Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs

«The information about the use of plants as psychotropic agents by man is probably found in the Bible.» — Efron abre el Preface situando el primer registro del uso de plantas como agentes psicotrópicos en la Biblia, con la cautela de un probably.

«The apple that Adam ate (whatever the variety) could be considered as a psycho-energizer.» — y da el ejemplo: la manzana de Adán leída como psicoenergizante, con el paréntesis con que Efron se desentiende de la variedad botánica.

«Was it a stimulator, did it enhance memory or learning abilities, or did it activiate the desire for acquiring more information» — Efron deja la pregunta abierta en tres direcciones —estímulo, memoria, deseo de saber— sin decidirse por ninguna; el troceo imprime activiate por activate.

«Another example of early use and knowledge of medicinal plants we find in the fact that the most ancient medical god of Mesopotamia—Sin—was also the god of medicinal herbs.» — segundo ejemplo de Efron: el dios médico más antiguo de Mesopotamia, Sin, era a la vez el dios de las hierbas medicinales.

«The development of drug chemistry brought : first, isolation from plants of a number of pharmacologically active substances (e.g. curare, atropine ouabain, etc.), later, synthesis of these entities and their derivatives; and finally, creation of completely new molecules, formerly not known, in the plant or animal kingdom.» — Efron traza en tres tiempos la química de los fármacos: aislar de la planta, sintetizar el compuesto aislado y sus derivados, y por último crear moléculas que no existían en ningún reino.

«We know, also, that in the process of development and worship of chemistry we somehow forgot about our prime source, the plants.» — la tesis de pérdida con que Efron justifica el simposio: el culto a la química hizo olvidar la fuente primera.

«We forgot that we have used only some of the known substances of plant origin.» — y su corolario de inventario: de lo conocido de origen vegetal se ha usado solo una parte.

«At the same time, the intrusions of civilization have been progressively destroying the sources of our knowledge, as well as the source itself of many plants—plants which are used either in medicine or in ceremonial and sacred context.» — Efron señala una destrucción doble, de la información y de la planta misma, y no separa el uso médico del ceremonial y sagrado: los pone en la misma frase.

«Today, time is running out if we want to save this information, and perhaps use for medicinal purposes some of the unknown compounds contained in plants.» — de ahí la urgencia que da el motivo del encuentro, con el fin farmacológico declarado sin rodeos.

«The idea of acquiring knowledge about these plants and compounds we have neglected or forgotten was the reason for organizing this symposium.» — Efron enuncia el motivo del simposio como recuperación de lo desatendido u olvidado.

«It was self-evident that this meeting had to be multidisciplinary.» — y da por evidente el método: sin varias disciplinas no hay objeto.

«We invited pharmacologists, pharmacists, chemists, biochemists, psychiatrists, anthropologists, etc., etc.» — la lista de oficios convocados por Efron pone al antropólogo junto al farmacólogo y al bioquímico, que es la mezcla que da su carácter al volumen.

«We wanted to exchange existing information, confront different points of view, and outline and stimulate research objectives for the future.» — los tres objetivos que Efron declara, y entre ellos confrontar puntos de vista distintos antes que armonizarlos.

«History can be a very static chronicle of what has happened ; or on the other hand, it can be a very dynamic encounter, and establish a sort of a curve of progress that can be extended as a curve of probability into the future.» — Fleming opone dos usos de la historia, crónica estática frente a encuentro dinámico, y se queda con el segundo: una curva de progreso prolongable como curva de probabilidad.

«Through the dispensing of drugs for treatment of syphilis and scurvy by mail order, Hugh Toland became wealthy.» — Fleming cuenta el origen de la escuela médica: la fortuna de Hugh Toland salió de vender por correo remedios contra la sífilis y el escorbuto.

«Possibly it is our heritage, the fact that our medical center has a strong pharmacological school here, resting on one barrel of Anti-Syph and one barrel of Anti-Scrof.» — y Fleming hace descansar la fuerza farmacológica de la casa sobre los dos barriles rotulados del cuarto trasero de Toland.

«Man is an animal impelled by internal forces to act.» — Kline abre la Introduction con su premisa antropológica: el hombre es un animal empujado a actuar por fuerzas internas.

«Just what form that action will take depends on the sensations experienced, the learned modifications of innate response patterns, and the possible alternatives existing in the immediate environmental situation.» — y hace depender la forma de esa acción de tres cosas: la sensación experimentada, la modificación aprendida de las respuestas innatas y las alternativas del entorno inmediato.

«Behavior based on purely rational decision, if it exists at all, is certainly rare.» — Kline reduce al mínimo la conducta puramente racional, y con un si acaso existe.

«Each of us is continuously being teased, hoodwinked, wheedled, invaded, bluffed, seduced and assaulted.» — Kline enumera en siete verbos el asedio continuo al que cada uno está sometido.

«More basic and often underriding them are appeals and approaches to primitive patterns of sensation involving incense, drums, drugs, ritualistic postures, idols, pageantry; rhythmic sounds and motions interspersed with abrupt syncopes; vast or close repetitive visual designs, color shock and most of all, movement.» — y pone las drogas en una misma serie con el incienso, los tambores, las posturas rituales, los ídolos y el boato: apelaciones a patrones primitivos de sensación, por debajo de lo cognitivo y de lo emocional.

«Evocation and certainly control of these response patterns is still largely» — Kline reconoce que evocar y controlar esos patrones sigue siendo en gran medida no científico; la palabra va entrecomillada en el impreso y el verbatim se corta antes de ella.

«The loss of ego integrity with its capacity for reality testing leaves the self wide and uncritically open to prior expectations» — la tesis central de Kline sobre la experiencia con drogas: al perderse la integridad del yo y su capacidad de contrastar la realidad, el sujeto queda abierto sin crítica a lo que esperaba; sigue en el impreso y ambientales, palabra que el troceo parte por el salto de renglón.

«How the drug-induced perceptual, kinesthetic or other distortions will be interpreted will therefore vary from culture to culture and even from individual to individual.» — de ahí que Kline haga variar la interpretación de la distorsión inducida de cultura en cultura y de persona en persona.

«Occasionally the same drug may induce profound depression, Dionysian ecstasy, terror or bland indifference.» — Kline pone los cuatro desenlaces posibles de una misma droga, del éxtasis dionisiaco a la indiferencia.

«Yet if we induce similar expectations and control environment, the response is usually predictable.» — y el reverso que salva la previsibilidad: igualadas la expectativa y el entorno, la respuesta se vuelve previsible.

«Whether such para-universes lead to improved philosophic or psychologic insights is far from clear.» — Kline se abstiene sobre el valor filosófico o psicológico de los parauniversos que la droga abre.

«The use of drugs for any thing other than medical therapeutic purposes has always been construed as a threat—even when the purpose was ostensibly religious—few except the in-group would sanction such use.» — Kline enuncia la regla social que rige el asunto: todo uso no médico se ha tomado por amenaza, incluso el declaradamente religioso, salvo dentro del grupo que lo practica.

«At times drugs serve to induce actions which would otherwise not be possible; the hope of ex-static (i.e., out of the status quo) movement leads man to seize upon whatever is at hand to trv to bring about such alterations.» — y la fórmula con que Kline nombra el motivo, el movimiento ex-stático, es decir fuera del estado de cosas; el troceo imprime trv por try.

«Here I repeat what I have written elsewhere : To varying degrees each of us mortgages the present for the future ; we tolerate present discomfort in expectation of eventual relief or even reward.» — Kline advierte que se cita a sí mismo y arranca con la hipoteca del presente sobre el futuro.

«Today we lack any viable iiniversally accepted dramatic plot. The success (not the failure) of nineteenth century rationalism has left us at least momentarily without a denouement.» — el diagnóstico de época de Kline: no falta la trama porque el racionalismo del XIX fracasara sino porque triunfó; el troceo imprime iiniversally por universally.

«these goals engendered has vanished. Instead of singing down the high road we are looking at our sore feet.» — la frase con que Kline cierra la pérdida de propósito colectivo; el sujeto de la oración queda en la plana anterior, que habla del sentido de gran propósito y de amplia aventura.

«Curiosity and action are thus directed inward. Drugs that help sever the tenuous ties with the outside world become highly prized since they both assist and justify the disregard for external realities.» — Kline deriva de esa pérdida el giro hacia dentro y el aprecio por las drogas que cortan el lazo con el mundo externo: sirven y a la vez justifican.

«Smashing a few clay figures or experiencing visual hallucinations does not produce an Abraham or a St. Theresa.» — Kline objeta la equiparación entre la alucinación visual y la experiencia mística: romper ídolos y ver visiones no hace a un Abraham ni a una Santa Teresa.

«Every great mystic has had experiences dissociated from the time and culture in which he lived—but the dissociation arose out of inner necessity.» — y pone la diferencia en el origen: el místico se disocia por necesidad interior, no por ingesta.

«Conversion in turn is facilitated by the ecstasy of dance, ritual death, drugs.» — Kline pone la droga en la misma serie facilitadora que la danza y la muerte ritual.

«Dissociation per se has no value and can become meaningful only as it is integrated into a conceptual framework.» — la acotación de Kline que impide leerlo como apologista: la disociación no vale por sí misma y solo cobra sentido integrada en un marco conceptual.

«The dissociation can also produce panic if the attempt is made to retain dissolving ego controls. Once these are surrendered a para-infantile acceptance of the universe is experienced in which there are no clear ego boundaries so that the One-ness with the All comes about.» — Kline describe la bifurcación: pánico si se retienen los controles del yo, y aceptación parainfantil del universo con la unidad con el Todo si se sueltan.

«Whether this feeling (or any other) has important value depends entirely on how it alters the organization and action of the organism.» — y hace depender su valor enteramente de si altera la organización y la acción del organismo, no de lo que se sienta.

«Pharmaceuticals, like firearms, in themselves can be described only by such terms as potent or precise.» — Kline compara el fármaco con el arma de fuego para decir que en sí mismo solo admite términos de potencia y precisión.

«Not their effectiveness but their application determines whether they are» — y traslada el juicio moral de la eficacia a la aplicación; las dos palabras que siguen van entrecomilladas en el impreso y el verbatim se corta antes.

«We probably should not, and in any case can not effectively, legislate against exploration of these other worlds.» — la posición de Kline sobre la ley: legislar contra la exploración de esos otros mundos no debería hacerse y, en todo caso, no funcionaría.

«But we must protect ourselves by knowledge of what to expect and by attempting to control who may use these agents and for what purposes.» — y lo que sí propone en su lugar: protegerse por el conocimiento de lo que cabe esperar y por el control de quién usa qué y para qué.

«Past epidemics of opiate or of cocaine usage finally required legal restrictions which did serve some useful purpose.» — Kline concede a la restricción legal una utilidad, apoyándose en las epidemias previas de opiáceos y de cocaína.

«While it is undoubtedly possible, with the aid of psychoactive drugs, to span both time and space, this method of overcoming these factors is unfortunately possible only psychically and not physically.» — Hofmann abre la carta con la broma que es a la vez su tesis: con drogas psicoactivas se salvan el tiempo y el espacio, pero solo psíquicamente.

«In a particular field of research closely related to the theme of this congress and initiated by the discovery of LSD, our investigations on psychotomimetic drugs have been pursued.» — Hofmann sitúa la investigación de Sandoz sobre drogas psicotomiméticas como abierta por el hallazgo del LSD; psychotomimetic es una de las palabras con que el volumen nombra a estas sustancias.

«In using the experiences gained with LSD as the foundation, the problem of the so-called Mexican magic mushrooms, which has been studied ethnomycologically by Gordon Wasson and botanically by Roger Heim, was solved from a chemical point of view.» — Hofmann reparte el crédito del asunto de los hongos mexicanos: la etnomicología a Gordon Wasson, la botánica a Roger Heim y la química a su propio laboratorio.

«The active ingredients, psilocybine and psilocine have been synthesised and made available for psychiatric research.» — y consigna el resultado de esa parte química: psilocibina y psilocina sintetizadas y puestas a disposición de la investigación psiquiátrica.

«The magic mushrooms in turn led us to a further important Mexican magic drug, namely Ololiuqui.» — Hofmann encadena los dos hallazgos: del hongo a la segunda droga mágica mexicana, el ololiuqui.

«In the Ololiuqui seeds, provided us by Wasson, we found the active ingredients to be lysergic acid derivatives, the main components of which are lysergic acid amide and lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide.» — y nombra los principios activos que halló en las semillas que le dio Wasson, los dos derivados del ácido lisérgico.

«It would have given me great pleasure had I been able, at this symposium, to discuss in detail this most unusual, one can almost say magic circle of research which, starting from lysergic acid amides» — Hofmann llama círculo mágico de investigación a la vuelta completa que va de las amidas del ácido lisérgico a las dos drogas mexicanas y de vuelta a las amidas.

«In conclusion I should like to express a few general points of view on psychoactive drugs. These drugs are of especial importance in the following three fields» — Hofmann cierra la carta con tres campos en que da por importantes estas sustancias.

«In neuro- and brain-chemistry they are useful tools for the investigation of biochemical processes which form the basis of the nervous and psychic functions.» — el primero de los tres campos de Hofmann: la droga como herramienta para investigar los procesos bioquímicos que sostienen lo nervioso y lo psíquico.

«In psychiatry they have proved themselves to be compounds which, upon sensible administration, are becoming ever more important medical aids in psychoanalysis and psychotherapy.» — el segundo, con su condición dentro: administradas con sensatez, auxiliares médicos del psicoanálisis y la psicoterapia.

«From a epistemological point of view we must face the consequences resulting from the fact that it is possible, with the aid of mere traces of a compound, to radically affect the psychic processes and mental functions.» — el tercero es el que Hofmann llama epistemológico: que trazas de un compuesto alteren radicalmente lo psíquico obliga a encarar una consecuencia.

«This finding may throw new light on the age-old problem of the relationship and interrelationship of body and soul, or more generally, of mind and matter.» — y Hofmann nombra esa consecuencia: luz nueva sobre el problema antiquísimo de la relación entre cuerpo y alma, o entre mente y materia.

«To a large extent the non-medical, partially legitimate, partially illegitimate, interest in and use of hallucinogenics or psychedelics is as a result of the possibilities mentioned under 3 above, namely of attaining a profound transformation of the conscious with the aid of these drugs.» — Hofmann deriva de ese tercer punto el interés no médico por lo que llama hallucinogenics or psychedelics: la transformación profunda de lo consciente; son otras dos de las palabras con que el volumen nombra a estas sustancias.

«It is in fact this very general interest in psychedelics, which has unfortunately, in some cases, led to dangerous misuse, that behooves scientists to continue research in the field of psychoactive compounds in all directions as quickly as possible, so as to elucidate the possibilities of these potent drugs in order that they may be used for the benefit of mankind.» — y convierte el mal uso en argumento a favor de investigar más rápido, no de investigar menos.

«I have had some contact with psychoactive drugs, largely through the association with the late Gordon Alles, who died unfortunately in 1963 at the age of sixty-two.» — Leake declara su credencial por vía de asociación: el trabajo con Gordon Alles, muerto en 1963.

«He did a great deal of the work on the amphetamines and the extraordinary hallucinogenic agents that had been developed in the amphetamines in the old pharmacological laboratory that we had over here.» — y atribuye a Alles el grueso del trabajo sobre las anfetaminas y los agentes alucinógenos derivados de ellas, hechos en el laboratorio de esa misma casa.

«I did some work on the bufotenine, which, when it is injected, is a tough drug to handle. It is difficult to get into solution.» — Leake consigna su propia experiencia con la bufotenina en términos de manejo de laboratorio, no de efecto.

«I have reported on mushrooms, but they were not hallucinogenic, although it was stated they did cause peculiar feeling, but this was due to the agaric acid in them, which has a local irritant.» — y niega el carácter alucinógeno de los hongos sobre los que él informó, y atribuye la sensación peculiar al ácido agárico y su acción irritante local.

«The most fascinating part of ethnopharmacology is perhaps that dealing with man's use of intoxicating compounds.» — Holmstedt abre su panorama acotando lo que le interesa dentro de la etnofarmacología: el uso humano de compuestos embriagantes.

«A few—not too many—books have been written encompassing this subject, the most prominent being Louis Lewin» — y da por escaso el número de libros sobre la materia, con la Fantastica de Louis Lewin a la cabeza; el título entrecomillado y la referencia van después y el verbatim se corta antes.

«The story of the use of these drugs is as old as man himself.» — la fórmula de Holmstedt para la antigüedad del asunto, que repite la del Preface de Efron con otras palabras.

«Many people have for example speculated over what drugs and arrow poisons are mentioned in the Iliad and the Odyssey.» — Holmstedt pone como ejemplo la vieja especulación sobre las drogas y los venenos de flecha de los poemas homéricos.

«There is not much need for speculation on this matter since the possible alternatives have been thoroughly discussed in the light of the 19th century achievement in pharmacology by two such authorities as Oswald Schmiedeberg and Louis Lewin.» — y la da por agotada remitiendo a dos autoridades del XIX, Oswald Schmiedeberg y Louis Lewin; el troceo imprime Schmiede-berg partido por el salto de renglón.

«Likewise, the toxic substances used during the middle ages and particularly during the witch trials have been much discussed. There is no need to go into this here.» — Holmstedt menciona los tóxicos de los procesos de brujería y se desentiende del asunto en la misma frase.

«This review is supposed to cover ethnopharmacology, and there was no ethnopharmacology before there was pharmacology.» — la delimitación con que Holmstedt fija el arranque de su recorrido: sin farmacología no hay etnofarmacología.

«With some exaggeration it can be said that pharmacology started during the nineteenth century independently in three places.» — Holmstedt sitúa el nacimiento de la farmacología en el siglo XIX y en tres sitios a la vez, con la exageración declarada de antemano.

«One was Paris where the work of Magendie and his successors paved the way, the second was Edinburgh, where Sir Eobert Christison among other things investigated ordeal poisons and coca, and advocated the rapid withdrawal in opium addiction. The third place was Dorpat, later called Jurjew and Tartu, in Estonia, where pharmacology as an academic science started around the middle» — y los nombra: París por Magendie, Edimburgo por Christison con los venenos de ordalía y la coca, y Dorpat como sede académica; el troceo imprime Eobert por Robert.

«Of particular interest to the ethnopharmacology of psycho-active agents are Paris and Dorpat.» — de esos tres sitios Holmstedt se queda con dos para lo psicoactivo.

«At that time, the knowledge of foreign people, their habits, food and drugs in Europe and USA was generally speaking negligible.» — Holmstedt describe el punto de partida europeo a principios del XIX: lo que se sabía de los pueblos extranjeros y de sus drogas era insignificante.

«A spearhead thrust into this ignorance was Napoleon's ill-fated adventure in Egypt, Napoleon was a remarkable general in many respects, in this specific case because he took with him to Egypt a library and 175 learned men who observed, wrote down, sketched and collected information about languages» — y hace de la campaña de Egipto la punta de lanza contra esa ignorancia, por la biblioteca y los ciento setenta y cinco sabios que Napoleón llevó consigo.

«These books stimulated enormously the interest in the Orient and led to a series of travels to Egypt, Asia Minor and Africa.» — Holmstedt hace de la Description de l'Egypte el disparador de los viajes a Oriente que darán la materia etnográfica del siglo.

«Of particular importance to psychopharmacology is, however, the travel in this part of the world of J. J. Moreau (de Tours), a French psychiatrist whose work unfortunately is much forgotten.» — Holmstedt rescata del olvido al psiquiatra francés J. J. Moreau de Tours como el viajero que importa a la psicofarmacología.

«Moreau was the first medical man to work systematically with centrally acting compounds.» — y le adjudica la primacía: el primer médico que trabajó sistemáticamente con compuestos de acción central.

«The following maxim is ascribed to him "One must love the mentally ill in order to be worthy and capable of being of service to him.» — la máxima que Holmstedt atribuye a Esquirol, jefe de Moreau en Charenton; el verbatim arranca antes de la comilla del impreso.

«The young and enthusiastic Moreau wished to learn and profit as much as possible from what he saw and heard, and for this reason he adopted the dress and the customs of the countries he passed through.» — Holmstedt describe el método de campo de Moreau en Oriente: adoptar el vestido y las costumbres de los países que atravesaba.

«He wrote down what he experienced, and it is much to be regretted that he never published his observations.» — y lamenta que esas notas de viaje quedaran inéditas, salvo lo que pasó a sus libros médicos.

«It is striking that in the Orient the mentally ill appear to be fewer than in Europe. Is this marked difference to be explained by climate, race, or by the political and religious institutions?» — Holmstedt reproduce la observación de Moreau sobre la menor frecuencia de la enfermedad mental en Oriente y las tres explicaciones que se planteaba.

«Moreau adhered to the opinion of Montesquieu, who admitted the joint responsibility of these various causes» — y consigna que Moreau se quedó con Montesquieu y la responsabilidad conjunta de esas causas; la cita del clima sigue en el impreso.

«During his stay in the Orient, Moreau had noted the common use of hashish, especially among the Arabs.» — Holmstedt sitúa el hallazgo del hachís en la observación etnográfica de Moreau entre los árabes.

«Thanks to a mysterious legend and particularly to the imagination of poets and novelists, only the wonderful effects of this substance were known.» — Holmstedt señala qué se sabía antes de Moreau: solo lo maravilloso, por vía de leyenda, poetas y novelistas.

