghdad in 1902, and were reported to come from the city of Sippar, on the Euphrates upstream of Babylon. The date of the tablet is eighteenth or seventeenth century BC.» — George presenta la tablilla de Sippar por sus dos fragmentos repartidos entre Londres y Berlín, con su compra en Bagdad en 1902 y su procedencia declarada de oídas

«The piece is not a school exercise but a library tablet with two columns of text on each side, and is thus most probably part of an edition of the whole epic rather than a text in isolation.» — y la distingue por su formato: tablilla de biblioteca y no ejercicio escolar, por lo que probablemente formaba parte de una edición del poema entero

«As the text resumes following a second break, Gilgamesh is smashing the stone crew of the» — George avisa del cambio de nombres en esta tablilla; el tramo se corta en el cruce de plana y los nombres Sursunabu y Uta-naishtim caen en la 288