«Moreau wished to contrast poetry with observation and experience, and his experimental research into the psychopharmacological actions of the extract of Indian hemp permitted him to throw light on psychological phenomena which had previously been obscure.» — y define así el giro de Moreau: oponer observación y experiencia a la poesía.

«Moreau took hashish himself. Thanks to the singular property of the substance to keep intact "consciousness and the innermost feeling" of the user, he could analyze all his impressions and in a way be aware of the disorganization of all his mental faculties.» — Holmstedt describe el procedimiento de autoexperimentación de Moreau y la propiedad de la sustancia que lo hacía posible: conservar intacta la consciencia del usuario.

«In order to complete this internal observation of himself, he also commissioned the persons surrounding him to note carefully his words, acts, gestures and the expression of his face.» — y el control externo con que Moreau lo completaba, encargando a los presentes anotar sus palabras, actos, gestos y rostro.

«Moreau desired, moreover, "controls with other people." He turned to his pupils and with enthusiastic curiosity they lent themselves to experiments with hashish in the most varying doses, giving exact accounts of what they experienced.» — Holmstedt consigna que Moreau pidió además controles con otras personas y que sus alumnos se prestaron a ensayar dosis variables.

«The two series were compared and full conformity was proved.» — y da por concordantes las dos series, la interna y la externa.

«In 1845 Moreau published his extensive book of more than 400 pages entitled Du Hachich et de l'alienation mentale (Hashish and mental illness» — la obra de Moreau con su fecha y su título francés, que Holmstedt traduce entre paréntesis.

«Moreau's book gave rise to the modern researches regarding the effects of hashish, and can also be held responsible for its use in certain Paris circles in the middle of the 19th century.» — Holmstedt le atribuye dos efectos a la vez: abrir la investigación moderna sobre el hachís y su uso en ciertos círculos parisinos.

«Such factors as origin, education and environment as well as the atmosphere in which hashish is consumed, affects individuals in different ways.» — Holmstedt consigna la dependencia del efecto respecto del origen, la educación, el entorno y la atmósfera del consumo, que es la tesis del set and setting antes de tener ese nombre.

«However, Moreau enumerated eight main groups of symptoms. They are: (1) General feeling of pleasure.» — Holmstedt introduce los ocho grupos de síntomas con que Moreau ordenó la intoxicación por hachís, y abre con el primero.

«Distortion of the dimension of space and time (generally a magnification of the actual dimensions: Minutes are changed into days or years, inches into feet, etc.» — el tercer grupo de Moreau, la distorsión del espacio y del tiempo, con su sentido declarado: casi siempre de aumento.

«A keener hearing combined with a great susceptibility to music and the phenomenon that ordinary noise is enjoyed as though it sounded sweet.» — el cuarto, el oído aguzado y la susceptibilidad a la música, con el ruido ordinario vuelto dulce.

«Illusions and hallucinations of which evidently only the first named are related to objects of the exterior world.» — y el octavo, con la distinción que Moreau mantiene entre ilusión y alucinación por su relación con el objeto externo.

«Moreau pointed out that psychiatry could profit from these experiments by comparing the symptoms to those in mentally ill people.» — Holmstedt enuncia el programa de Moreau: comparar los síntomas del hachís con los del enfermo mental.

«These attacks will take on all the characteristics of violent insanity if only the dose of the toxic agent is increased.» — y la condición de dosis con que Moreau sostiene la equivalencia con la locura violenta.

«His assistant in pharmacy wished to see the effects of the Indian hemp when taken in a larger quantity, and swallowed 16 grams of the extract.» — el caso con que Holmstedt ilustra el riesgo: el ayudante de farmacia de Moreau tragó dieciséis gramos de extracto de cáñamo indio.

«A very intense delirium broke out, followed by agitation, incoherence and hallucinations of all kinds. Three days passed before the young man regained his ordinary calmness and the entire use of his power of reasoning.» — y el desenlace, tres días hasta recobrar la calma y el uso pleno de la razón.

«During the course of the attack he maintained, however, some idea of what was happening to him.» — con el detalle que Holmstedt conserva: dentro del episodio, el joven mantuvo alguna idea de lo que le pasaba.

«Moreau postulated that there exists in insanity a primary factor which is the source of all symptoms; excitation, which is the primitive generative power.» — la hipótesis de Moreau sobre la locura, con la excitación como factor primario y fuente de todo síntoma.

«Moreau also compared insanity with dreams. The hypothesis is not new; it already preoccupied Aristotle.» — Holmstedt marca la deuda: la comparación entre locura y sueño ya estaba en Aristóteles.

«The learned philosopher from Stagira writes in his books on "Dreams" that "the reason why we, even awake, deceive ourselves in certain illnesses is the same which produces in us, in our sleep, an impression of a dream.» — y cita el pasaje aristotélico en que la causa del engaño de la vigilia enferma es la misma que produce el sueño.

«The favorite formula of Moreau was: "Insanity is the dream of the man who is awake.» — la fórmula predilecta de Moreau en boca de Holmstedt: la locura como sueño del hombre despierto.

«the French materialist and medical man La Mettrie (1709-1751) who said: "Man is what he eats", he still considered a range of causes for insanity.» — Holmstedt recoge de La Mettrie la frase sobre el hombre y lo que come y le reconoce a Moreau un abanico de causas para la locura; la frase arranca en el renglón anterior, donde se dice que Moreau no depende de su compatriota, y el troceo reemite la marca de plana a media oración. Los años entre paréntesis son del impreso y por ellos salta la guarda anticosido, releído entero.

«I am not against the conceptions of organic damage but I require to see the lesion : I only believe in damages which are proven, not in those that are supposed» — la exigencia de prueba con que Moreau se guarda del organicismo; la frase termina en la plana siguiente y el verbatim se corta en el cambio de plana.

«This certainly was a very wise position to take. Even in our days, organic or biochemical lesions in mental illness have been difficult to prove.» — Holmstedt le da la razón a Moreau desde 1967, con el argumento de que la lesión orgánica o bioquímica sigue siendo difícil de probar.

«His works on hashish had put him in contact with numerous poets and novelists and he was well acquainted with Balzac, Gerard de Nerval and Theophile Gautier.» — Holmstedt traza el círculo literario de Moreau con Balzac, Nerval y Gautier; el escaneo imprime los nombres franceses sin acentos.

«To make a new brain in an idiot (with the aid of hashish» — la idea que Balzac le escribió a Moreau al día siguiente de una fantasia; la frase sigue en la plana siguiente, donde habla de expandir la mente desarrollando los rudimentos, y ahí Holmstedt anota que suena conocida.

«He was particularly interested in the medicinal plants used by foreign people, and had acquired collections from far off countries in his institute at Dorpat.» — Holmstedt sitúa a Dragendorff en la línea de este simposio por su interés en las plantas medicinales de pueblos lejanos y las colecciones que reunió en Dorpat.

«With regard to his chemical activities we only have to point out that he had numerous pupils from many countries, and that no reputable phytochemist is unfamiliar with Dragendorff's reagent for alkaloids.» — y lo que de Dragendorff queda en uso: el reactivo para alcaloides que lleva su nombre.

«Hartwich published a multitude of papers dealing with numerous drugs and stimulants. In these studies the historical and ethnographical questions are strongly emphasized.» — Holmstedt subraya de Carl Hartwich lo que lo hace etnofarmacólogo: el peso de lo histórico y lo etnográfico en sus estudios de drogas y estimulantes.

«The physical, historical, ethnographical and commercial and ethical aspects of the compounds are treated with the same love.» — y describe el método de Die menschlichen Genussmittel: lo físico, lo histórico, lo etnográfico, lo comercial y lo ético tratados con el mismo cuidado.

«In addition to these voluminous collections of ethno-pharmacological and ethno-botanical material there arose during the second part of the 19th century the science of psychology.» — Holmstedt hace entrar la psicología como segunda línea que confluye en la etnofarmacología, en la segunda mitad del XIX.

«The foremost service of W. Wundt to psychology was the introduction of laboratory investigation.» — y adjudica a Wundt el servicio de meter la psicología al laboratorio, donde antes la investigación experimental era individual.

«It consisted of two rooms and some tables with equipment, some of which was Wundt's personal property. No grant for equipment was available and Kraepelin tells how it had to be made by hand from wood, tin, strings and cardboard. They had, however, accumulators and chronoscopes.» — Holmstedt describe la pobreza material del primer instituto de psicología, apoyándose en el relato de Kraepelin: aparatos de madera, hojalata, cuerdas y cartón.

«Kraepelin published the first account on the use of the new psychological methods in clinical pharmacology» — Holmstedt fija en Kraepelin el primer informe de métodos psicológicos aplicados a la farmacología clínica, hecho durante su cátedra en Dorpat.

«Obviously, Kobert was the one who interested Kraepelin in applying his psychological tools to the study of drug effects in man» — y atribuye a Kobert el haber puesto a Kraepelin a aplicar sus herramientas psicológicas al efecto de las drogas en el hombre; el escaneo alterna las grafías Kobert y Robert para el mismo apellido.

«He was one of the two great toxicologists of the nineteenth century, the other being Louis Lewin.» — Holmstedt empareja a Kobert con Lewin como los dos grandes toxicólogos del siglo XIX.

«Robert and Sohrt in their carefully conducted investigation demonstrated the sedative action of the latter» — Holmstedt consigna el hallazgo de Kobert y Sohrt sobre la acción sedante de la hioscina; el escaneo imprime aquí Robert por Kobert, y la palabra compound queda partida por el salto de renglón, con la marca de plana reemitida en medio.

«This investigation, which lasted several months, was undertaken because work on animals is of value if it is extended to man.» — la razón que Kobert da para llevar al hombre lo probado en animales, citado por Holmstedt de su propio texto.

«After a latent period of 10 minutes Sohrt observed as the first symptom a ptosis which made it difficult for him to keep his eyes open.» — el primer síntoma del autoexperimento de Sohrt con hioscina, la ptosis, en el relato que Holmstedt reproduce.

«Throughout this period S. was fully conscious and able to give an account of everything and to answer questions speedily. He was able to read his own writing without much difficulty and did not feel sick.» — y el dato que interesa a la psicofarmacología: Sohrt siguió plenamente consciente y capaz de dar cuenta de todo.

«These experiments show that hyoscine, 0.5 to 1 mg, given subcutaneously, produces in healthy man dryness of the mouth, dilation of the pupils, marked sleepiness and tiredness, but is devoid of other special actions.» — la conclusión de Kobert, con su lista corta de efectos y la negativa expresa de cualquier acción especial más allá.

«In nearly all those cases of illness which are associated with a state of excitation hyoscine produced sleep promptly or at the very least induced sedation, even when all other drugs used for this purpose failed to produce an effect.» — y el uso clínico que Kobert le reconoce en los estados de excitación, incluso donde fallaban los demás fármacos.

«By far the most interesting personality of all psychopharmacologists of this time was Louis Lewin» — Holmstedt declara su preferencia dentro del relevo: Lewin es para él la figura más interesante de la psicofarmacología de esos años.

«There has been much speculation about the reasons why Lewin did not advance academically in pharmacology and toxicology, and it has been said that he could have become head of the greatest pharmacology department in Germany had he renounced his Jewish faith and consented to become baptized.» — Holmstedt consigna la especulación sobre el techo académico de Lewin, y la atribuye al dicho corriente sin hacerla suya: que no renunció a su fe judía ni aceptó bautizarse.

«Whatever truth there may be in this, he established his own private laboratory and lecture hall in No. 3 Ziegelstrasse in an old tenement house in the centre of the medical district of Berlin.» — y lo que sí consta: el laboratorio y la sala de conferencias propios de Lewin en la Ziegelstrasse, en pleno barrio médico de Berlín.

«Financially, he was partly enabled to do so through the fact that although he had no official position, the courts preferred him to all other experts in Germany in toxicology and industrial hygiene.» — Holmstedt explica de dónde salía el dinero: sin puesto oficial, los tribunales preferían a Lewin sobre cualquier otro perito de Alemania.

«He could quote flawlessly in foreign languages, and marshal facts from all four corners of the world and all periods of history.» — el retrato de Lewin como lector universal, que es lo que Holmstedt pone detrás de la Fantastica.

«Among them was J. J. Abel who has been called the father of American pharmacology.» — y la línea de transmisión que Holmstedt traza hacia los Estados Unidos por J. J. Abel.

«The experiments were made both on animals and man, and included a series of self-experiments.» — y el diseño del experimento, con animales, hombre y una serie de autoensayos.

«When surveying Lewin's works one is greatly helped by a list he compiled himself before his death.» — Holmstedt se apoya en la lista que el propio Lewin compiló antes de morir para medir su obra.

«Lewin himself claimed that by 1880 he had already decided to devote most of his time to the side effects of drugs.» — y consigna, en boca del propio Lewin, cuándo decidió dedicarse a los efectos secundarios de los fármacos.

«It is not possible here to summarize all the fields of interest to which Lewin made original contributions, but it is appropriate to dwell on his activities in psychopharmacology, a topic in which he published some 20 articles.» — Holmstedt acota su propio recorte dentro de la obra de Lewin: la veintena de artículos de psicofarmacología.

«Then he more or less left this field, but in 1924 summarized admirably his own work and those of others in the first edition of his book» — y sitúa la Phantastica de 1924 como balance tardío del propio trabajo de Lewin y del ajeno; el título entrecomillado sigue en el impreso.

«This is a very comprehensive review of all aspects of the use of Piper methysticum and current research on its constituents and their chemistry, pharmacology and clinical effects.» — Holmstedt describe la monografía de Lewin de 1886 sobre el Piper methysticum, que es la planta de la segunda sesión de este mismo simposio.

«This admirable monograph is now understandably much out of date in its chemistry and pharmacology, but it was a pioneering work, and the period following its appearance saw the first real progress being made in the chemistry of kaava.» — y la fecha como pionera pese a estar envejecida en su química; el escaneo imprime kaava por kava.

«Before that, however, Lewin had had occasion to get into polemics with Sigmund Freud about coca and cocaine.» — Holmstedt anuncia la polémica entre Lewin y Freud sobre la coca y la cocaína, que ocupará las tres planas siguientes.

«Prof. Wohler of Gottingen just before departure requested the naturalists on the expedition to bring him back a sufficient quantity of coca leaves to carry out a thorough investigation.» — el origen material del asunto según Holmstedt: Wöhler encargó a los naturalistas de la Novara hojas de coca suficientes para investigarlas, y el escaneo imprime los nombres alemanes sin diéresis.

«His assistant, Niemann, succeeded in isolating an unusual crystalline organic base.» — y el resultado: Niemann aisló de esas hojas la base orgánica cristalina que sería la cocaína.

«It would seem that Coca will be of great use to the medicine of the future. ... It has the remarkable action on the nerves of the tongue that after a few moments the place of contact becomes anaesthetized and almost insensitive» — la primera descripción impresa de la cocaína, de 1860, que Holmstedt cita con su referencia: promesa terapéutica y anestesia de la lengua.

«However, early investigations in Austria, Germany and England were largely negative in their findings, and by the 1870s there was general disillusionment.» — Holmstedt consigna el primer ciclo de desencanto europeo con la coca en los años setenta del XIX.

«He anticipated a demand of today's purists in experimental design by adding the cocaine to the drinking water and not telling the soldiers.» — Holmstedt le reconoce a Aschenbrandt el ciego antes de tiempo, cocaína en el agua de beber sin avisar a los soldados bávaros.

«Unfortunately the use of control subjects was overlooked and Aschenbrandt was anything but unbiased.» — y en la misma frase le objeta la falta de controles y la parcialidad.

«one feels like trying coca with or without the opium habit. A harmless remedy for the blues is imperial.» — el comentario editorial del Louisville Medical News sobre la coca, que Holmstedt cita como muestra del entusiasmo de 1880.

«He urged his fiancee, his sisters, his colleagues, and his friends to try it» — Holmstedt consigna el proselitismo de Freud con la cocaína entre su novia, sus hermanas, sus colegas y sus amigos.

«That same year he published an article "Tiber Coca" which among other virtues extolled the drug as a safe exhilarant which he himself used and recommended as a treatment for morphine addiction.» — y el contenido del artículo de Freud sobre la coca: excitante seguro, de uso propio, y recomendado contra la adicción a la morfina; el título alemán va entrecomillado en el impreso y el verbatim se corta antes.

«That same fateful year he used it for this purpose in treating his close friend, Ernst Fleischl.» — el caso con que Holmstedt cierra el episodio: Freud aplicó el tratamiento a su amigo Ernst Fleischl.

«For a while the treatment succeeded but increasingly larger doses were needed.» — y el curso que tomó, con dosis cada vez mayores.

«I want to state explicitly that according to all available evidence coca is no substitute for morphine and that a morphine addiction cannot be cured by the use of coca.» — la objeción de Lewin al artículo de Freud, citada por Holmstedt: la coca no sustituye a la morfina ni cura su adicción.

«I am convinced that coca cannot be a substitute for morphine for any length of time since the real morphine addict wants the specific morphine effect and since he can very well distinguish the euphoria of other substances.» — y el argumento de Lewin, que es de especificidad del efecto: el adicto a la morfina quiere el efecto propio de la morfina y distingue bien la euforia de otras sustancias.

«with cocaine and even if he were given very large doses producing hallucinations and a pleasant sopor, there would very likely occur a case of what I would like to call double addiction.» — Lewin nombra el riesgo que ve al final de ese camino, la doble adicción, en la cita que Holmstedt reproduce; la condicional arranca en el renglón anterior, donde el troceo reemite la marca de plana a media oración.

«The man in question would use cocaine in addition to morphine in the same way as many morphine addicts use chloroform, chloralhydrate, ether, etc.» — y lo describe por analogía con lo que ya hacían los adictos a la morfina con el cloroformo, el hidrato de cloral y el éter.

«Lewin never understood Sigmund Freud, especially not his psychoanalytical works, and used to refer to him as "Joseph der Traumdeuter" ("Joseph, the dream interpreter» — Holmstedt consigna el desprecio de Lewin por la obra psicoanalítica de Freud y el mote con que lo nombraba, que el propio texto traduce entre paréntesis.

«My main purpose in visiting San Francisco had been to see for myself "Chinatown", as the Chinese quarter is called, and especially the smoking of opium.» — Holmstedt cita el manuscrito de viaje de Lewin de 1887, donde declara el objeto de su visita a San Francisco; el nombre del barrio va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«On one of these I discovered a crouching figure holding an opium pipe and inhaling deeply the pernicious fume.» — la escena que Lewin describe en el sótano de Chinatown, con el juicio moral metido en el adjetivo.

«With a very fine metal-spatula—I have a similar one—he takes a small amount of the extract and puts it somewhere at the clay-top of his pipe. He then again takes the opium up, this time with the needle-like other end of the spatula, passes it lightly through the flame to condense it and make it more malleable and tries by turning the needle round and round to give the opium pill a cylindrical form.» — Lewin describe paso a paso la preparación de la píldora de opio con la espátula metálica y la llama, anotando que él tiene una igual.

«This same procedure occurs 6, 8, 10 times and even more until the gratification of the opium-visions provide the compensation for the troublesome preparations.» — Lewin cuenta las caladas necesarias y pone la visión como compensación del trabajo de preparar.

«He sees palaces, riches, opulent repasts, splendid garments, beautiful amorous women and perhaps ofBcies, titles and decorations descending upon him.» — el contenido que Lewin atribuye a la visión opiácea, palacios y riquezas y títulos; el escaneo imprime ofBcies por offices.

«Who can blame this human being—with his low grade of education, deprived of moral support—if he returns again and again to the pleasurable world of the opium-vision at night?» — y la pregunta con que Lewin suspende la condena, atribuyendo la reincidencia a la instrucción escasa y a la falta de apoyo moral.

«Among these things he carried back with him to Berlin from Parke Davis Co. was Peyotl, the "Mescal buttons» — Holmstedt fija el momento en que el peyote entra en el laboratorio alemán: Lewin se lo llevó de Parke Davis a Berlín; el nombre comercial va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«He was not long in investigating its properties and there appeared in Schmiedeberg's archives and the Detroit Therapeutic Gazette the first accounts of the pharmacologic properties of Peyotl» — y el resultado, los primeros informes farmacológicos sobre el peyote, publicados a la vez en el archivo de Schmiedeberg y en la Detroit Therapeutic Gazette.

«It has been proven for the first time that a cactus can possess an extraordinarily high toxicity.» — el resumen de Lewin sobre su propio hallazgo, citado por Holmstedt.

«One must, however, also investigate to what purpose and to what extent these Muscal buttons (Sic I) are used as stimulants.» — y el programa etnofarmacológico que Lewin se plantea y no llegó a cumplir: para qué y en qué medida se usan esos botones; el sic es del propio impreso.

«By then, however, Arthur Heffter had already started his work on the active principles in the mescaline cactus.» — Holmstedt pasa el relevo del peyote a Arthur Heffter, que ya trabajaba en los principios activos.

«Lewin did not like Heffter and Heffter did not like him. They had very different opinions on many things—this concerned particularly Anhalonium Lewinii (Peyotl) on which Heffter also had done work.» — Holmstedt consigna la enemistad entre los dos y su objeto, el Anhalonium Lewinii, sin arbitrar entre ellos.

«Lewin was more the artist and interested in the social implications of these substances.» — el contraste que Krayer traza entre los dos, citado por Holmstedt de una historia oral: Lewin del lado del arte y de lo social.

«I went to Heffter's lectures, of course, and I was bored. Lewin lectured the first time and I was captured—I went there every time.» — y el recuerdo de aula con que Krayer cierra el contraste entre los dos maestros.

«Heffter proceeded systematically to find the psychoactive principle in Peyotl by working it up into chemical fractions and testing these on himself in heroic self experiments» — Holmstedt describe el método de Heffter, fraccionar y probar en sí mismo, y lo empareja con lo que Albert Hofmann haría después con la psilocibina.

«It is psycho-pharmacologically interesting to see what kind of wonderful visions an obviously dry man like Heffter got out of mescaline.» — Holmstedt subraya el contraste entre el carácter seco de Heffter y lo que la mescalina le hizo ver.

«At first there are violet and green spots which are not well defined, then come visions of carpet patterns, ribbed vaulting, etc. From time to time single dots with the most brilliant colours float across the field of vision.» — el relato de Heffter del primer experimento con mescalina pura en el hombre, en 1897: manchas, luego patrones de alfombra y bóvedas nervadas.

«Later on landscapes, halls, achitectural scenes {e.g. pillars decorated with flowers) also appear.» — y la segunda fase de esa misma sesión, con paisajes y escenas arquitectónicas; el escaneo imprime achitectural por architectural.

«The results described above show that mescaline is exclusively responsible for the major symptoms of peyote (mescal) poisoning. This applies especially to the unique visions.» — la conclusión de Heffter: la mescalina basta para los síntomas mayores del peyote, y en especial para las visiones.

«An attempt to discuss the action of mescaline in detail would not accomplish anything in view of the limited number of experimental data, but physiologists and experimental psychologists should find work in this field rewarding.» — Heffter se abstiene de discutir el mecanismo por falta de datos y deja el campo abierto a fisiólogos y psicólogos experimentales.

«At the present moment I would like to leave open the question of whether or not any of the peyote (mescal) alkaloids has a therapeutic value. As far as mescaline is concerned the answer is probably no.» — y deja abierta la cuestión terapéutica, con una respuesta provisional negativa para la mescalina.

«Weir-Mitchell and Ellis believe that peyote (mescal) will also become popular amongst cultured people as an intoxicating drug.» — Heffter recoge la previsión de Weir Mitchell y de Havelock Ellis sobre la popularidad futura del peyote entre gente culta.

«I think that this is unlikely because the results which I obtained on myself show that the side-effects are so pronounced that they considerably spoil the appreciation of the beautiful visions.» — y la objeta con su propia experiencia: los efectos colaterales estropean bastante el disfrute de las visiones.

«The discoveries of Lewin and Heffter excited a lively interest in the application of the drug in man. Lewin's pupil, Beringer, carried out numerous experiments in man with mescaline.» — Holmstedt encadena el relevo hacia Beringer, alumno de Lewin, y sus numerosos experimentos con mescalina en el hombre.

«These papers bear witness to his interest in ethno-pharmacology. His magnum opus, however, is "Der Meskalinrausch" (1927), translated into Spanish but never into English.» — Holmstedt lee los trabajos de Beringer sobre el hachís y sobre la superstición en la Selva Negra como señal de su interés etnofarmacológico, y sitúa Der Meskalinrausch como su obra mayor; el año entre paréntesis es del impreso y por él salta la guarda anticosido, releído entero en el crudo.

«This book is to mescaline what Moreau's book is to hashish. It gives a clear cut description of the psychic and somatic symptoms, and should be consulted by whoever is interested in the actions of mescaline.» — y la empareja con la de Moreau: descripción clara de los síntomas psíquicos y somáticos.

«It was at this time that Lewin and others became interested in the properties of the South American vine Banisteria Caapi.» — Holmstedt fija hacia 1928 la entrada de la liana sudamericana Banisteria Caapi en la farmacología alemana, que es la planta de la quinta sesión de este simposio.

«They described the action of Banisterin prepared from Banisteria and later proved to be identical to harmine in experiments both in animals and man» — la comunicación de Lewin y Paul Schuster de febrero de 1929, con la identidad posterior entre banisterina y harmina.

«At this time they had only 1.2 g of the drug, of which they had given 0.020.04 g to 18 cases of Parkinsonism.» — y la escala real del ensayo, gramo y pico de droga repartido entre dieciocho casos de parkinsonismo; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae 02-0.

«A quarter of an hour after the injection the patients had a feeling of being able to move more easily, even in difficult cases with contractures.» — el efecto que Lewin y Schuster reportan a los quince minutos, facilidad de movimiento incluso en casos con contracturas.

«It is remarkable that at this time a film of the action of the drug in three patients was shown. This undoubtedly constitutes the first documentation of the action of monoamineoxidase inhibitors.» — Holmstedt señala la película que Lewin y Schuster proyectaron en 1929 como primera documentación de la acción de un inhibidor de la monoaminooxidasa.

«Lewin pointed out that the drug always affected the ability to move, and seemed inactive psychically.» — y consigna la observación de Lewin sobre la banisterina: tocaba la capacidad de moverse y parecía psíquicamente inactiva.

«Their demonstration raised a tremendous interest, and the popular press took up the question of this so called» — Holmstedt anota la repercusión en la prensa popular; la expresión que sigue va entrecomillada en el impreso y el verbatim se corta antes.

«Louis Lewin, sick and old at the time, managed to complete a monograph on the subject before he passed away» — y el último trabajo de Lewin, la monografía sobre la Banisteria Caapi terminada poco antes de morir.

«In the same year Beringer gave a review of the clinical papers where harmine had been used up till then. He also had occasion to comment upon its pharmacodynamics, and deplored the inaccurate knowledge of how the drug worked.» — Beringer, en la revisión que Holmstedt cita, lamenta lo impreciso del conocimiento sobre el mecanismo de la harmina.

«First of all it is necessary to find out how it affects the central nervous system ; whether this is due to a direct action upon certain centers of the brain or indirectly through the autonomic nervous system through a change of metabolism.» — la pregunta que Beringer deja planteada y que Holmstedt llama profética: acción directa sobre centros del cerebro o indirecta por vía autónoma y metabólica.

«In his review he pointed out that no differences could be found between banisterine and harmine.» — Beringer niega diferencia entre banisterina y harmina, en la lectura de Holmstedt.

«It proved useful, especially, in the cases of postencephalitic Parkinsonim that were prevalent at the time.» — Holmstedt acota el uso clínico que tuvo la harmina en el parkinsonismo postencefalítico, frecuente entonces; el escaneo imprime Parkinsonim.

«The most remarkable account from this time is perhaps the description of the self experiments by L. Halpern» — Holmstedt destaca los autoexperimentos de la doctora L. Halpern como el relato más notable del periodo.

«The action was sudden, and she had an immediate impression of excitement, with difficulty remaining in one place to continue her intellectual labor.» — Halpern describe el arranque súbito y la imposibilidad de quedarse quieta para trabajar.

«All actions were felt as if they were more easily done. No euphoria and no clouding of the senses was observed.» — y consigna lo que NO hubo: ni euforia ni enturbiamiento de los sentidos, solo facilidad de acción.

«In all probability, harmine acts upon the motor system as a central cortico-motor regulation as a stimulating agent acts upon the motor neurons, physiologically to increase excitation.» — la explicación que Halpern propone para lo suyo, con un en toda probabilidad por delante: estimulación cortical sobre el sistema motor.

«The author, who normally is not belligerent, has herself experienced this discharge of the motor functions. The subject started a fight with a man in the street, where she was the one who attacked, even though according to the circumstances the prospect for the attacker was very unfavorable.» — el episodio que Halpern relata de sí misma en tercera persona: a dosis alta atacó a un hombre en la calle contra todo cálculo.

«The consciousness was in no way influenced and in no way abnormal, but the impression was felt as if the consciousness was packed in ether.» — y la fórmula con que Halpern describe su consciencia en ese estado, intacta y a la vez envuelta en éter.

«When lying on a sofa, the lightness increased to a feeling of a fleeting sensation, and the weight of the body was subjectively less.» — la sensación de ligereza y de peso disminuido que Halpern reporta.

«These clinical observations should be compared to the state of levitation frequently reported to occur with the crude drug ayahuasca or caapi.» — y el puente que Holmstedt tiende entre eso y la levitación que se reporta con frecuencia con la ayahuasca o caapi en bruto.

«As is now well known, the monoamineoxidase inhibiting property of the harmala alkaloid was found as late as 1958 by Udenfriend.» — Holmstedt fecha en 1958 y en Udenfriend el hallazgo de la propiedad inhibidora de la monoaminooxidasa del alcaloide harmala.

«The enthusiasm for the harmala alkaloids vanished temporarily during the thirties, as did much of the interest in ethnopharmacology.» — Holmstedt marca el decaimiento de los años treinta, para la harmala y para la etnofarmacología entera.

«A few people, however, worked remotely and undisturbed by the rising tide of synthetic chemicals and the general lack of interest in exotic poisons.» — y los pocos que siguieron al margen de la química sintética en auge.

«was a good botanical observer and had a large collection of indigenous plants, among them the magic mushroom used by the Mazatecs.» — Holmstedt describe a Blas Pablo Reko como observador botánico y colector, y le adjudica en su colección el hongo mágico de los mazatecos; el escaneo mete una comilla suelta entre el sujeto y el verbo, y el verbatim arranca después.

«Apparently you confound me with my cousin Victor A. Reko, the author of "Magische Gifte", a journalistic piece of work, by the way, which you need not to take very seriously, since its author is neither a botanist nor has he any personal experience with the drugs described, most of which he has not even seen and would not recognize if he saw them.» — Reko deslinda en su carta a Henry Wassen su obra de la de su primo Victor A. Reko, autor de Magische Gifte, a quien niega tanto la condición de botánico como la experiencia de las drogas que describe.

«It is a cleverly made up mixtum compositum of compiled facts and wild inventions of his own fancy, intended for popular consumation.» — y el juicio de Reko sobre ese libro, mezcla de hechos compilados e invenciones para consumo popular; el escaneo imprime consumation por consumption.

«I am forwarding to your direction a sample of the "Piule" seed, together with an article of mine on this topic (published in 1920 and reprinted in El. Mex. Ant. 1934) in the hope that Prof. Santesson might get interested in the problem and conduct some experiments in that line.» — la parte operativa de la carta: Reko manda a Wassen una muestra de la semilla de piule para que Santesson la ensaye; el nombre va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«Very likely I get this year also specimen of the Teonanacatl, still used for religious rites in some secluded places, but so far never identified» — y el anuncio con que Reko cierra: el teonanácatl seguía en uso ritual en lugares apartados y seguía sin identificarse.

«Both the Piule-Ololiuqui and the Teonanacatl did arrive.» — Holmstedt consigna en una frase que las dos muestras llegaron a Suecia.

«Among them were Ololiuqui and Teonanacatl, the magic mushroom of Mexico, subsequently investigated by Wasson, Heim and Hofmann.» — Holmstedt encadena el relevo del teonanácatl desde Santesson hasta el trío que lo resolvería, Wasson, Heim y Hofmann, que es el mismo que la carta de Hofmann nombra en los preliminares.

«In some way the animals had lost their initiative. It seems to me that there is a a partial paralysis of the brain, a kind of narcosis ... in these animals there is a certain central depression without any other obvious symptoms.» — el resultado de Santesson con el ololiuqui en animales, citado por Holmstedt: pérdida de iniciativa y depresión central sin otros síntomas, con el seems to me por delante.

«The drug deserves a thorough investigation which can only be done with a larger supply of material.» — y la conclusión con que Santesson cierra su trabajo, que es a la vez la petición de más material.

«With Santesson's papers expire the old pre-World War II activities in the ethno-pharmacologic search for psychoactive drugs. The revival was to come about ten years later.» — Holmstedt cierra su panorama histórico poniendo el corte en la guerra y el renacimiento diez años después.

«The very descriptive word ethnobotany has been defined in sundry ways in the 70 years since it was created and first used by Harshberger» — Schultes abre su ponencia fechando la palabra etnobotánica en Harshberger, setenta años atrás, y anotando que se ha definido de muchas maneras.

«Although Harshberger indicated how ethnobotanical investigation could be integrated into overall research, he failed to offer a definition of his new term.» — y señala el hueco: quien acuñó el término no lo definió.

«Years earlier, in 1874, Powers (38) had used the term aboriginal botany to refer to a study of "all the forms of the vegetable world which the aborigines used for medicine, food, textile, fabrics, ornaments, etc.» — Schultes recupera el término anterior de Powers, botánica aborigen, con su definición por la lista de usos.

«It was, apparently, not until 1916 that a truly broad concept emerged that went beyond mere identification and cataloguing of plants used by primitive peoples.» — y fecha en 1916 el salto de la mera identificación y catálogo a un concepto ancho.

«This broad definition of the term ethnobotany, now rather widely held, was promulgated by Bobbins, Harrington and Freire-Marreco (4%), and, in effect, attributes to this discipline a study and evaluation of the knowledge of all phases of plant life amongst primitive societies, and of the effects of the vegetal environment upon the life, customs, beliefs and history of the peoples of such societies.» — la definición ancha que Schultes atribuye a Robbins, Harrington y Freire-Marreco, con el efecto del entorno vegetal sobre la vida, las costumbres, las creencias y la historia; el escaneo imprime Bobbins y sustituye por un signo de porcentaje el número de referencia.

«that Jones and others (9) prefer to restrict ethnobotany to man in primitive states of culture.» — Schultes consigna que Jones y otros restringen la etnobotánica al hombre en estado primitivo de cultura; el verbatim arranca tras el inciso con que Schultes lo marca como interesante.

«While this premise may and probably does almost always obtain, there is really no reason to circumscribe the term in this way.» — y objeta esa restricción sin negar que el caso se dé casi siempre.

«Since I do not hold that ethnobotany need be limited exclusively to man in primitive society, my own definition (Ifi) circumscribes ethnobotany as "a study of the relationships between man and his ambient vegetation.» — la definición propia de Schultes, que abre el campo a cualquier hombre y su vegetación circundante.

«In recent years, such terms as archaeoethnobotany, ethnomycology, ethnoecology and ethnopharmacology have been proposed and have come into use.» — Schultes enumera las cuatro disciplinas nuevas desgajadas de la etnobotánica, entre ellas la etnomicología de Wasson y la etnofarmacología de este simposio.

«Nowhere perhaps have the potentialities of ethnobotanical investigation been more scintillating than in the search for new psychotomimetic drugs» — y sitúa la búsqueda de nuevas drogas psicotomiméticas como el terreno más prometedor de la etnobotánica; psychotomimetic es la palabra que Schultes usa en el título de su ponencia.

«These potentialities have been realized in the case of a number of new and previously known hallucinogens that are now relatively well understood : the narcotic mushrooms and morning glories of Mexico; the ayahuascacaapi-yaje complex of South America ; the intoxicating snuffs of the Orinoco and Amazon basins.» — Schultes lista los tres casos ya resueltos, que son a la vez las materias de tres sesiones de este simposio: hongos y dondiegos de México, el complejo ayahuasca-caapi-yagé y los rapés del Orinoco y del Amazonas; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae ayahuasca-caapi.

«They remain to tantalise us, however, in the case of several narcotics known vaguely from common names or from sketchy reports of travellers and missionaries : several South American snuffs ; the marari of lowland Bolivia; an intoxicating "tree-fungus" of the Yurimagua Indians of eastern Peru ; the yurema root infusion of the Pankararu of Brazil ; the magic woi of the Yekwana of southern Venezuela.» — y los que seguían sin resolver, conocidos solo por el nombre vernáculo o por informes de viajeros y misioneros: el marari boliviano, el hongo de árbol de los yurimagua, la yurema de los pankararu y el woi mágico de los yekwana.

«Furthermore, they challenge us to find, through ethnobotanical avenues, new psychotropic plants that most certainly are still in use, but which have never been seen nor reported by the prying inquisitiveness of man outside of the culture that employs the narcotics.» — Schultes plantea como tarea las plantas psicotrópicas aún en uso que nadie de fuera de la cultura que las emplea ha visto ni reportado.

«Man, ever desirous of knowledge, has already explored many things; but more and greater still remain concealed; perhaps reserved for distant generations, who shall . . . make many discoveries for the pleasure and convenience of life. Prosperity shall see its increasing Musuems, and the knowledge of the Divine Wisdom, flourish together ; and at the same time all the practical sciences . . . shall be enriched ; for we cannot avoid thinking, that what we know of the Divine works are much fewer than those of which we are ignorant.» — Schultes cita a Linneo de un catálogo de museo de 1754 y lo lee como filosofía de la etnobotánica; el escaneo imprime Musuems y Linneaus.

«Peoples in primitive societies, because they live most intimately with their immediate vegetational environment, do possess a valuable understanding of the properties of plants» — Schultes fundamenta el valor del saber indígena en la intimidad con el entorno vegetal.

«even though their knowledge of plants has sometimes been optimistically exaggerated by both lay enthusiasts and ethnopharmacological zealots.» — y en la misma oración pone el límite, con la exageración repartida entre entusiastas legos y celosos de la etnofarmacología.

«It, therefore, behooves all of us interested in a search for new psychotomimetic drugs to carry out our investigations along several avenues of approach, not following the ethnobotanical avenue to the exclusion of others» — de ahí que Schultes pida varias vías a la vez y niegue la exclusividad de la etnobotánica.

«Civilization is closing in on many, if not on most, parts of the world still sacred to the less advanced cultures.» — Schultes describe el cerco de la civilización sobre lo que llama las partes del mundo todavía sagradas para las culturas menos avanzadas.

«It has long been pressing in, but its pace is now accelerated as the result of geographically extensive wars, extended commercial interests, increased missionary activity, widening tourism.» — y da las cuatro causas de la aceleración: guerras extensas, intereses comerciales, actividad misionera y turismo.

«Our great concern lies in the progressive divorcement of man in primitive societies from dependence upon his immediate environment.» — Schultes nombra lo que le preocupa, que no es la desaparición de la planta sino el divorcio progresivo entre el hombre y su entorno inmediato.

«I have often stated that perhaps the greatest enemy or, at least, competitor, of ethnopharmachological research is the arrival and cheap availability of the aspirin pill.» — la fórmula más citada de Schultes: el mayor enemigo de la investigación etnofarmacológica es la aspirina barata y disponible; el escaneo imprime ethnopharmachological.

«More than once this has initiated an astonishingly rapid disintegration of native medical lore.» — y el efecto que le atribuye, la desintegración rapidísima del saber médico indígena.

«That the aspirin (meaning, of course, modern medicines in general) may be more beneficial than herbs and magic is not ours to consider here.» — la abstención de Schultes, que deja fuera de su asunto la pregunta por si la medicina moderna es mejor que las hierbas y la magia.

«What does interest us academically and practically is how to salvage some of the medico botanical lore of primitive cultures before it shall have been forever entombed with the culture that gave it birth» — y lo que sí se propone en su lugar: rescatar parte del saber medicobotánico antes de que quede sepultado con su cultura.

«Although we cannot afford to pre-judge reports of aboriginal uses of plants simply because they seem to fall beyond the limits of credence, we must nevertheless ever keep in mind that there is no reason to presume that, because man in primitive living does have knowledge as yet unknown to us, he may possess anything more than a limited intuition into the properties of plants.» — Schultes pide a la vez no prejuzgar los informes increíbles y no suponer en el hombre primitivo más que una intuición limitada.

«Ethnobotanical research has often, of necessity, been done as a sideline by botanists untrained in ethnology ; by anthropologists lacking any knowledge of biology ; or even by laymen, dedicated enough, but devoid of preparation in both biology and anthropology.» — Schultes explica la debilidad del campo por quién lo ha hecho: botánicos sin etnología, antropólogos sin biología y legos sin ninguna de las dos.

«As a result of this checkered history, ethnobotanical research, its purposes and its potentialities has too often suffered from smug depreciation at the hands of specialists in disciplines that have been academically more clearly delimited.» — y de ahí, dice, el menosprecio de los especialistas de disciplinas mejor delimitadas.

«In delving into the medicine of primitive societies, we must never lose sight of the vast difference between "medicine" in our sense and that in primitive societies.» — la advertencia de método de Schultes: la palabra medicina no significa lo mismo aquí y allá; el término va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«of sickness and even of death from natural causes is unknown or incomprehensible.» — la tesis con que Schultes explica por qué la medicina indígena no se deja leer con categorías occidentales: la enfermedad y la muerte por causa natural no existen ahí como concepto; la frase arranca en la plana anterior, que dice que ocurre en casi todas las culturas primitivas si no en todas.

«supernatural spirits or forces of evil work in sundry ways to bring about the impairment of health or cessation of life.» — y lo que ocupa su lugar, con Schultes declarando que simplifica: espíritus sobrenaturales o fuerzas del mal que dañan la salud o cortan la vida.

«We should realize that hexing and witchcraft were widely accepted as recently as three centuries ago in what was, in many respects, the advanced culture of Europe.» — Schultes cierra la distancia con un recordatorio: el maleficio y la brujería se aceptaban en Europa hace apenas tres siglos.

«Amongst the members of primitive cultures to-day, treatment usually comprises various kinds of exorcism ; and diagnosis, and often treatment itself, must be carried out through communication with the spirit or supernatural world.» — Schultes describe el procedimiento: exorcismo para el tratamiento, y diagnóstico y a menudo cura por comunicación con el mundo de los espíritus.

«Many ways of communicating have been developed, but the employment of vision-producing narcotics or hallucinogens of plant origin seems to have been widespread in both time and space, and to have occurred in many wholly unrelated cultures.» — y ahí sitúa la droga: entre las muchas vías de comunicación con ese mundo, la de los narcóticos productores de visión aparece extendida en el tiempo, en el espacio y en culturas sin relación entre sí.

«We do not know exactly how many species of plants there are. There may be as many as 800,000.» — Schultes abre su cuenta estadística declarando primero la ignorancia del total.

«Of this vast assemblage of Angiosperms, only about 3000 are known to have been used directly as human food.» — la primera cifra de la comparación de Schultes: unas tres mil angiospermas usadas directamente como alimento humano.

«Only about 150 Angiosperms are important enough as foods to enter the world's commerce.» — y el filtro siguiente, ciento cincuenta con peso comercial.

«Of these, only 12 or 13 stand, in effect, between the world's population and starvation, and these dozen or so plants are all cultivated species» — y el último, la docena de especies cultivadas que separa al mundo del hambre.

«We find, likewise, that the number of species providing man with narcotic agents is very small.» — Schultes aplica la misma cuenta a lo narcótico y la halla igual de corta.

«Between four and five thousand species are now known to be alkaloidal, 1 and we must realise that constituents other than alkaloids glycosides, resins, essential oils and others—may also be responsible for narcotic activity.» — y advierte que el alcaloide no agota la cuestión: glucósidos, resinas y aceites esenciales pueden ser responsables de la actividad narcótica.

«Probably no more than 60 species, including Cryptogams and Phanerogams, are employed in primitive and advanced cultures for their intoxicating effects. Of these, only about 20 may be considered of major importance.» — la cifra central de Schultes: unas sesenta especies usadas por su efecto embriagante en culturas primitivas y avanzadas, de ellas una veintena de importancia mayor.

«What is even more significant is that so few—coca, opium poppy, hemp, tobacco—are numbered amongst the world's commercially important cultivated plants.» — y lo que Schultes subraya como más significativo, que solo cuatro de ellas pesen en el comercio mundial de plantas cultivadas.

«Four of these five, if not all five, species are cultigens, unknown in the wild state. This bespeaks long association with man and his agricultural practices» — Schultes lee la condición de cultígeno, desconocido en estado silvestre, como marca de una asociación larga con el hombre y su agricultura.

«It may likewise be of significance that, whether because of cultural differences or floristic peculiarities or for some other as yet unappreciated reason, the New World is much richer in narcotic plants than the Old.» — la asimetría que Schultes consigna sin explicar, con tres causas posibles en el aire: el Nuevo Mundo es mucho más rico en plantas narcóticas que el Viejo.

«These statistics, naturally, relate merely to those plants the narcotic properties of which man has discovered in his trial and error experimentation during the course of human history.» — y la acotación que impide leer esas cifras como inventario de la naturaleza: solo cuentan lo que el hombre halló por ensayo y error.

«The longer I consider this question, the more I am convinced that there may exist in the world's flora an appreciable number of such plants not yet uncovered by the experimenting natives and still to be found by the enquiring phytochemist.» — Schultes se declara cada vez más convencido de que queda en la flora del mundo un número apreciable de plantas así, aún sin hallar ni por los nativos ni por el fitoquímico.

«Some of the most interesting enigmas lurk in the desert stretches of northern Mexico, where what we might term the "prototype" of the New World hallucinogens—peyote or Lophophora Williamsii—has long been the centre of religious and curative rites in the Tarahumare and Huichol country.» — Schultes llama prototipo de los alucinógenos del Nuevo Mundo al peyote y lo sitúa en el centro de los ritos religiosos y curativos tarahumaras y huicholes; la palabra va entrecomillada en el impreso.

«Peyote, of course, is well known from many aspects, and 13 alkaloids have thus far been isolated from it» — y da la cifra de alcaloides aislados del peyote hasta 1967.

«The explorer Carl Lumholtz (32) mentioned, however, other narcotic cactus plants, some of which are as yet not even botanically identified.» — Schultes recurre al explorador Carl Lumholtz para las otras cactáceas narcóticas del país tarahumara, varias sin identificar botánicamente.

«High mental qualities," he wrote, "are ascribed especially to all species of Mammilaria and Echinocactus, small cacti, for which a regular cult is instituted.» — Lumholtz, citado por Schultes, atribuye altas cualidades mentales a las Mammilaria y los Echinocactus y les adjudica un culto regular.

«The Tarahumares designate several as hikuli, though the name belongs properly only to the kind most commonly used by them» — y consigna que el nombre hikuli cubre varias plantas aunque pertenezca en propiedad a una sola.

«This is believed to make the eyes large and clear to see sorcerers, to prolong life and to give speed to the runners.» — lo que Lumholtz reporta del mulato: agrandar y aclarar los ojos para ver hechiceros, alargar la vida y dar velocidad a los corredores.

«even more powerful than waname and is used in the same way as the latter ; the drink produced from it is also strongly intoxicating.» — lo que Lumholtz reporta del sunami, tenido por más poderoso que el waname y usado igual; la frase arranca en el renglón anterior, donde se lo llama raro, y ahí el troceo reemite la marca de plana.

«This is the greatest of all, and the name means 'hikuli great authority.' It is extremely rare among the Tahahumares, and I have not seen any specimen of it, but it was described to me as growing in clusters of from eight to twelve inches in diameter, resembling waname with many young ones around it.» — el hikuli walula saeliami, que Lumholtz nunca vio y conoce solo por descripción; el nombre traducido va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«All these various species are considered good, as coming from Tata Dios, and well disposed toward the people. But there are some kinds of hikuli believed to come from the Devil. One of these, with long white spines, is called ocoyome. It is very rarely used, and only for evil purposes.» — el reparto moral que Lumholtz consigna entre los tarahumaras: las especies buenas vienen de Tata Dios y el ocoyome, de espinas blancas y largas, del Diablo y solo para el mal.

«Several of these narcotic hukuli plants are still unidentified. They are obviously all cactuses.» — Schultes deja el asunto abierto como tarea botánica; el escaneo imprime hukuli por hikuli.

«In this connexion, it is well known that in Mexico a number of species in seven other genera of the Cactaceae—Ariocarpus, Astrophytum, Aztekium, Dolichothele, Obreffonia, Pelecyphora and Solisia—are popularly classed as peyote, perhaps because they bear some resemblance to the true peyote, Lophophora, or perhaps because they have similar toxic effects and may be employed with Lophophora or as a substitute for it» — Schultes consigna que en México siete géneros más de cactáceas se llaman popularmente peyote, y ofrece dos explicaciones posibles, el parecido y el efecto.

«Witch doctors in northern Peru (in Piura, Lambayeque and La Libertad) prepare an hallucinogenic drink called cimora from at least six plants» — Schultes describe la cimora del norte del Perú como bebida alucinógena compuesta de al menos seis plantas.

«There is indirect evidence of great age for the use of this narcotic drink which is concerned with moon rites of the region.» — y le atribuye antigüedad por vía indirecta, ligándola a los ritos lunares de la región.

«It is taken for therapeutic effects, for diagnosis and divination, and to make oneself owner of another's identity.» — los cuatro usos que Schultes consigna para la cimora, con la apropiación de la identidad ajena entre ellos.

«This intoxicating brew must be potent if the plant ingredients, identified apparently without voucher specimens, are correctly indicated.» — y la reserva con que Schultes lo deja: la lista de ingredientes se identificó sin ejemplares testigo.

«With the apparent lack of voucher specimens, however, there is no way at present to verify the determination of these ingredients.» — Schultes niega que la identificación pueda verificarse sin ejemplares testigo, que es su exigencia de método a lo largo de la ponencia.

«An indication that there may be discrepancies in the determinations is that the chief ingredient was at first erroneously determined as Opuntica cylindrica» — y da la prueba de esa exigencia: el ingrediente principal se determinó primero mal; el escaneo imprime Opuntica por Opuntia.

«It has recently, however, been shown, on the basis of botanical collections, to represent Trichocereus Pachanoi, and has been ethnobotanically indicated as being a "magic and dangerous» — Schultes consigna la corrección por colecciones botánicas y el carácter que la etnobotánica le adjudica a la planta, mágica y peligrosa; los términos van entrecomillados en el impreso.

«While several amaranthaceous genera contain alkaloids, no such constituents have been reported from Iresine.» — la negativa que Schultes deja escrita sobre la Iresine: ningún alcaloide reportado, aunque otros géneros de la familia sí.

«It is of interest to point out, however, that some of the Indians of southern Colombia are said to employ Iresine as an admixture in preparing their strongly hallucinogenic yaje drink (Banisteriopsis spp.) to increase its psychotomimetic potency» — y el dato que la vuelve interesante igualmente: indígenas del sur de Colombia la mezclan al yagé para potenciarlo.

«In the late 17th and early 18th Centuries, Jesuit missionaries working amongst the Yurimagua Indians in the uppermost Amazon basin found the natives drinking a strongly intoxicating beverage prepared from a "tree fungus» — Schultes recupera de los misioneros jesuitas del alto Amazonas la bebida de hongo de árbol de los yurimagua; la expresión va entrecomillada en el impreso.

«the Yurimaguas mix mushrooms that grow on fallen trees with a kind of reddish film that is found usually attached to rotting trunks. This film is very hot to the taste. No person who drinks this brew fails to fall under its effects after three draughts of it, since it is so strong or, more correctly, so toxic» — la receta tal como la reportaron los jesuitas, con la película rojiza de los troncos podridos y las tres caladas que bastan.

«Field work in the area has, up to the present time, not yet disclosed any practice of this kind» — Schultes consigna la negativa del trabajo de campo posterior y la razón por la que no la da por cerrada: un rasgo cultural así no desaparece sin dejar rastro.

«It has been tentatively suggested that the tree fungus might be the known hallucinogenic Psilocybe yungensis? but what might be the reddish film?» — la hipótesis tentativa sobre el hongo, con el Psilocybe yungensis, y la pregunta que queda abierta sobre la película rojiza.

«the medicine-men had to interview the spirits, they drank a decoction prepared from a plant called marari, similar to our verbena» — el uso del marari entre los mojo del oriente boliviano según el informe que Schultes cita: los medicine men lo bebían cuando tenían que entrevistarse con los espíritus; la frase sigue en la plana siguiente, con la excitación de veinticuatro horas que el brebaje causaba.

«According to reports, the medicine men try to avoid drinking marari whenever they "could operate without the narcotic." This may be interpreted as an indication of great potency or toxicity of the drug.» — y la lectura que Schultes propone del hecho de que lo evitaran cuando podían, como señal de potencia o de toxicidad.

«Oftentimes, no clear distinction has been made between stimulants and narcotics in the writings of early missionaries and other travellers.» — la advertencia de fuente de Schultes: misioneros y viajeros no distinguieron estimulante de narcótico.

«By likening marari to "our verbena," the French ethnologist Metraux undoubtedly meant Verbena officinalis, a well known folk medicine of Europe.» — Schultes interpreta la comparación del etnólogo Metraux y propone la Verbena officinalis europea como referencia de la que él partía.

«The marari might well represent one of the many South American verbenaceous species, but only direct field observation can clear up this enigma.» — y deja la identificación al trabajo de campo, que es su respuesta constante a los enigmas de nombre vernáculo.

«The earliest report of guayusa dates from 1682 and comprises a missionary reference that pointed to a use surrounded by superstition in the region of the upper Maranon in Peru.» — Schultes fecha en 1682 el primer informe sobre la guayusa, ya rodeado de superstición según el misionero que lo firma.

«Amongst the several references to guayusa, perhaps the most important is that of Richard Spruce, who reported it to be a species of Ilex allied to /. paraguariensis "but with much larger leaves" and to be a tonic which, in strong infusions such as those prepared by the Jibaros, may be "positively emetic» — lo que Richard Spruce reportó de la guayusa, una especie de Ilex emparentada con la yerba mate y de infusión fuerte francamente emética entre los jíbaros.

«The recent writings of Karsten (28) seem to indicate that guayusa may have narcotic properties as well» — Schultes apunta que Karsten atribuye a la guayusa propiedades narcóticas además de tónicas.

«just as the Jibaros take certain narcotic drinks when they are preparing for war, to see whether they will be lucky or not in the undertaking, so they also understand a kind of divination in regard to hunting.» — Karsten, citado por Schultes, empareja la bebida narcótica de guerra con una adivinación de caza entre los jíbaros.

«The guayusa is not a real narcotic but a tonic, to which the Indians ascribe magical purifying effects.» — y Karsten deslinda: no es narcótico verdadero sino tónico al que los indígenas atribuyen efectos mágicos de purificación.

«The Jibaros, however, seem to believe that the drink produces dreams of divinatory significance or, more strictly speaking, what they call 'small dreams,' especially such as have reference to hunting.» — y consigna lo que los propios jíbaros creen, que la bebida da sueños de valor adivinatorio, los que ellos llaman sueños pequeños.

«Even though guayusa may not belong strictly to the category of psychotomimetic plants, it would be advantageous to know more concerning its curious effects—these "little dreams"—that the Jibaros ascribe to the infusion.» — Schultes deja la guayusa fuera de lo psicotomimético estricto y a la vez pide saber más de sus efectos.

«Are these effects wholly imaginary, or may perhaps some other plant be occasionally boiled with the guayusa when the "little dreams" are experienced» — y plantea las dos salidas del enigma sin decidirse: efectos imaginarios o alguna otra planta hervida junto con la guayusa.

«It is not wholly improbable that this widely disseminated vernacular name may refer to a number of different plants with marked physiological action.» — Schultes enuncia la trampa central del nombre vernáculo: uno puede cubrir varias plantas distintas.

«It is rather disquieting that even the identity of such a plant should, after some three centuries, still be uncertain.» — y la fórmula con que mide el atraso del campo, tres siglos sin identificar una planta así.

«Groups of warriors or strong young men are given a gourdful of the yurema root infusion by an elderly chieftain.» — Schultes describe el rito de la yurema entre los pankararu del río Sao Francisco, con el jefe anciano repartiendo la infusión de raíz.

«glorious visions of the spirit land, with flowers and birds. They might catch a glimpse of the clashing rocks that destroy the souls of the dead journeying to their goal, or see the Thunderbird shooting lightning from a huge tuft on his head and producing claps of thunder by running about.» — el contenido de la visión de la yurema según el informe que Schultes cita: las rocas que chocan y destruyen las almas de los muertos, y el Pájaro del Trueno.

«The yurema rite was formerly much more widespread than at present, for it is known to have been practiced by at least three other tribes (the Guegue, Acroa and Pimenteira) of the general region.» — y la retracción del rito, que antes practicaban al menos tres tribus más.

«Chemically, this plant is extremely interesting because of its close relationship to Anadenanthera peregrina, from the seeds of which the hallucinogenic yopo snuff of the Orinoco River basin is prepared.» — Schultes liga químicamente la Mimosa hostilis de la yurema con la Anadenanthera peregrina del yopo del Orinoco, que es la materia de la cuarta sesión de este simposio.

«In 1946, an alkaloid was isolated from the bark of the roots of Mimosa hostilis (W) and was called nigerine, but recent chemical investigation has established the identity of nigerine and N, N-dimethyltryptamine, the same constituent found in yopo seeds from Anadenanthera peregrina» — y consigna que la nigerina aislada en 1946 resultó ser la misma N,N-dimetiltriptamina de las semillas del yopo.

«In a remote tributary of the Apaporis River in Amazonian Colombia, the Peritome-Tanimukas make use of an as yet unidentified plant to prepare a vision-producing drink employed in the adolescent initiation rites of boys» — Schultes reporta de los peritome-tanimuka del Apaporis una planta sin identificar para una bebida de visión usada en la iniciación de los muchachos.

«It is taken much as is the well known yaje or caapi of the same region prepared from Banisteriopsis Caapi, but the Tanimukas, who employ also» — Schultes anota que la bebida se toma como el yagé o caapi de la misma región; la frase sigue en la plana siguiente, donde dice que los tanimuka, que usan también esa liana malpighiácea, distinguen las dos sin vacilar.

«I was not able to see the vine nor to take the drug during my short stay amongst the Tanimukas, but all information pursuant to my questioning was constant.» — Schultes declara el límite de su propio testimonio, no vio la liana ni tomó la bebida, y lo que sí puede sostener, la constancia de los informes.

«There is evidence that natives of the New World have found psychotropic activity in plants introduced from the Old World.» — Schultes abre el apartado de las plantas del Viejo Mundo a las que el indígena americano halló actividad psicotrópica.

«It has, for example, recently been reported that Yaqui medicine men from northern Mexico employ Genista canariensis, the genista of florists, for the purpose of inducing hallucinations (17), a property that has been experimentally substantiated.» — y da el caso de los medicine men yaquis con la genista de los floristas, con su respaldo experimental.

«Concurrent to the recent discovery by Wasson in the Mazatec Indian country of Oaxaca, Mexico, of the utilization of the leaves of Salvia divinorum as a narcotic (63) , a similar employment of Coleus pumila and G. Blwnei. both introductions from the Old World, was reported.» — Schultes acredita a Wasson el hallazgo del uso narcótico de las hojas de Salvia divinorum entre los mazatecos, junto con dos Coleus introducidos del Viejo Mundo.

«The hallucinogenic effects of the Salvia have been experimentally substantiated, and it has been postulated that perhaps this plant, native to Mexico, might represent the ancient pipiltsintzintli of the Aztecs.» — y consigna la hipótesis, en forma de postulado y no de dato, de que la Salvia divinorum sea el antiguo pipiltzintzintli azteca.

«Chemical examination of Salvia divinorum has not as yet disclosed a psychotropic constituent, and analysis of these two species of» — la negativa química que Schultes deja escrita, ningún constituyente psicotrópico hallado todavía en la Salvia divinorum; la frase sigue en la plana siguiente con el análisis pendiente de los dos Coleus.

«There is in Turkestan, nevertheless, another reputedly intoxicating mint Lagochilus inebrians (7). The leaves are crushed and mixed with honey or sugar for ingestion.» — Schultes trae del Turquestán otra labiada embriagante, la Lagochilus inebrians, con su preparación.

«A tropical New World genus of about 25 species, Brunfelsia plays an important role in aboriginal folk medicine in equatorial America.» — Schultes presenta el género Brunfelsia como pieza mayor de la medicina popular de la América ecuatorial.

«Evidence for the narcotic use of Brunfelsia is quite real, but it is not yet corroborated by a good body of field observation.» — y mide la evidencia con su propia vara: real, pero sin cuerpo suficiente de observación de campo.

«Herbarium records are very helpful in this instance. There are two collections that indicate the use of Brunfelsia as a narcotic.» — Schultes recurre a las etiquetas de herbario como fuente etnobotánica, que es una de las vías de método que su ponencia propone.

«They know the plant as borrachera, a vernacular term in Spanish applied to almost any kind of intoxicating plant, especially to the species of tree-Daturas, in Colombia.» — Schultes consigna la amplitud del término borrachera entre los kofán, aplicado a casi cualquier planta embriagante y sobre todo a las daturas arbóreas.

«The Kofan indicate that they become very cold after taking an infusion of the scraped bark of Brunfelsia.» — y el efecto que los propios kofán reportan de la corteza raspada de Brunfelsia, un frío intenso.

«One of my graduate students, Mr. Homer V. Pinkley, who has spent a year living with the Kofan, reports these medicinal applications of Brunfelsia, but found no direct evidence that could be interpreted as indicative of its use as an hallucinogen.» — Schultes consigna la negativa de campo de su alumno Pinkley, un año entre los kofán sin rastro de uso alucinógeno de la Brunfelsia.

«We should realise that the disappearance of the use of a plant in a given area is not unknown.» — Schultes introduce la desaparición de un uso como explicación posible de una negativa de campo, que es la cautela que lo separa de dar el asunto por cerrado.

«A century ago, for example, the sapindaceous caffeinestimulant guarana, Paullinia Cupana, was reported by Spruce as cultivated all the way up the Rio Negro of Amazonian Brazil and into southern Venezuela» — y el caso con que lo apoya: el guaraná que Spruce vio cultivado por todo el Río Negro hace un siglo; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae caffeine-stimulant.

«I found that it has now almost completely vanished from cultivation in this region, and the use of the vine as the source of a stimulant is unknown along the Rio Negro at the present time.» — y su propia comprobación de que hoy ha desaparecido de ahí, con el uso de la liana como estimulante ya desconocido.

«The literature is rich in reports, most of them uncritical and unfounded in field work, that Prestonia amazonica (Haemadictyon amazonicum) is the source of the hallucinogen known as yaje.» — Schultes describe la literatura sobre la Prestonia amazonica como rica en informes acríticos y sin trabajo de campo detrás.

«are warranted in asserting that Prestonia is not employed as a narcotic, there remains enough doubt to justify further field investigation» — Schultes sostiene con reservas que la Prestonia no se usa como narcótico y deja abierta la investigación de campo; la frase arranca en la plana anterior, con un creemos que estamos autorizados a afirmar.

«It is well established that a strongly hallucinogenic drink known variously, according to geographic area, as ayahuasca, caapi and yaje is prepared from one or more species of the malpighiaceous genus Banisteriopsis.» — Schultes enuncia lo que da por asentado: que la bebida llamada ayahuasca, caapi o yagé según la región sale de una o más especies de Banisteriopsis.

«He discovered the natives along the upper Rio Negro in Brazil preparing it from a liana which he called Banisteria Caapi.» — Schultes fecha en Spruce y en 1851 la identificación botánica del caapi, con el nombre que entonces le dio.

«Several years later, he quite correctly identified a similar drink of the western Amazon of Ecuador, where it was cabled ayahuasca. as coming from the same species as caapi.» — y la identificación posterior de la ayahuasca ecuatoriana como la misma especie; el escaneo imprime cabled por called.

«It may be the caapi-pinima which gives the nauseous taste to the caapi . . . and it is probably poisonous, but it is not essential to the narcotic effect of Banisteria» — lo que Spruce escribió del caapi-pinima, citado por Schultes: posible causa del sabor nauseabundo, probablemente venenoso y no esencial al efecto narcótico.

«I have consulted Spruce's unpublished handwritten field notes at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew and find his statement that the caapi drink is made from the lower parts of the stems of Banisteriopsis Caapi "beaten in a mortar with the addition of water and a small quantity of the slender roots of the Apocynac (apparently a Haemadictyon) called caapi-pinima» — Schultes declara su propia fuente manuscrita, las notas de campo inéditas de Spruce en Kew, y la receta que ahí consta.

«May not be the peculiar effects of the caapi," he queried, "be owing rather to the roots of the Haemadictyon than to the stems of the Banisteria? The Indians, however, consider the latter the prime agent, at the same time admitting that the former is an essential ingredient.» — la duda que Spruce se planteó sobre cuál de los dos ingredientes obra, y la respuesta de sus informantes indígenas, que ponían la liana por agente principal sin negar que el otro fuera esencial.

«Spruce presumed that this apocynaceous admixture might play a role in caapi intoxication, but he was not certain.» — Schultes acota el alcance de lo que Spruce sostuvo: una presunción, no una certeza.

«Nor did he make any definite assertions, pointing out cautiously that the malpighiaceous vine alone produces hallucinogenic effects.» — y subraya la cautela de Spruce, que dejó escrito que la liana malpighiácea sola ya produce el efecto.

«It was the French anthropologist Reinberg who, in 1921, without the benefit of voucher botanical specimens, tentatively suggested the possibility that yaje might be prepared from Prestonia or a related genus» — Schultes fecha en Reinberg y en 1921 la sugerencia tentativa de que el yagé saliera de la Prestonia, hecha sin ejemplares testigo.

«Unfortunately, this suggestion has been taken up, its tentative nature forgotten or ignored, and is being propagated in technical papers.» — y describe el mecanismo por el que una tentativa se vuelve dato en la literatura técnica: se olvida o se ignora que lo era.

«No alkaloids have as yet apparently been isolated from Prestonia.» — la negativa química de Schultes sobre la Prestonia, con el apparently como reserva.

«but there is every probability that this analysis, for which no voucher specimen is available, was made on leaves of a species of Banisteriopsis mistakenly identified through the vernacular name yaje as Prestonia amazonica» — y la explicación que Schultes propone para el único informe de dimetiltriptamina en Prestonia: un análisis sobre hojas de Banisteriopsis mal identificadas por el nombre vernáculo yagé.

«It was my good fortune in 1948 to witness the preparation of and take a narcotic drink amongst nomadic Maku Indians along the Rio Tikie in the Brazilian Amazon.» — Schultes declara aquí su propio testimonio de participante, tomando la bebida con los maku nómadas del río Tikié en 1948.

«The extremely bitter beverage prepared from this plant had strong hallucinogenic effects, was yellowish, unlike the coffee-brown Banisteriopsis preparations.» — y describe lo que tomó, amarillento y no pardo como las preparaciones de Banisteriopsis, con efecto alucinógeno fuerte.

«In addition to Prestonia, which may possibly be added to caapi during preparation of the drink, other plants are known to be employed in this way in sundry areas, and some of these species» — Schultes plantea el problema de las mezclas añadidas al caapi; la frase sigue en la plana siguiente, donde dice que varias pertenecen a familias con constituyentes fisiológicamente activos.

«It is to be supposed, therefore, that they may alter, sometimes significantly, the flavour and effects of the narcotic preparation.» — y supone que esas mezclas alteran el sabor y el efecto, a veces de modo significativo.

«The Siona of the Colombian Putumayo, for example, add what is probably Datura suaveolens to Banisteriopsis in making yaje» — la primera de las mezclas que Schultes enumera, la Datura suaveolens de los siona del Putumayo, con un probably por delante.

«A most interesting anthropological report has recently appeared that enumerates five lianas, the barks of which are added to caapi by the Tukano Indians of the Brazilian part of the Rio Vaupes; unfortunately, these plants are as yet identified only by native names» — y el caso de los tukano del Vaupés, con cinco lianas añadidas al caapi que solo se conocen por su nombre indígena.

«The argument that the New World flora might be richer in plants possessing psychotomimetic principles would be acceptable probably to few chemotaxonomists, including me.» — Schultes se incluye entre los quimiotaxónomos que no aceptarían una flora del Nuevo Mundo intrínsecamente más rica en principios psicotomiméticos.

«There may be several reasons for this real discrepancy, but most certainly one might be that Old World cultures as a whole seem, at least upon superficial examination, to be much less narcotic-conscious, to feel much less the "need" for these agents in magico-religious rites and in the practice of medicine» — y propone en su lugar una explicación cultural: las culturas del Viejo Mundo parecen menos conscientes de lo narcótico y sentir menos su necesidad en el rito mágico-religioso y en la medicina; la palabra va entrecomillada en el impreso.

«and this notwithstanding the great antiquity and probably original basic significance of narcotics to many Old World religious systems.» — Schultes añade en la misma frase la reserva contraria: la antigüedad y la significación originaria de los narcóticos en muchos sistemas religiosos del Viejo Mundo.

«their animal spirits were awakened, their eyes sparkled and their faces manifested laughter and gaiety. Thousands of delightsome ideas appeared, and a pleasant jollity which enabled them to be amused by the simplest jests. By taking the substance to excess, they lost consciousness and fell into a delirium» — el efecto del kanna o channa entre los hotentotes según el informe de hace más de dos siglos que Schultes cita, con la pérdida de consciencia por exceso.

«While several species of Mesembryanthemum are known to be alkaloidal and to induce a state of torpor when ingested, at least one investigator {29) doubts that they could produce such startling effects.» — y la objeción que Schultes recoge de un investigador: esas especies no darían efectos tan llamativos.

«He has suggested that the plant in question might have been Cannabis sativa, pointing out, the while, that other plants, like the anacardiaceous Sclerocarya Gdffra, are employed in South Africa for their intoxicating effects.» — la hipótesis alternativa que ese mismo investigador propone, el cáñamo, con otras plantas sudafricanas embriagantes de por medio; el escaneo imprime Gdffra por Caffra.

«Mitragyna speciosa seems to be the species most commonly used in southeastern Asia, especially in Siam, where the leaves are chewed alone or mixed with the betel quid or else prepared for smoking like opium» — Schultes describe el uso de la Mitragyna speciosa en el sudeste asiático, masticada sola o con el bolo de betel o fumada.

«It was first reported as a substitute for opium apparently in 1836, and has cropped up constantly in the literature since that time» — y la fecha de su primer registro como sustituto del opio.

«It might, however, be extremely helpful if we knew as much about its use amongst the natives.» — Schultes mide la asimetría del campo: mucha química de la Mitragyna y poco saber sobre su uso entre los nativos.

«Although the seeds of Peganum Harmala have proven narcotic properties and figure extensively in folk medicine, going back to the time of Dioscorides, I find no direct references to its religious or hedonistic use as an hallucinogen» — la negativa documental de Schultes sobre el Peganum harmala: propiedades narcóticas probadas y medicina popular desde Dioscórides, pero ninguna referencia directa a un uso religioso o hedónico.

«That it may be so employed in Asia or Africa should not be ruled out of our thinking.» — y la cláusula con que deja abierta esa negativa.

«In high doses, it causes nervous excitement, mental confusion, a general state of drunkenness and is a true hallucinogenic agent» — el efecto que Schultes reporta del iboga africano a dosis alta, donde sí lo llama agente alucinógeno verdadero.

«While it has been valued as a medicine and possibly also as an hallucinogen in primitive societies of West Africa, it is not clear that its use as a vision-inducing narcotic was extensive.» — y la reserva sobre su extensión como narcótico de visión en las sociedades de África occidental.

«We know, in fact, nothing about the psychotomimetic use of this genus, nor of its chemical constituents.» — la negativa total de Schultes sobre la Kaempferia galanga de Nueva Guinea, sin uso documentado ni química conocida.

«A species of Russula has been suggested as the psychotropic agent that suddenly causes individuals or groups to go berserk.» — Schultes consigna la hipótesis de la Russula para la locura de los hongos de los kuma de Nueva Guinea.

«natives attributed their extraordinary behaviors to mushrooms, several species of Boletus, Russula and Heimiella—or at least most of them—do not seem to cause physiological effects leading to madness.» — y en la misma cita el contrapeso: los hongos que los propios nativos señalaban no parecen dar efectos fisiológicos que lleven a la locura.

«Undoubtedly the greatest enigma in the field of the hallucinogens has been the identity of soma» — Schultes declara el soma el mayor enigma del campo de los alucinógenos.

«Some 3,500 years ago, a people who called themselves Aryans, who were the first so to style themselves and who had a right to the name, swept down from the north into the Indus Valley of India.» — y sitúa el origen del asunto en la entrada de los arios al valle del Indo.

«They brought with them the cult of a sacred plant, called soma. They deified the plant and worshipped it, extracting its juice and drinking it. They composed more than one thousand hymns about it, and these have come down to us intact» — Schultes describe el culto que trajeron: deificaron la planta, bebieron su jugo y le compusieron más de mil himnos que llegaron intactos.

«What was soma? No one knows at the present time. For more than two thousand vears, its identity has been clouded in a mystery.» — y la fórmula con que mide la duración del enigma; el escaneo imprime vears por years.

«For some unexplained reason, the Aryans abandoned the original plant soon after they arrived in their new home, and its identity was forgotten.» — Schultes consigna el abandono de la planta original poco después de la llegada, sin explicación.

«Other plants took its place as substitutes—plants chosen for reasons other than the psychic effects which, in the case of the substitutes, seem to have been non-existent.» — y lo que a su juicio prueba el carácter del reemplazo: los sustitutos se eligieron por razones distintas del efecto psíquico, que en ellos parece no existir.

«Since then, more than a hundred species have been suggested as the source of the original soma, but none of the suggestions has won acceptance.» — Schultes cuenta más de cien candidatos propuestos y ninguno aceptado.

«Amongst these, the principal contenders were numerous species of Ephedra, Periplom and Sarcostemma: the first genus a gymnosperm ; the last two asclepiadaceous genera ; but all similar in being vine-like, fleshy, leafless or almost leafless desert plants.» — y da los tres géneros que más se habían propuesto, con el rasgo que comparten; el escaneo imprime Periplom por Periploca.

«For some years now, Wasson has devoted full time to a deep study of the historical, literary and ethnobotanical records concerning soma.» — Schultes presenta ante el simposio el trabajo en curso de Wasson sobre el soma, todavía inédito en 1967.

«We are justified in stating, I believe, that never has greater thoroughness and meticulous scholarship gone into the enigma of soma, for Wasson's avenues of ethnobotanical research have been ingeniously devious and complex.» — y avala el método de Wasson con una fórmula de cautela por delante.

«I could hardly believe what I found ... a clear-cut botanical question— a psychotropic plant that calls for identification.» — Wasson, citado por Schultes, describe cómo se le planteó el asunto: una pregunta botánica neta, una planta psicotrópica que pide identificación.

«But the hymns are all shot through with soma, and about 120 of them are entirely devoted to the plant-god.» — y la base textual de Wasson, con ciento veinte himnos dedicados enteros a la planta-dios.

«It was no secret for the poet-priests. How extraordinary it would have been if all of them . . . had withheld from their verses the revealing descriptive terms, the tell-tale metaphors, that the trained reader today needs to spot the plant ! But this did not happen.» — Wasson niega que los poetas-sacerdotes escondieran la identidad de la planta: no era secreto para ellos y no callaron los términos que la delatan.

«All that has happened is that no ethnobotanist with an interest in psychotropic plants has applied himself to an examination of the texts.» — y donde sí pone la falta: ningún etnobotánico interesado en plantas psicotrópicas se había puesto a examinar los textos.

«To this age-old enigma, Wasson has suggested a solution: that the true soma was a mushroom, the fly agaric, Amanita muscaria, the same mushroom used narcotically today by certain natives in Siberia.» — la tesis de Wasson tal como Schultes la enuncia ante el simposio, con el hongo Amanita muscaria por soma, y el puente con el uso siberiano que ocupará la sexta sesión.

«Could any key unlock this combination save the fly agaric?» — la pregunta con que Wasson cierra su argumento, citada por Schultes.

«He is now engaged in writing his conclusions and, in view of his contributions to our knowledge of the sacred Mexican mushrooms, of the narcotic morning glories and of the new hallucinogenic Salvia of Mexico, we await the completion of his fascinating study with great anticipation.» — Schultes deja constancia de que el libro de Wasson sobre el soma todavía se estaba escribiendo en enero de 1967, y lista lo que ya le debía la etnobotánica: los hongos sagrados mexicanos, los dondiegos narcóticos y la Salvia alucinógena.

«Faced with the ever more rapid disintegration of primitive societies and an extraordinary dearth of trained ethnobotanists, science would seem to be doomed to lose.» — Schultes plantea el balance sombrío con que abre sus pautas para el futuro, la desintegración de las sociedades primitivas contra la escasez de etnobotánicos formados.

«Specialists in those fields upon which ethnobotany impinges are experiencing a growing realization of the potentialities of the interdisciplinary approach that ethnobotany affords.» — y la razón por la que no lo da por perdido: el interés creciente de los especialistas vecinos por el enfoque interdisciplinario.

«It might here be appropriate to end with the words of Harshberger, author of the term ethnobotany, who wrote: "It is of importance ... to seek out these primitive races and ascertain the plants which they have found» — Schultes cierra su ponencia con las palabras de Harshberger, que acuñó el término etnobotánica: buscar a esas razas primitivas y averiguar qué plantas hallaron; la frase sigue en el impreso diciendo que sean útiles en su vida económica, por si llenan algún hueco de la nuestra, y ahí el troceo reemite la marca de plana a media palabra.

«Indigenous pharmacology is always based on empiricism ; however, magic procedures and religious ceremonies are often mixed in medical use.» — del Pozo abre su ponencia con la tesis que le da título: la farmacología indígena es empírica de base, y a la vez lo mágico y lo religioso se mezclan con el uso médico.

«When a plant has been found to produce marked physiological effects it is likely than an explanation for those properties is to be looked for according to the substratum culture of the particular ethnic group.» — del Pozo invierte el orden corriente: primero se halla el efecto fisiológico y después se le busca explicación en el sustrato cultural del grupo.

«That has been the case for coca, "the divine plant of the Incas" ; for peyotl, "divine messenger"; teonanacatl, "God's flesh.» — y da tres ejemplos con su fórmula sagrada, la planta divina de los incas, el mensajero divino y la carne de dios; los tres nombres van entrecomillados en el impreso.

«These examples show that the magic or religious associations could not be taken as evidence of lack of empirical knowledge.» — la tesis de método de del Pozo, y la que más pesa para leer este corpus: la asociación mágica o religiosa no es prueba de ausencia de saber empírico.

«Many times a plant used by medicine-men or priests has been found to be an active pharmaco.» — y su apoyo: muchas veces la planta del medicine man o del sacerdote resultó ser fármaco activo; el escaneo imprime pharmaco por pharmacon.

«However, the astronomical number of plants, minerals and animals used in popular medicine prescribed by all sorts of medicine men, herb-vendors, magicians, shamen, or used directly by the people, prevents an indiscriminate study of all this materia medica.» — del Pozo declara el límite práctico de la empresa, con la lista de quienes prescriben: curanderos, yerberos, magos y chamanes; el escaneo imprime shamen por shamans.

«An ethnoiatric study (1) from the standpoints of social, historical, religious and philosophical contexts, is required for the evaluation of the medical uses of a community.» — y propone el marco que él llama etnoiátrico, con lo social, lo histórico, lo religioso y lo filosófico dentro.

«Moreover, even for pharmacology, an extensive knowledge of the socio-cultural background and environment of a tribe is needed for understanding the orientation and purposes in the use of a drug.» — del Pozo sostiene que hasta la farmacología necesita el trasfondo sociocultural para entender la orientación y el propósito del uso de una droga.

«The Aztecs were a nomadic and primitive group that arrived in the Mexican Valley only two hundred years before the Spanish Conquest.» — del Pozo fecha la llegada de los mexicas al Valle de México dos siglos antes de la Conquista.

«They had been conducted and governed by a witch called Malinalxochitl, and later on by a warrior, Huitzilopochtli.» — y da los dos conductores de esa migración, la bruja Malinalxóchitl y el guerrero Huitzilopochtli.

«They encountered in the Valley of Mexico human groups, the Nahuas, of much higher cultural development and with a religion based on spiritual values inspired by the great Quetzalcoatl, a god or perhaps a man full of wisdom, who gave to the Toltecs codes of ethics and love for art and science.» — del Pozo describe a los nahuas que ya estaban ahí y a Quetzalcóatl, dios o quizá hombre, del que se abstiene de decidir.

«Human sacrifices, the horror of Aztec Society, were not practiced among the Nahuas before the Aztec arrival» — del Pozo adjudica el sacrificio humano al aporte mexica y lo niega para los nahuas anteriores.

«The incongruity of a well-advanced culture with high moral principles as taught by the Calmecac or Aztec College, and brutal ritual butcheries, are to be explained by the merger of two different thoughts.» — y explica la incongruencia entre el Calmécac y la carnicería ritual por la fusión de dos pensamientos distintos.

«One, the Toltec, spiritual and learned; the other, the original Aztec, magical, bellicose and» — el reparto que del Pozo hace de esos dos pensamientos, con lo mágico, lo belicoso y lo imperialista del lado mexica; la última palabra queda en la plana siguiente.

«They adopted the Quetzalcoatl title for their highest priest, paid devotion to Quetzalcoatl teachings and myths, and kept great respect for Toltec traditions» — del Pozo consigna la apropiación mexica del nombre de Quetzalcóatl para su sumo sacerdote.

«They had great experience and knowledge : They knew the quality and virtues of the herbs, and they left marked and known those that nowadays are used for healing, because they were also physicians and essentially the first in this art.» — lo que Sahagún dice de los toltecas, citado por del Pozo: conocían la calidad y las virtudes de las hierbas y fueron los primeros médicos.

«They invented the art of interpretation of dreams, and were so learned and wise that they knew the stars of the sky, had named them and knew their influences and qualities.» — y lo que Sahagún les atribuye en el mismo pasaje: la interpretación de los sueños y el conocimiento de las estrellas, sus nombres, sus influencias y sus calidades.

«These sacrifices sometimes reached the incredible number of several tens of thousands of human beings, according to several Spanish chroniclers.» — del Pozo consigna la cifra de los sacrificios apoyándose en los cronistas españoles y marcándola de increíble.

«The fall of the Aztec empire to a handful of Spanish adventurers was also helped by the magic-minded Moctezuma, who had a series of dreams and other warnings about the imminent return of Quetzalcoatl.» — y atribuye parte de la caída del imperio a la mentalidad mágica de Moctezuma y a sus sueños sobre el regreso de Quetzalcóatl.

«Terrible wars, destructions of cultural centers, persecution of all people representative of old beliefs and religious and magical practices, were systematically carried out in order to annihilate the influence of the devils.» — del Pozo describe la persecución sistemática de las prácticas religiosas y mágicas indígenas, con la palabra con que los conquistadores la justificaban.

«All books containing their knowledge and tradition in every field were systematically burnt.» — la quema sistemática de los libros indígenas, que del Pozo pone como causa del hueco documental de su propio campo.

«Fortunately, the most learned Spanish priests who came to evangelize, had a great need of knowledge of the indigenous "superstitions" to enable themselves to prosecute evil and indoctrinate in the new faith.» — del Pozo señala la paradoja de la que vive su fuente: los frailes estudiaron las supersticiones indígenas para perseguirlas mejor; la palabra va entrecomillada en el impreso.

«They went deep into a thorough study of indigenous rites, gods, religions, history, knowledge and morals of the newly conquered people.» — y el alcance de ese estudio, de los ritos y los dioses a la historia y la moral.

«The most distinguished of them, Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, was a true pioneer in the use of scientific methods for ethnological research.» — del Pozo adjudica a Sahagún la condición de pionero del método científico en investigación etnológica.

«He obtained reports from groups of well-selected informers, specialists in every field, and kept protocols in Nahuatl of their statements.» — y describe en qué consiste ese método: informantes escogidos por especialidad y protocolos en náhuatl de sus declaraciones.

«However, only recently have his protocols received attention, and are being translated from Nahuatl into Spanish» — del Pozo señala que esos protocolos apenas empezaban a traducirse en 1967, y que son distintos de la Historia publicada.

«We certainly know that one of them, Juan Badiano, was a teacher of Latin and translated the only book of medicine we have that was written directly by an Aztec physician, Martin de la Cruz.» — del Pozo fija la procedencia del único libro de medicina escrito por un médico mexica: lo escribió Martín de la Cruz y lo tradujo Juan Badiano, alumno del Colegio de Tlatelolco.

«The multiple and well-kept botanical gardens mainly devoted to growing medicinal plants were known and admired not only by Cortes and his soldiers, but by botanists and physicians.» — y da la prueba del desarrollo farmacológico mexica, los jardines botánicos de plantas medicinales que admiraron Cortés y sus soldados.

«Contemporaneous chroniclers report that at those botanical gardens the plants were given free to the patients, under the condition that they would inform about the results.» — del Pozo consigna, de los cronistas, lo que él llama investigación institucional: la planta se daba gratis a condición de informar del resultado.

«In addition to this example of institutional research, we have evidence that the professions of physician and» — del Pozo separa los oficios; la frase sigue en la plana siguiente, donde dice que el médico y el yerbero eran personas distintas de las dedicadas a la hechicería, la magia, la brujería y la religión, y entre las dos mitades el troceo mete el pie de una lámina.

«We are aware that active plants, mainly those with hallucinatory properties, were used by sorcerers and priests together with their own paraphernalia.» — y consigna a la vez que las plantas activas, sobre todo las alucinatorias, sí eran cosa de hechiceros y sacerdotes.

«It is a difficult matter to say what part is played by the pharmacodynamic action of a drug, and what is due to suggestion, when psychological procedures are added.» — del Pozo declara el problema de fondo de su campo: separar la acción farmacodinámica de la sugestión cuando se añade procedimiento psicológico.

«The test of healing has ahvays been poor evidence of efficacy.» — y niega valor probatorio a la curación misma; el escaneo imprime ahvays por always.

«However, in a long run, a conclusion based on repeated experience may be reached.» — aunque le concede a la experiencia repetida y larga la capacidad de llegar a una conclusión.

«After four and a half Centuries many of the plants contained in the materia medica of the Aztecs remain unknown.» — del Pozo mide el saldo documental: cuatro siglos y medio después, buena parte de la materia médica mexica sigue sin identificarse.

«Some authors (8) have thought that Sahagun and other chroniclers gave a too rationalistic idea of Aztec medicine because they tried with the European rationalistic mind to adjust what they saw to what they knew.» — del Pozo recoge la objeción de que Sahagún y los demás cronistas racionalizaron la medicina mexica ajustando lo visto a lo sabido.

«We believe that these protocols contain an almost literal transcription of the answers given by the informants because, written in Nahuatl, they maintain the peculiar repetitive structure of that language.» — y la objeta con un argumento de forma: la estructura repetitiva del náhuatl se conserva en los protocolos, señal de transcripción casi literal; el escaneo imprime mexiean por mexican.

«That style appears in the protocols but not in Sahagun History.» — del Pozo apoya el deslinde entre las dos capas de Sahagún en que ese estilo no pasa a la Historia.

«Thieves knew very well of enchantement, with which they used to deaden or made to faint the dwellers of a house, and then stole everything to be found, and even with his enchantments took out the barn and carried it on his back» — el pasaje de Sahagún que del Pozo da como muestra de la racionalidad europea del XVI: ladrones que adormecen por encantamiento y se llevan el granero a cuestas; el escaneo imprime enchantement.

«The enchantments and carrying of barns do not appear in the informants texts, which means that this data is the responsibility of the writer.» — y la adjudicación que del Pozo hace de ese pasaje al escritor y no a los informantes, apoyándose en que no está en los textos de estos.

«There are also some stones called eztetl which means stone of blood . . . I had experience of the virtue of this stone because I have one as big as a fist or a little less ... in this year of 1576 during this pestilence it has given life to many whose blood and life were going out from his nose. Taking it (the stone) in their hand and having it for some time the bleeding stopped» — el testimonio en primera persona de Sahagún sobre la piedra de sangre, con la peste de 1576 de por medio, citado por del Pozo.

«Their own blood was required to keep the sun shining, everything was under the influence of exacting gods and thousands of major and minor priests were interpreters of the holy designs.» — del Pozo describe la atmósfera de angustia en que sitúa a la medicina mexica, con la sangre propia como condición de que el sol siga alumbrando.

«Diseases, particularly when chronic, grave or epidemic, were considered as divine punishments for the group or the individual because of deviations from the strict rules of behaviour.» — y la teoría de la enfermedad que de ahí se sigue: castigo divino al grupo o al individuo por desviarse de la regla.

«Under the circumstances described by Sahagun, one is inclined to believe in the effectiveness of his large stone eztetl, to stop epistaxis when that exceptional mineral was held into the tightly closed hand of the patient.» — del Pozo se inclina a creer en la eficacia de la piedra eztetl contra la epistaxis en esas circunstancias.

«The emotional liberation of epinephrine could explain that effect.» — y ofrece una explicación fisiológica para ella, la descarga emocional de epinefrina, en condicional.

«Sorcerers and priests used to give to patients and drink themselves ololiuhqui and mushrooms to produce hallucinations which would give them leads about the origin of a disease and the way to cure it.» — del Pozo describe el uso adivinatorio del ololiuhqui y de los hongos entre hechiceros y sacerdotes mexicas: la alucinación daba la pista del origen del mal y de su cura.

«All these facts could give the impression of an impenetrable mixture of magic, religion and empiricism in Aztec therapeutics, but that would be the case if we put together all the resources that present day people many times put in action when they suffer a grave or incurable disease.» — y desarma la impresión de mezcla impenetrable comparándola con lo que hoy hace cualquiera ante una enfermedad grave o incurable.

«Sometimes it is very difficult to decide if a practice is rational or magic, because there is interaction of procedures and influences.» — del Pozo declara borroso el límite entre lo racional y lo mágico por la interacción de procedimientos e influencias.

«The use of amulets, stones, relics, conjures, is not magic any more when they are heavily charged of psychological meaning or had established conditioned reflexes.» — y propone un criterio para cruzar ese límite: el amuleto deja de ser magia cuando está cargado de sentido psicológico o ha fijado reflejos condicionados.

«Even the classical magician technics based on the use of music (melotherapy), odors (osmotherapy), colors ( chromotherapy), dances, cabalistic words and phrases (versotherapy), are not to be disregarded as baseless.» — del Pozo rehabilita las técnicas clásicas del mago, con los nombres que él les da, melotherapy, osmotherapy, chromotherapy y versotherapy, y niega que carezcan de base.

«Those methods represent sensorial stimulations that could provoke favourable neuro-endocrine reactions.» — y da la razón de esa rehabilitación: son estimulaciones sensoriales capaces de provocar reacciones neuroendocrinas favorables.

«It does not matter if a pharmaco has been used by a physician, a sorcerer, a witch or a medicine-man, if we have some evidence of a definite effect.» — la regla con que del Pozo separa la farmacología del juicio sobre quién administra: da igual médico, hechicero, bruja o medicine man si hay evidencia de efecto.

«The Aztecs gave us teonanacatl, peyotl, ololiuhqui, piecetl, toloatzin, already attested in their activity.» — del Pozo enumera las cinco plantas psicoactivas mexicas con actividad ya atestiguada; el escaneo imprime psycoactive en la frase anterior.

«We need no proofs that the action of those plants was discovered by empiricism. We would be magic minded if we would suggest that they had reached the hands of the sorcerers by supranatural inspiration.» — y la vuelta de tuerca con que del Pozo cierra su tesis: sería mentalidad mágica suponer que esas plantas llegaron a manos de los hechiceros por inspiración sobrenatural.

«We have no reason for any doubt on what the XVI Century chroniclers tell us about the well trained Aztec physicians with an extensive knowledge of medicinal plants and long experience in diagnosis and treatments.» — del Pozo declara creíble lo que los cronistas dicen del médico mexica, formado y con experiencia larga en diagnóstico y tratamiento.

«This relation given above of the medicinal herbs and the other medicinal things above contained was given by the physicians of Tlatilulco, James, old and very experienced in those things of Medicine; all of them are in general practice.» — el colofón con que Sahagún acredita a sus informantes de medicina, los médicos de Tlatelolco, citado por del Pozo.

«The names of them and of the amanuensis that wrote it are the following, who, because they did not know how to write, begged the amanuensis to put their names» — y la nota de Sahagún sobre por qué firma el amanuense: los informantes no sabían escribir y le pidieron que pusiera sus nombres.

«It is surprising that Martin de la Cruz was not among them.» — del Pozo señala la ausencia de Martín de la Cruz en esa lista de informantes.

«not explain the fact that Sahagun does not mention the exceptional and wonderful book written on a subject he was studying at that time and when he refers in extenso to that School.» — del Pozo deja el hecho sin explicar: Sahagún no menciona el libro de Martín de la Cruz aunque estudiaba el mismo asunto y hablaba extensamente de ese colegio; la frase arranca en la plana anterior, donde admite que pudo estar ausente o muerto, y ahí el troceo reemite la marca de plana.

«I discussed this strange fact and arrived at the conclusion that Sahagun might have considered Martin de la Cruz already under the influence of European medicine.» — la conclusión a la que del Pozo dice haber llegado en su propio estudio: Sahagún habría tenido ya a Martín de la Cruz por contaminado de medicina europea.

«In fact, many signs could be found of that contamination, mainly the names of diseases, the pharmaceutical mixtures and even the presence of a reference to Pliny» — y las señales de esa influencia europea en el libro: los nombres de las enfermedades, las mezclas farmacéuticas y una remisión a Plinio.

«It is a pity that the only book on medicinal plants written by an Aztec physician has to be read with a critical eye, because of European influences.» — del Pozo declara el costo de esa influencia: el único libro de plantas medicinales escrito por un médico mexica hay que leerlo con ojo crítico.

«It is interesting to note that ololiuhqui, peyotl and teonanacatl do not appear in the book, either because the use of them was exclusive for sorcerers or because of church censorship.» — la ausencia de las tres plantas psicoactivas en el libro de Martín de la Cruz, con las dos explicaciones que del Pozo ofrece sin decidirse: uso exclusivo de hechiceros o censura eclesiástica.

«On the other hand, many prescriptions that seem magical because they contain strange substances, now known inert, only means pharmacological mistakes.» — del Pozo reclasifica como error farmacológico, y no como magia, las recetas con sustancias hoy sabidas inertes.

«Lack of activity does not show absence of rationality in the use.» — y enuncia la regla en una línea: que algo no obre no dice que su uso fuera irracional.

«Magic implies the performance of acts, pronunciation of words in presence of particular objects, from which only the magician or wizard is capable of managing to produce the effect» — la definición de magia con que del Pozo trabaja: actos y palabras ante objetos determinados, y un operador único capaz de producir el efecto.

«Nothing of that sort appears in the book : medicines could be used by anybody without devices or spells for supernatural powers» — y la negativa que de ahí extrae sobre el libro de Martín de la Cruz: sus remedios los podía usar cualquiera, sin artificio ni conjuro.

«Magical practices in Aztec society had their own fields and practitioners: sorcerers, necromancers, witches and magicians.» — del Pozo reparte las prácticas mágicas mexicas entre cuatro oficios propios, hechiceros, nigromantes, brujas y magos.

«However, there are no records of true shamans as defined by Mircea Eliade {12), that is with techniques for ecstasy and initiation ceremonies as practiced in Siberia.» — la negativa que del Pozo deja escrita sobre el chamanismo mexica, midiéndola contra la definición de Mircea Eliade, con técnicas de éxtasis y ceremonias de iniciación como las siberianas.

«The naoalli is properly called sorcerer; he frightens men and sucks blood from children during the night» — la definición del naoalli que del Pozo toma de Sahagún.

«The necromantic (tlacateculutl) has a pact with devil; he transforms himself into different animals, and because» — y la del tlacatecolotl, con el pacto con el diablo y la transformación en animales, en la misma fuente; la frase sigue en la plana siguiente, donde por odio desea la muerte ajena con hechicería y conjuros.

«used to cure diseases and restore health; the good physician is a knower of herbs, stones, trees and roots, experienced in» — la del ticitl, el médico, que Sahagún describe por su saber de hierbas, piedras, árboles y raíces; la frase termina en la plana siguiente con la palabra cures, y el escaneo imprime physicain donde del Pozo lo presenta.

«He also has the profession of knowing how to set bones of people, to purge them, bleed them, to make incisions in them, to sew the wounds and to free people from the doors of death.» — la parte quirúrgica del oficio del ticitl según Sahagún, de componer huesos a coser heridas.

«The bad physician because he is not able, in place of curing the patients, worsens them with his potions. At times he uses sorceries and superstitions to make believe that he makes good cures» — y el reverso que Sahagún traza, el mal médico que empeora con sus pócimas y recurre a hechicerías y supersticiones para aparentar cura.

«All precolumbian codices were intentionally destroyed, but we should remember that because of the lack of a true written language those documents were only guides for learned people, usually trained at the Galmecac who memorized the traditions, history and knowledge of that people.» — del Pozo relativiza la pérdida de los códices: sin lengua escrita verdadera eran guías para memoriosos formados en el Calmécac; el escaneo imprime Galmecac.

«The Holy Inquisition soon was prosecuting any man denounced because of keeping in his house objects corresponding to superstition, witchcraft, rites, gods, idolatries and other uses of gentilism» — del Pozo lista lo que bastaba para ser denunciado ante la Inquisición: objetos de superstición, brujería, ritos, dioses, idolatrías y demás usos de gentilidad.

«After the Conquest everything related to Aztec culture went underground and declined.» — y el destino que de ahí siguió para la cultura mexica, clandestinidad y decadencia.

«XVII Century descriptions of medical practices do not correspond to what had been said a Century before.» — del Pozo señala la discontinuidad documental entre el siglo XVI y el XVII en las descripciones de la práctica médica.

«This shows the fundamental mistake of people who pretend to draw conclusions about Aztec pharmacology by studying the practices of present day indian communities.» — y de ahí extrae su objeción de método más dura, contra quienes sacan conclusiones de la farmacología mexica observando comunidades indígenas de hoy.

«Four centuries of isolation and neglect have left the people without most of the values of their culture ; even their physical condition has been affected.» — del Pozo describe el estado de las comunidades nahuas de su tiempo como efecto de cuatro siglos de aislamiento y abandono.

«Ethnopharmacologic research in Mexico has a great work ahead for exploration of the Nahuatl knowledge and experience with plants.» — del Pozo declara el programa pendiente para México, con el saber nahua de las plantas por explorar.

«Many writings have not been studied thoroughly. There are documents that have not been translated or interpreted. A great number of plants described under Nahuatl names have not been botanically identified.» — y lo desglosa en tres deudas: escritos sin estudiar a fondo, documentos sin traducir y plantas de nombre náhuatl sin identificar.

«Botanical knowledge was advanced among the Aztecs. They had made groups of plants according to morphology, size, structure, fruits and their uses» — del Pozo adjudica a los mexicas un conocimiento botánico avanzado y da sus criterios de agrupación: morfología, tamaño, estructura, frutos y usos.

«Medicinal plants was one of those groups, but the system allowed having many different plants with the same name.» — y señala el defecto del sistema que hoy complica la identificación: varias plantas distintas podían compartir nombre.

«The color paintings obtained by Hernandez would have helped for identification, but they were lost in the fire of the Escorial library in 1671.» — del Pozo fecha en el incendio del Escorial la pérdida de las pinturas a color de Hernández, que habrían resuelto identificaciones.

«Looking for an orientation to pick out active plants used in Aztec medicine we compared different reliable reports. We thought correlation would indicate reputation or general use of the plant.» — del Pozo declara el método de cotejo con que buscó plantas activas: la coincidencia entre fuentes como indicio de uso general.

«Sahagun mentions in his History 123 medicinal plants and only 86 of them appear in the texts of his informants.» — y la primera cifra que va contra esa premisa: de las ciento veintitrés plantas de la Historia, ochenta y seis están en los textos de los informantes.

«This means that he made a rigorous selection and that he used other sources of information that we do not know.» — del Pozo lee ese desfase como selección rigurosa de Sahagún más fuentes que hoy se desconocen.

«The comparison of his protocols kept in Madrid and Florence libraries, showed only 78 plants in common. Of a total of 225 different plants in those texts, 163 appear in the first and 140 in the second.» — y el cotejo entre los dos juegos de protocolos, el de Madrid y el de Florencia, con setenta y ocho plantas comunes de doscientas veinticinco.

«When we compared the botanical content of the materia medica in the Cruz-Badiano book, we discovered the surprising fact that among 251 plants mentioned there are only 15 of those included by Sahagun in his History.» — el hallazgo que del Pozo llama sorprendente: de doscientas cincuenta y una plantas del libro de Martín de la Cruz, solo quince están en la Historia de Sahagún.

«We could speculate about the already mentioned possibility of basic discrepancies between the professional training and methods of Martin de la Cruz, physician at the Spanish College of Tlatelolco, and the Indian physicians put together by Sahagun, who were general practitioners among his folk.» — y la explicación que del Pozo ofrece en forma de especulación declarada: formación y método distintos entre el médico del colegio español y los médicos de a pie de Sahagún.

«Furthermore the plants that are mentioned in both documents sometimes appear with different therapeutic indications or they are not granted similar interest : tlatlancuaye (plants of the genus iresine) appear 17 times in Martin de la Cruz, only once in the texts of Sahagun informants, and none in his History.» — y el ejemplo con que lo apoya, el tlatlancuaye repetido diecisiete veces en Martín de la Cruz y una sola en los informantes.

«With regard to Francisco Hernandez Natural History, we should remember that he was an European physician, representative of the medical and philosophical ideas of "humors" and qualities of diseases, and for the "contraries" or medicines.» — del Pozo sitúa a Hernández dentro de la doctrina europea de los humores y los contrarios, que es la rejilla con que miró las plantas mexicas.

«In that way Hernandez described 3076 plants and gives the "dryness" or "humidity", "warmness" or "coldness" degrees of every one of them.» — y la consecuencia en cifras: tres mil setenta y seis plantas descritas con su grado de sequedad, humedad, calor y frío; los cuatro términos van entrecomillados en el impreso.

«According to those European doctrines any plant could be useful in medicine if its qualities were contrary to the nature of disease.» — del Pozo enuncia la regla de esa doctrina: sirve cualquier planta cuyas calidades contraríen la naturaleza del mal.

«Once he says how bewildered he was at the use by the Indians of warm plants against fever.» — y el momento en que esa rejilla se le rompe a Hernández, ante el uso indígena de plantas calientes contra la fiebre.

«During seven years, disregarding the royal and urgent requests, he kept collecting and assaying plants and writing his Natural History, instead of obeying the orders for sending his manuscripts.» — del Pozo consigna la desobediencia de Hernández a las órdenes reales durante siete años de colecta y ensayo.

«Martin de la Cruz wrote about the plants used by him and his kindred Indian physicians; Sahagun strived to obtain uncontaminated information about the pre-hispanic uses of plants by the best known physicians, uses that he described independently of the practices by sorcerers, wizards and soothsayers» — del Pozo deslinda los tres enfoques: Martín de la Cruz escribe de lo suyo, y Sahagún busca información sin contaminar describiendo los usos aparte de los de hechiceros, magos y adivinos.

«No wonder the reports differ. But they complement themselves if one analyzes the meaning of the data by keeping in mind the wide distance between the standpoints of view.» — y la regla de lectura que propone para las tres fuentes: difieren y se complementan si se tiene presente la distancia entre sus puntos de vista.

«New religion and magic, new medicine and superstitions had been imported, and African rites and witchcraft had arrived with the African slaves brought by the Spaniards.» — del Pozo consigna la capa africana que se suma a la mezcla colonial, con sus ritos y su brujería traídos por los esclavos.

«Ruiz de Alarcon, who in 1629 wrote one of the best known treatises on native idolatries (13) recognizes those facts and mentions that the Indians were dying at a fast rate because of bad health and drunkenness a vice not allowed in Aztec society.» — del Pozo cita a Ruiz de Alarcón sobre la mortandad indígena por mala salud y embriaguez, y anota que ese vicio no se permitía en la sociedad mexica.

«No doubt we could still find valuable information, but great patience and comprehension have to be used in order to overcome the natural distrust of people that have been subjected to exploitation during Centuries.» — del Pozo pone una condición de trato al trabajo de campo: paciencia y comprensión para vencer la desconfianza de gente explotada durante siglos.

«Documents on magic are difficult to study. Translations and interpretations are full of problems because of the esoteric language (Nahuatlatolli)» — del Pozo declara la dificultad propia de los documentos de magia y la atribuye al lenguaje esotérico, que nombra en náhuatl.

«Literal translations refer to "the nine times beaten" for tobacco, the "red chichimec" for copper, the "red woman" for blood, "one water" for wood, "seven caves" for mouth, "snake" for pain» — las equivalencias del Nahuatlatolli que del Pozo enumera, del tabaco como el nueve veces golpeado a la serpiente por dolor; los términos van entrecomillados en el impreso.

«Most of these imaginative expressions have not been explained and many others have not been interpreted.» — y el saldo: la mayoría de esas expresiones sigue sin explicar y muchas otras sin interpretar.

«As we say before, magic and its language represent very old myths and such study is full of obstacles.» — la tesis de del Pozo sobre la magia y su lengua como depósito de mitos muy viejos, y el obstáculo que eso supone para el estudio.

«The personal work of Gordon Wasson and the valuable contributions from people inspired by him, is a good example of what has to be done» — del Pozo pone el trabajo de Gordon Wasson y el de quienes él inspiró como modelo de lo que falta por hacer.

«It has been remarked that tradition-bound scientists will predictably conclude that the proper use of hallucinogens is for research and medical application; the illicit abuse is for kicks and cults» — Freedman abre su ponencia citando el reproche que se hace a los científicos: que reservan el uso propio para la investigación y la medicina y dejan lo demás como abuso.

«Whatever scientists may think, history does indeed record our unceasing urge to transcend limits and escape dreary reality or anxiety with the aid of magic, drugs, drama, festival rites, and (with biological regularity) through dreams.» — Freedman pone la droga en una serie con la magia, el drama, los ritos de fiesta y el sueño, como medios del impulso constante a trascender el límite y escapar de la realidad o la angustia.

«Even though we could doubt that drugs produce pleasure without the risk of harm, and wonder if man is built to sustain and to manage more than a brief chemically-induced glimpse of paradise, we must still examine the data of ethnology, pop culture, and clinical use for real evidence.» — y pese a su duda sobre el placer sin riesgo, Freedman se obliga a mirar la evidencia de la etnología, de la cultura popular y de la clínica.

«Do such data indicate that there are drugs which specifically enhance these varied transcendent purposes ? If so, how do they, why and how exclusively or to what extent do they work and at what cost?» — la pregunta que Freedman plantea al simposio, con el costo incluido en ella.

«To discriminate and analyze drug effects, quite imperfect tools will have to be borrowed from a variety of disciplines and contexts: from the social psychology of religion, of deviant behavior generally, of recreation, of social change and self-help movements, as well as the social psychology of aesthetics, pleasure and euphoria, and that of groups and of altered mental states.» — Freedman enumera las disciplinas de las que hay que tomar prestadas herramientas imperfectas, de la psicología social de la religión a la de la estética y el placer.

«We should recognize that analysis of these problems occurs in the context of prevailing prejudices and publicity untempered by rational scrutiny.» — y advierte que el análisis mismo ocurre dentro de prejuicios vigentes y publicidad sin escrutinio racional.

«It already seems clear that whatever the motive for their use, the consequences of these drugs range from isolated awe or benign or even bored surprise, to reported shifts of values to transient or occasionally long-term psychoses, to varieties of religious or aesthetic experience, and to clique formation and ritual.» — Freedman despliega el abanico de consecuencias, del asombro aislado o el aburrimiento a la psicosis, la experiencia religiosa o estética y la formación de camarillas y rituales.

«Some serious theologians as well as our peripatetic prophets now seek the drugs as a promoter of love, of religious or self-enhancement» — Freedman consigna que teólogos serios y profetas ambulantes buscan por igual estas drogas como promotoras del amor y del realce religioso o personal.

«Of course, prophets, seers, gentle and ferocious reformers, acting for good or evil, have often held that special visions were not only their inspiration but their guide.» — y sitúa la visión especial en una tradición larga de profetas y videntes que la tomaron por inspiración y por guía.

«Truly dispassionate assessment—the exercise of judgment—may, as the elect warn, deprive one of access to the mysteries revealed in special states; thus if one is "in," there may be no way out» — Freedman describe la trampa que le ve a todo culto: los elegidos advierten que juzgar con desapasionamiento corta el acceso al misterio, de modo que quien entra no tiene salida.

«The only answer to such dilemmas posed by any cult is exposure to experience, to knowledge and assessment over time—i.e., perspective.» — y la única salida que propone, que es la palabra del título de su ponencia: exposición a la experiencia, conocimiento y juicio a lo largo del tiempo, es decir perspectiva.

«If we take LSD as a prototype, I believe that in their extreme and most potent form we are examining drugs which influence that complex psychological machinery with which we establish meaning and communion with others.» — la definición de fondo que Freedman propone para estas drogas: tocan la maquinaria psicológica de la que dependen el sentido y la comunión con los demás.

«There are few drugs which can so unhinge us from the constancies which regulate daily life, or so clearly present us with data from the "inside world" and from the many normally "inutile" perceptions potentially available to us.» — y lo que las distingue, desencajar de las constancias que regulan la vida diaria y presentar datos del mundo de dentro y percepciones normalmente inútiles; los dos términos van entrecomillados en el impreso.

«Given an ample smorgasbord of effects, claims and usages, we can eventually best gain perspective by concentrating on what—if anything—is common to all of these varied drug effects.» — la estrategia de método de Freedman ante la dispersión de efectos y reclamos: buscar lo común a todos ellos, si es que hay algo.

«Rather, a drug mystique has been welded to the underlyingly serious shifts and strains inherently experienced by the most potentially unstable group of any society—the adolescent and young adult.» — Freedman llama mística de la droga a lo que se ha soldado sobre las tensiones del grupo más inestable de cualquier sociedad.

«these values—however germane to the LSD experience—were not born from the drugged mind.» — y deslinda los valores de esa generación de la droga misma: por próximos que estén a la experiencia con LSD, no nacieron de la mente drogada.

«What is clear is that an ideology couched in the language of drugs or pseudo-zen philosophy has been insinuated into youth culture, and by a band of quite articulate writers and vagrant psychologists.» — Freedman adjudica la ideología insinuada en la cultura juvenil a escritores articulados y psicólogos errantes, con el zen de utilería de por medio.

«These have replaced the old medicine show of yesteryear with an updated campus version complete with readings and alluring arguments, if not pills to sell : "drop out, tune in, turn on.» — y compara la operación con el viejo espectáculo de vendedor de remedios; el lema que cierra la frase aparece en el impreso con el orden alterado respecto del que se hizo célebre.

«The philosophical arguments of the advocates are carefully dissociated from the social consequences of their publications.» — la objeción de Freedman a los defensores: separan con cuidado sus argumentos filosóficos de las consecuencias sociales de publicarlos.

«The irresponsibility of the psychedelic gurus is demonstrated in the fact that while they advertise the drug as only a part of their version of a way of life, they are not in a position to manage the consequences of their ideological schemes.» — Freedman imputa a los gurús psicodélicos anunciar la droga como parte de un modo de vida sin estar en condiciones de atender las consecuencias.

«Can they really be innocently surprised if the drug per se is more alluring and interesting to the immature than their philosophical preachings ?» — y la pregunta con que cierra el reproche: que al inmaduro la droga le atraiga más que la prédica no puede sorprenderlos.

«Psychiatrists who have worked intensively in private institutions with young borderline or schizophrenic patients are quite familiar with some of the tribal behaviors, excesses, philosophizing, and "freak outs" similar to those which occur in psychedelic cults.» — Freedman empareja las conductas tribales de los cultos psicodélicos con las que el psiquiatra ya conoce de pacientes fronterizos y esquizofrénicos jóvenes.

«probing into one another's supposedly unconscious motives—characterized youth of previous generations, as did self-experiments with hypnosis even in the 19th century.» — y las pone en serie histórica con el análisis salvaje y los autoensayos de hipnosis de generaciones anteriores.

«The increasing problem of drug abuse in most countries is alcohol, followed by barbiturates, amphetamines, opiates and mild tranquilizers.» — Freedman ordena el problema real del abuso por magnitud y deja el alcohol a la cabeza.

«The agent most frequently used by youth for illicit purposes and with lethal effect is the automobile» — y la comparación con que relativiza la alarma, el automóvil como agente letal más frecuente entre los jóvenes.

«While in the large picture, the scope and pattern of hallucinogenic drug use in our society must be said to be more sensational than consequential, the development of cults and a sharp increase in drug-taking behavior in relatively small, often elite or fringe segments of our society warrants investigation.» — Freedman llama el fenómeno más sensacional que consecuente y a la vez pide investigar el aumento en los segmentos pequeños donde sí ocurre.

«It is clear that the motives for experimenting with a drug, for trying a drug, for interpreting the subjective effects of a drug (81), and for continuing drug usage and for seriously maintaining it can be quite different.» — Freedman separa cuatro motivos que suelen confundirse: experimentar, probar, interpretar el efecto subjetivo y mantener el uso.

«It is also clear that the population of users shifts; e.g., cannabis users have shifted throughout history even in countries such as India, and before 1910, middle class women were frequently represented among our opiate addicted population.» — y consigna el desplazamiento histórico de la población usuaria, con las mujeres de clase media entre los adictos a opiáceos antes de 1910.

«For example, over 30 years ago, the Federal Narcotics Bureau saw no harm in marijuana and within 2 years—and with no more objective data—decided there was a menace.» — el caso con que Freedman mide la volatilidad de la respuesta social: el Federal Narcotics Bureau cambió de posición sobre la marihuana en dos años y sin datos nuevos.

«This association is a social consequence of prohibition and policing—not an actual or pharmacological link of the drugs.» — Freedman adjudica a la prohibición y a la vigilancia, y no a la farmacología, la asociación entre heroína y marihuana en el mismo vendedor.

«Scrutiny of the response to the mescaline-containing peyote—known since the last century—similarly reveals cycles of startled amazement as several new groups or persons came to learn of it and adapt to it; e.g., Havelock Ellis and William James (who did not, incidentally, form cults in 1902» — Freedman describe ciclos de asombro renovado ante el peyote y anota entre paréntesis que Havelock Ellis y William James no formaron cultos; la guarda anticosido salta por el año entre paréntesis del propio impreso, releído entero.

«In brief, the fact that the drug is a precipitant or concommitant of an ongoing disorder must very clearly be distinguished before we determine anything really definitive about long-term effects» — la exigencia metodológica de Freedman antes de afirmar nada sobre efectos a largo plazo: distinguir si la droga precipita un trastorno en curso o solo lo acompaña; el escaneo imprime concommitant.

«This is that there is nothing intrinsic to the training and practice of a wide number of professionals which equips them knowledgeably to handle and interpret either the irrational itself or themselves when dealing with it.» — Freedman señala el hueco de formación que atraviesa el asunto: nada en el oficio de la mayoría de los profesionales los prepara para manejar lo irracional ni para manejarse a sí mismos frente a él.

«If a historian documented the distractions inherent in trying to understand or deal with schizophrenia, with hypnosis, with dreams, or with such questions as religious conversion— and certainly with cannabis and LSD—we would see that it has not been easy for men to comport themselves with the best of rational, let alone scientific skill in these areas.» — y pone la esquizofrenia, la hipnosis, el sueño y la conversión religiosa en la misma lista de asuntos donde el hombre no ha logrado comportarse con destreza racional.

«For example, the social use of a drug cannot tell us infallibly about the basic pattern of its effects.» — Freedman niega que el uso social de una droga informe de modo infalible sobre el patrón básico de sus efectos, que es la cautela con que mira el material etnográfico del simposio.

«A wide variety of agents can shift our normal engagement with the world, producing an altered state.» — Freedman separa el estado alterado inespecífico, que muchos agentes producen, del patrón propio de cada droga grabado encima.

«Thirdly, in case a cultural pattern of drug effects seems at first glance invariant, the powerful role of set and setting should be assessed ; for example, the exclusive "Mexican-ness" of Hoffman's visions when he first ingested psilocybin (derived from a Mexican mushroom) is hardly ascribable to a specific chemical action.» — el argumento con que Freedman muestra el peso del set y del setting: la mexicanidad de las visiones de Hofmann al tomar psilocibina por primera vez no se explica por acción química; el escaneo imprime Hoffman con dos efes.

«by and large, the more potent the preparation—the more concentrated the form of the resin—the more psychedelic or psychotomimetic the effects.» — Freedman liga la potencia del efecto psicodélico a la concentración de la resina en el cannabis.

«After a single dose there is "psychological satiation," as McGlothlin calls it, which is characteristic for any single LSD experience : one dose is emotionally sufficient, if not exhausting, for most people for quite a period—days, or weeks, or years.» — la saciedad psicológica que Freedman toma de McGlothlin: una sola dosis basta emocionalmente durante días, semanas o años; el término va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«expressed the fundamental notion that even a highly selective drug would react with some structure other than the one for which it was designed; absolute selectivity for effects is a chemical impossibility.» — la tesis de Dubos que Freedman hace suya: la selectividad absoluta de un fármaco es imposible químicamente.

«The Navaho clearly seek the cure of all manner of both physical and psychic ailments with peyote.» — Freedman consigna el uso navajo del peyote contra toda clase de males, físicos y psíquicos por igual.

«This fact means that the ethnologist must be wary of the extent to which reported effects are specifically drug related.» — y saca de ahí la advertencia para el etnólogo: no todo efecto reportado es atribuible a la droga.

«Apparently where drugs can disrupt normal ego functions they can comprise a polytherapeutics for the so-called functional factor in illness.» — Freedman propone que la disrupción del yo sirve de politerapéutica para el factor llamado funcional de la enfermedad, y declara no saber cómo ocurre.

«Something as nebulous and as potent as faith and confidence is involved.» — y nombra lo que ahí interviene sin poder medirlo: algo tan nebuloso y tan potente como la fe y la confianza.

«psychologically, the drug is seen as a power, either one evoking terror (poison or devils) or one producing sexual, physical or spiritual strength leading to salvation or healing.» — Freedman describe la regularidad de las interpretaciones no empíricas de la droga: se la ve como poder, o de terror con veneno y demonios, o de fuerza que lleva a la salvación y a la cura.

«Given such reservations, it seems that the recurrent theme in historical records is that certain drugs are compellingly related to learning, to self-revelation, and that they are involved in some mystical, often ritual, use.» — el tema recurrente que Freedman halla en el registro histórico: ciertas drogas ligadas al aprendizaje y a la autorrevelación, y metidas en un uso místico y a menudo ritual.

«McGlothlin notes that the American Indian often states that "peyote teaches.» — la fórmula que McGlothlin recoge del indígena norteamericano, citada por Freedman, y que él no encuentra en los relatos sobre la marihuana.

«Apparently, there is a continuum of effects along the dimension of self-revealing and ritual usages.» — y la forma que Freedman le da al asunto, un continuo en la dimensión del uso autorrevelador y ritual antes que una frontera.

«To the extent that there are classes of agents which starkly reveal something about the depths or the dimensions of the mind—exposing these dimensions to our attention—we can say that both use and abuse stem from our amazed response to the subjective experience revealed by these drug states.» — Freedman hace nacer tanto el uso como el abuso de la misma raíz, el asombro ante lo que la droga revela de las dimensiones de la mente.

«If this is what Humphrey Osmond meant by the term "psychedelic" or "mind manifesting" for drugs such as LSD, it is an apt though not novel description.» — Freedman acepta el término psicodélico de Humphrey Osmond, con su sentido de manifestador de la mente, y le niega novedad; los dos términos van entrecomillados en el impreso.

«The mode of functioning and experiencing called psychedelic reflects an innate capacity (like the dream) of which the human mind, in a general sense, is capable» — la tesis central de Freedman sobre lo psicodélico: no es efecto de una sustancia sino una capacidad innata de la mente, como el sueño, que la sustancia obliga a manifestarse.

«A rather famous and wordy Harvard professor noted that drug-induced intoxication "expands, unites and says yes ... it makes . . . (man) for the moment . . . one with truth.» — Freedman cita a William James sin nombrarlo todavía, con la fórmula de la embriaguez que expande, une y dice sí.

«they may determine attitudes through they cannot furnish formulas and open a region though they fail to give a map» — el cierre de la cita de James que Freedman subraya en cursiva: esas formas de consciencia pueden determinar actitudes aunque no den fórmulas, y abrir una región aunque no den mapa; el escaneo imprime through por though.

«Many authors have stressed that the human mind is apparently built with mechanisms for constancy with which to structure and use these fluid and irrational components.» — Freedman recoge de varios autores la idea de que la mente trae mecanismos de constancia para estructurar y usar lo fluido e irracional.

«The question perhaps is not so much expanding the mind—it is expanded enough—but to see if there are drugs which can enhance a better and more creative coordination among these so-called regions.» — la réplica de Freedman a la consigna de expandir la mente: ya está bastante expandida, y lo que cabría buscar es mejor coordinación entre sus regiones.

«In any event, we shall try to describe a multipotential state which, in its most general sense, can underwrite a variety of outcomes: religious feeling and conversions, states of hyper-perception leading to inspirational insights, to psychosis, to exalted states or to behavior or value change.» — Freedman llama multipotencial al estado y enumera lo que puede salir de él: sentimiento y conversión religiosa, hiperpercepción con intuición inspirada, psicosis, exaltación o cambio de valores.

«It is the intense experience without clouded consciousness—the heightened "spectator ego" witnessing the excitement, which is characteristic for these drugs in usual dosages.» — el rasgo que Freedman da por característico de estas drogas, la experiencia intensa sin consciencia enturbiada, con el yo espectador presenciando la excitación.

«Thus there is a split of the self—a portion of which is a relatively passive monitor rather than an active, focusing and initiating force—and a portion of which receives vivid experiences.» — y la escisión del yo que de ahí se sigue, entre un monitor pasivo y una parte que recibe la experiencia vívida.

«During the drug state, awareness becomes intensely vivid while self-control over input is remarkably diminished ; thus there is the lurking threat of loss of inner control—loss of control of integral stability—of the "dying of the ego" so often reported in bad trips or in phases of mystical experiences with the drug.» — Freedman liga la pérdida de control sobre la entrada al miedo a perder la estabilidad interior, que es la muerte del yo reportada lo mismo en los malos viajes que en las fases místicas.

«In the drug state, customary boundaries become fluid and the familiar becomes novel and portentous. Events take on a trajectory of their own; qualities become intense and gain a life of their own; redness is more interesting than the object which is red; meaningfulness more important than what is specifically meant ; connotations balloon into cosmic allusiveness ; the limits of sobriety are lost.» — la descripción que Freedman hace del estado, con lo rojo vuelto más interesante que el objeto rojo y la significatividad más importante que lo significado.

«And, after the drug state, we may find more tolerance for ambiguity and a diminished readiness for the quick answer; we also can find an associated inability to decide, to discriminate, to make commitments.» — Freedman pone juntos los dos saldos posteriores, más tolerancia a la ambigüedad y menos capacidad de decidir, discriminar y comprometerse.

«Creativity requires some use of the drug-induced facility for seeing new meanings ; but there is nothing about the drug effect which specifically enhances this synthetic and organizing facility.» — Freedman concede a la droga la facilidad de ver sentidos nuevos y le niega la de sintetizar y organizar, que es lo que la creación exige además.

«Indeed as we shall stress, the need for synthesis—not the ability to synthesize—is what is enhanced in the drug state.» — y la fórmula con que lo resume: lo que el estado aumenta es la necesidad de síntesis, no la capacidad de hacerla.

«An important feature of the state is an enhanced dependence upon the environment for structure and support as well as enhanced vulnerability to the surrounding milieu.» — el rasgo con que Freedman explica lo que llama la acción cultógena: dependencia aumentada del entorno para estructura y sostén, y vulnerabilidad aumentada a él.

«With the loss of boundaries, persons or a group are used for such elemental functions as control—for helping one to know what is inside and what is outside, for comfort and for binding and balancing the fragmenting world» — y la función que pasan a cumplir las personas o el grupo al perderse los límites: control, saber qué es dentro y qué es fuera, consuelo y equilibrio.

«Thus with the dissolving boundaries of self and outside, with the fusion of self and surroundings some of the strain between harsh authority and personal strivings can for the moment be transcended or dissolved.» — Freedman explica por la fusión del yo con el entorno el alivio momentáneo de la tensión entre la autoridad dura y el impulso propio.

«At the same time there is a leaning on others for structure and control and hence, when the drugs are taken in a group setting, the breach with reality represented by the drugs can be filled by the directive mystique and support of the group.» — y el reverso del mismo fenómeno: la brecha con la realidad que la droga abre la llena la mística directiva del grupo, que es su razón para llamarlas cultógenas.

«By model we do not mean identity; rather we mean an approach to certain processes which are present to some extent both in the drug state and psychoses ; the conditions for either state have similarities and obvious differences» — Freedman acota qué entiende por psicosis modelo: no identidad sino aproximación a procesos presentes en los dos estados, con semejanzas y diferencias obvias.

«For example, what is impinging on an ongoing perception is a vivid memory of what has just been perceived ; these co-existing images can compete for attention and thus give rise to illusions. These can be immaginatively elaborated into hallucinations.» — el mecanismo que Freedman propone para la ilusión y la alucinación: la memoria vívida de lo recién percibido compite con la percepción en curso; el escaneo imprime immaginatively.

«The failure to suppress the prior perception or memory or thought characterizes what Bleuler called "double registration" in schizophrenia or what, in Eorschach parlance, is called contamination.» — y lo empareja con el doble registro de Bleuler en la esquizofrenia y con la contaminación del Rorschach; el escaneo imprime Eorschach.

«The capacity to direct one's focus is impaired; allocation of the source of a feeling, a sound, a sight, or a thought becomes difficult since inside and outside become fused.» — Freedman deriva de la fusión de dentro y fuera la dificultad para atribuir el origen de un sentimiento, un sonido, una imagen o un pensamiento.

«With care, one observes that preceeding this there is a primary need for elemental tension-discharge—a welling up which requires laughing or crying for relief.» — Freedman invierte el orden habitual entre afecto y descarga: primero la necesidad de descargar, después la escena que la racionaliza; el escaneo imprime preceeding.

«Thus we have with these drugs at least a tool with which to study the genesis and sequence of a number of familiar phenomena in psychiatry.» — lo que Freedman reclama para estas drogas dentro de la psiquiatría: herramienta para estudiar la génesis y la secuencia de fenómenos ya conocidos.

«One protection is not to fight the experiences during the drug state. An upsurge of the traditional defensive operations may lead to temporary panic even in relatively stable people.» — la regla práctica que Freedman recoge: no pelear con la experiencia, porque el repunte de las defensas habituales lleva al pánico aun en personas estables.

«The Indians of the Native American Church emphasize sincerity, and the desire to learn, and they link bad peyote experiences with the presence of aggression and competition rather than the setting of sincerity and brotherly love and a willingness to learn.» — la explicación que la Native American Church da del mal viaje, citada por Freedman: agresión y competencia contra sinceridad, amor fraterno y voluntad de aprender.

«It is striking that when self examination or confrontation with internal problems is the motive for drug-taking, effects are sometimes bad. When problems are aptly externalized or shared there is less panic and subsequent upset.» — y la observación que Freedman contrapone a la idea de la droga como herramienta de introspección: el examen de sí como motivo empeora el resultado.

«Thus a certain yielding and surrender of ambition and personal autonomy helps some individuals to have a good experience, but this requires if not group support a certain personal strength, or at least a facility. It also requires stable groups.» — Freedman pone tres condiciones para que la entrega rinda: apoyo del grupo, cierta fuerza personal y grupos estables.

«Others are encouraged or equipped to transcend the fragmented disparate elements, letting them flow into the sway of a mystique, or letting them be steered by latent guiding interests or memories.» — y describe la otra salida, dejar que los fragmentos entren en el vaivén de una mística o los guíen intereses y recuerdos latentes.

«With higher dosages and the increasing loss of the capacity for detailed focusing, the importance of guiding "sets" (music, mystique, affective expectations such as the doctrine of boundless love) is enhanced.» — Freedman liga el peso del set a la dosis: cuanto menos foco, más pesan la música, la mística y la doctrina del amor sin límites.

«So too does the fact that one good trip does not predict a second.» — la negativa que Freedman deja escrita contra cualquier promesa de repetición.

«but one is reminded of Sidney Cohen's remark that most people get what they deserve or what they are equipped at the time to experience as modified by set, equipment and setting» — la fórmula de Sidney Cohen que Freedman cita: cada quien obtiene lo que merece o lo que está equipado para experimentar, según el set, el equipo y el entorno.

«Our dreams also are an episode in a sequence of states which we usually can somehow integrate into the normal fabric of living ; similarly something must now be done with the total drug experience—nightmare, illusion or ecstasy.» — Freedman empareja la experiencia con la droga y el sueño por la exigencia que dejan atrás, integrarla en el tejido de la vida normal.

«Still others will decide that the sense of cosmic comprehension is equivalent to mastery. They will tend to deny the anxiety about the loss or potential loss of control.» — la salida que Freedman describe como negación: tomar el sentimiento de comprensión cósmica por dominio y negar la angustia por la pérdida de control.

«In any event, when such a profound breach with normal functioning occurs, there is some need to synthesize and integrate this experience, to represent and to cope with it in some way.» — la tesis de la necesidad de síntesis que da título a esa sección de Freedman.

«it is not uncommon that there is an equivalence of value for what is at the periphery and what is normally perceived at the center of the virsual field.» — el caso del científico cuya visión periférica quedó equiparada en valor al centro del campo visual; la frase arranca en la plana anterior, donde se dice que la visión periférica se le realzó durante el estado, y el escaneo imprime virsual.

«He could no longer suppress what normally is background rather than a compelling figure.» — y lo que a Freedman le importa del caso: la supresión de fondo, no la visión, es lo que quedó tocado meses después.

«LSD appears to affect such perceptual anticipations and more complex regulatory systems. It rearranges our ideas of order.» — la fórmula con que Freedman resume la acción del LSD: reordena las ideas de orden.

«It is striking that prior to psychedelic ideology and experiments with self-therapy, mescaline produced more "perceptual" than self-revealing experiences, but the mode of breakdown of constancies is similar whether the self or perceptions are a referent.» — Freedman consigna un cambio histórico en el contenido mismo de la experiencia: antes de la ideología psicodélica la mescalina daba más experiencias perceptivas que autorreveladoras.

«that, once the vividly religious state is experienced, one seeks throughout life to recapture its inspiration» — la observación de Gordon Allport que Freedman cita sobre el estado religioso vívido y la búsqueda de por vida de su inspiración; el nombre de Allport queda en la plana anterior.

«The classic example, of course, is the traumatic neurosis in which, following a traumatic episode in the trenches, the soldier recurrently dreams the nightmare—apparently in order to master it.» — y el modelo con que Freedman explica la repetición, la neurosis traumática del soldado que sueña la pesadilla para dominarla.

«Put simply, in a state of altered consciousness where control over awareness is diminished, there is no way to bind the intensities experienced and symptoms may ensue.» — la fórmula que Freedman toma del estado hipnoide de Breuer: sin modo de ligar las intensidades vividas, aparece el síntoma.

«These are experiences which are presented to consciousness, but what often is lacking is the element of guidance, correction, reflection and structure which leads to authentic self-mastery ; this may be the chief source of danger of LSD—the lack of structure and autonomy and the traumatic and potent intensity» — Freedman sitúa el peligro principal del LSD en lo que falta y no en lo que hay: guía, corrección, reflexión y estructura frente a una intensidad potente.

«The young do not merely "turn on" themselves but seem to display great anger at the guides whom they feel failed them (indeed the prophets counsel students to "turn on" their parents—one of their metaphors which is most likely not to be concretely interpreted)» — Freedman lee el enojo juvenil contra los guías que fallaron, y anota entre paréntesis la metáfora de los profetas sobre encender a los padres; los términos van entrecomillados en el impreso.

«The bridge may be a book as it was with Huxley, a silent synthesis or change of values and tastes, or the understanding of a group or person.» — los puentes que Freedman enumera para cerrar la brecha con la realidad, y entre ellos el libro, que es el caso de Huxley.

«In the Native American Church, the Indian utilizes all these elements—religious explanation and adherence, specific ceremonies and the group with its ideology—to integrate the experience which serves a purpose in the total fabric of his life.» — y el caso que Freedman da por integrado: en la Native American Church la explicación religiosa, la ceremonia y el grupo con su ideología cumplen juntos esa función.

«It has been speculated that during the ceremonies, by borrowing the strength of "father peyote" and experiencing an enhancement of self, he transcends personal anxiety and inadequacy.» — la especulación que Freedman recoge sobre el mecanismo de esa integración, con la fuerza tomada en préstamo del padre peyote; el término va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«Some sects are tutored to ignore the visions and disparate elements of the drug state to achieve this higher» — el dato que invierte la expectativa corriente: hay sectas instruidas para ignorar las visiones y los elementos dispares del estado; la frase termina en la plana siguiente, donde lo llama estado cósmico superior.

«The Indian does not accordingly seek a simple "high" or thrill with the drug» — Freedman niega que el indígena busque con el peyote el simple subidón; el término va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«Indeed we must seriously wonder why those who find salvation are so generous and so ready to proselytize and advertise ! Implied are unsolved problems with authority figures.» — la pregunta que Freedman le hace al converso: por qué quien halla la salvación es tan pronto a proselitizar, y la respuesta que insinúa, problemas sin resolver con las figuras de autoridad.

«In any event it appears that salvation often involves renunciation of previous ties and that those who are saved must repetitively convince others in order to diminish their own doubt, isolation and guilt.» — Freedman describe la salvación como renuncia a los lazos previos, y la necesidad de convencer a otros como modo de aliviar la duda, el aislamiento y la culpa propios.

«At best, they may do this in order to reachieve union with those with whom they have been separated by their unique vision and experience, and to synthesize these breaches with important others.» — y en su mejor caso, como intento de recuperar la unión con aquellos de quienes la visión única los separó.

«With such arrangements the distance between authority and the miscreant (reminiscent of that between parent and child) is diminished and so too is the inner tension. The cost is a surrender of certain order of autonomy to the group and dependence upon it.» — Freedman mide el costo del grupo de pares: acorta la distancia con la autoridad y cobra autonomía y dependencia.

«The elect of many cults either assume the attitude or the outsider feels this to be the attitude of those who know something he does not.» — la postura de los elegidos que Freedman describe sin decidir de qué lado nace, si del propio grupo o de la mirada del de fuera.

«Group sanctioning of the drug state can diminish the intensity and isolation ; the group mystique tends to give integration through a credible rendition, if not sanction to events which by their very nature cannot easily be» — Freedman atribuye a la mística del grupo la función de dar versión creíble a lo que la experiencia tiene de intraducible; la frase termina en la plana siguiente, con lo que no se deja verter a lengua pública.

«The mystique may not be more descriptive of the drug state but simply apparently precise and sufficiently allusive to serve as a representation of and compensation for the breach with reality.» — y acota qué hace esa mística: no describir mejor, sino parecer precisa y ser bastante alusiva para representar la brecha y compensarla.

«Mystical or religious representations also are remarkably apt for synthesizing the experience. Religion relates man to his limits while taking account of his boundlessness which occurs in all aspects of this realm of the mind.» — la tesis de Freedman sobre por qué lo religioso sirve para esto: la religión relaciona al hombre con sus límites contando a la vez con su ilimitación.

«It may be that religious symbolism aptly represents the transformations characteristic of this latent part of the mind.» — y la hipótesis que de ahí saca, en condicional: el simbolismo religioso representaría con acierto las transformaciones propias de esa parte latente de la mente.

«Against fragmentation and directionlessness something coherent lends continuity to experience. Against dread, transcendent love can prevail» — Freedman opone lo coherente a la fragmentación y el amor trascendente al pavor, que son las dos funciones que le reconoce a la representación religiosa.

«of a parent can be parted from the particular persons and transcendentally represented in various forms of power ascribed to deities.» — el mecanismo que Freedman propone para la deidad: lo amoroso y lo fuerte del padre, que el impreso entrecomilla, se separan de la persona concreta y se representan trascendentemente como poder.

«There are observations about the uses and abuses of religous conversion which are not dissimilar from what we can describe in the current drug scene.» — Freedman empareja la escena de la droga de su tiempo con lo observado sobre los usos y abusos de la conversión religiosa; el escaneo imprime religous.

«Another outcome entails an allegiance to values rather than a behavior change ; e.g., adolescents who are converted to their parents' religion.» — el segundo desenlace de la tipología de Clark que Freedman aplica, adhesión a valores sin cambio de conducta.

«Similarly there are student LSD users who talk like psychedelicists but continue to be headed for a career of suburbia and the office.» — y su equivalente entre los estudiantes que hablan como psicodelistas y siguen camino a la oficina y al suburbio.

«Classifications of pathological outcomes of conversion (including irresponsibility and omniscience) startlingly resemble patterns we see with LSD» — Freedman señala el parecido entre las clasificaciones de desenlace patológico de la conversión y los patrones que se ven con LSD.

«He notes a pre-conversion conflict which reaches a peak, a moment of "giving up" (an intention to cease the struggle) which can be followed by an opportunity to come up with a new solution.» — la secuencia de la conversión que Freedman toma de Christiansen: conflicto que llega a su punto máximo, momento de rendirse y oportunidad de una solución nueva; el término va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«The conflict must 'become sufficiently accessible to that part of the mind which can organize and synthesize it in religious terms.» — y la condición que esa secuencia exige, que el conflicto llegue a la parte de la mente capaz de organizarlo y sintetizarlo en términos religiosos.

«Perhaps they were simply jealous of the subject when they insisted upon taking the drug concurrently with him.» — la explicación que Freedman insinúa para los terapeutas que se drogaban junto con el paciente.

«When a therapist in our culture has little sense of intellectual control over the events he is monitoring, we are dealing with a healing cult» — el criterio con que Freedman separa terapia de culto curativo: el control intelectual del terapeuta sobre lo que observa.

«what is rational about therapy is our obligation to study and control that with which we work.» — y lo que él llama racional en la terapia, la obligación de estudiar y controlar aquello con lo que se trabaja.

«Critical observation and empathy have led us as far as we are in our present dealing with schizophrenia ; there is no evidence that any further progress has been made by those therapists who insisted on being» — Freedman niega evidencia de avance a los terapeutas que se drogaban a sí mismos, frente a la observación crítica y la empatía; la última palabra queda del otro lado de una marca de plana reemitida.

«With a strong drug-enhanced tie to the therapist, feelings and memories are allowed to emerge vividly and unforgetably before the eye of consciousness and their strength discharged.» — Freedman describe la terapia psicolítica europea: el lazo con el terapeuta realzado por la droga y los recuerdos emergiendo vívidos hasta descargarse.

«Dosages are regulated in part by the capacity of the patient to steer a course between being utterly lost on the one hand or overly constrained by habitual defenses on the other.» — y el criterio de dosis de esa escuela, entre perderse del todo y quedar preso de las defensas habituales.

«In the so-called psychedelic therapies as they are now being tested, there is an awareness of an immense amount of preparation, of salesmanship with an evangelical tone in which the patient is confronted with hope and positive displays of it, before he has his one great experience with very high doses of drug.» — Freedman describe la otra escuela, la psicodélica, con preparación larga, tono evangélico y una sola experiencia a dosis muy alta.

«The experience is structured by music and by confident good feelings. With the support of the positive therapist throughout this experience, the patient is encouraged to see his life in a new light, to think of his future accordingly.» — y lo que en ella hace de estructura, la música y el buen ánimo del terapeuta, para que el paciente vea su vida de otro modo.

«An earlier mode of intervention attempted to avoid the tangled problems of relationship between therapist and patient with one single high dose drug session as the chief therapeutic contact; the current approach is more explicitly ritualized» — Freedman compara la primera forma de intervención, una sola sesión de dosis alta, con la actual, más explícitamente ritualizada; la frase sigue en la plana siguiente, donde dice que el modelo es el de los movimientos nativistas y que el terapeuta se incorpora en vez de analizarse.

«It is interesting that peyote cultures also report cures of alcoholics, but the effects may not persist without sustained group support and leadership.» — y empareja la terapia psicodélica del alcoholismo con las curas que reportan las culturas del peyote, con la misma condición de sostén grupal.

«Obviously careful follow-up is essential, since the immediate glow which occurs with drug-induced personality change can be deceptive.» — la cautela de Freedman sobre el fulgor inmediato de un cambio de personalidad inducido por droga.

«I have noted my current opinion that the chief abuse of LSD is irresponsible, alluring and provocative advertising.» — Freedman sitúa el abuso principal del LSD no en el consumo sino en la propaganda irresponsable que lo rodea.

«but some of the features noted were a high opinion of their own profundity ; dissociation and detachment—a feeling of being above and beyond the normal world of social reality; interpersonal insensitivity ; omniscience and philosophical naivete—a simplistic satisfaction in visions.» — la lista que Freedman toma de McClelland sobre los investigadores psicodélicos de Harvard: alta opinión de su propia profundidad, desapego, insensibilidad interpersonal, omnisciencia y satisfacción simplista en las visiones.

«These consequences of drug taking observed in the very home of transcendentalism have been observed in other settings ; perhaps we are delineating one intrinsic pattern of outcome of extensive, repeated LSD use.» — y la hipótesis que de ahí propone, con la ironía de haberlo observado en la casa misma del trascendentalismo: un patrón propio del uso repetido.

«In a few current illicit self-help groups the drugs surprisingly are used reportedly to achieve a conventional outcome.» — Freedman consigna el uso de la droga para fines convencionales en grupos ilícitos de autoayuda, con el trabajo honrado como requisito de ingreso en uno de ellos.

«If these lay LSD groups learn from experience, they will do so with even less guidance and self critical checks than the professionals have had in coping with adolescent confusion and turmoil and even the more serious dysfunctions.» — y la objeción que les hace: aprenderán con menos guía y menos control crítico del que han tenido los profesionales.

«It is the patient who pays for such experimentation by the gurus.» — la frase con que Freedman cierra ese reproche.

«From the evidence available, it appears that users who end up in hospitals with prolonged and serious psychoses are initially a quite unstable group.» — Freedman acota de dónde salen las psicosis prolongadas: de un grupo ya inestable de partida, y pequeño.

«to gain access to themselves and others—a pervasive sense of being constricted, seems to characterize some of the college takers I have studied.» — el motivo que Freedman halla dominante entre los universitarios que estudió, acceder a sí mismos y a los demás contra una sensación de constricción; lo precede en el impreso la fórmula entrecomillada de la necesidad de sentir.

«Others sincerely feel they should confront an experience advertised to be so important. They see the drug as an emotional fitness test, somewhat analogous to physical fitness.» — otro motivo que Freedman consigna, la droga como prueba de aptitud emocional por analogía con la física.

«In general they are rehearsing their strength and autonomy at a time when their lives are largely unwritten.» — la lectura de Freedman sobre esa edad: un ensayo de la propia fuerza y autonomía cuando la vida está aún por escribirse.

«If though, we search for major productions of art, letters, music or visionary insight, few clear cut monuments to the drug are available.» — la negativa que Freedman opone a la promesa creativa de la droga: no hay monumentos claros en arte, letras, música ni visión.

«Huxley's greatest output preceded his mescaline states; he thereafter, as I read him, tended to write about drugs, not to create with them.» — y el caso con que la apoya, Huxley escribiendo sobre drogas y no con ellas, marcado como lectura propia.

«If we ask whether there have been cultures which have eradicated mental disorders and disease with these drugs, or groups which have seen the dissolution of deviant behavior or even deviant drug-linked behaviors (for example, alcoholism), we find some slight association but no clear cut overall differences that I know of in the general titre of human misery.» — Freedman busca diferencias globales entre culturas con y sin estas plantas y no halla ninguna clara en lo que llama el título de la miseria humana.

«In fact the use of these drugs is often associated with some form of psychosocial deprivation—or (equally) with marked privilege (as in Brahmins and college students» — y el reparto social que sí halla, entre la privación y el privilegio marcado.

«That private satisfactions might have been achieved, that groups with the presence of these plants could have attained some spiritual equilibrium seems apparent, but whether the plants and their effects are both necessary and sufficient to get such results whether no alternative means exist within a culture—is another question.» — Freedman concede la satisfacción privada y el equilibrio espiritual de grupos con estas plantas, y deja aparte la pregunta por si la planta es necesaria y suficiente o hay otras vías dentro de la cultura.

«We should not forget to assess the cost of sustained euphoria or pleasure states ; we have to wonder whether the mind of man is built to accommodate an excess either of pleasure or of over-rationality.» — y la duda que reparte en las dos direcciones, si la mente del hombre está hecha para el exceso de placer o para el de racionalidad.

«How can the stability of religious custom protect drug takers who have little authentic orientation to religion and unstable groups and barely reliable leaders upon whom to lean ?» — la pregunta de Freedman sobre el límite de la protección ritual: no protege a quien no tiene orientación religiosa auténtica ni grupo estable.

«Thus etched upon the variabilities of culture and personality are drugs with a certain skew toward that mystical realm of the mind which knows both psychosis and religion, both heightened and useful self insight, and impaired and distorted judgment about the everyday world.» — la formulación con que Freedman sitúa estas drogas, sesgadas hacia el reino místico de la mente donde conviven la psicosis y la religión.

«In general, it seems to me that we have been more awed than aided by our experience with these drugs. They still remain agents which reveal but do not» — el balance con que Freedman cierra su ponencia, más asombrados que auxiliados; la frase termina en la plana siguiente, donde dice que revelan las regiones mentales pero no las cartografían.

«chart the mental regions; to do that we must employ our mental faculties available in the undrugged state.» — y la exigencia que de ahí deriva: cartografiar esas regiones toca a las facultades mentales del estado no drogado; la frase arranca en la plana anterior.

«We should strive to make distinctions so that—at some future date—if we knew how the elements of mind really were related, we could specify for the chemist the designs he should seek in nature.» — el programa que Freedman propone para el futuro, distinguir hasta poder pedirle al químico el diseño que debe buscar en la naturaleza.

«The use of Kawa in certain parts of Oceania is apparently very old. It has been described already by early travelers, for instance by James Cook in 1768.» — Cronheim abre la sesión del kava fechando su primera descripción en James Cook; el volumen alterna las grafías Kawa y Kava en planas contiguas.

«The descriptions uniformly indicated that the Kawa experience is apparently pleasant, and free from hangover or other side- or after-effects.» — y consigna la uniformidad de los relatos de viajeros: experiencia agradable y sin resaca ni efectos secundarios.

«Many travelers, and also such scientific investigators as L. Lewin, have reported that Kawa can induce a form of euphoria, described as a happy state of complete comfort and peace, with ease of conversation and increased perceptivity, followed by restful sleep.» — la euforia que Cronheim atribuye al kava según viajeros y según Lewin: comodidad y paz completas, facilidad de conversación, percepción aumentada y sueño reparador.

«In many areas, the use of Kawa was connected with religious cults and ceremonies. Thus, it is not surprising that missionaries tried to suppress the drinking of Kawa.» — Cronheim liga la persecución misionera del kava a su vínculo con cultos y ceremonias religiosas.

«In some islands, this campaign was very successful, especially when it coincided with the introduction of alcoholic beverages.» — y señala la condición que hizo eficaz esa campaña, la llegada simultánea de las bebidas alcohólicas.

«Could it be that enough people preferred the effects induced by alcohol over those of Kawa? Otherwise the change-over would not have taken place as rapidly or as completely as was apparently the case in many islands.» — la pregunta que Cronheim deja planteada al panel sobre el relevo del kava por el alcohol, y el argumento de rapidez con que la sostiene.

«Also, the preference for alcoholic beverages is—if not an absolute proof—at least a good indication that the Kawa drink did not contain or simulate alcohol.» — y lo que Cronheim extrae de esa preferencia, con la reserva declarada de que no es prueba absoluta: el kava no contenía ni simulaba alcohol.

«The first major scientific examination of Kawa was published by L. Lewin in 1886.» — Cronheim fecha en la monografía de Lewin el primer examen científico mayor del kava, que es la misma que Holmstedt describió en la sesión anterior.

«Kawa did not become the subject of more wide-spread use (or mis-use), or of numerous scientific investigations.» — y la anomalía que le da su tema a la sesión: el kava no se volvió ni de uso extendido ni de investigación numerosa.

«In more recent references to the Kawa Ceremony and present-day Kawa use, none of the previously described effects on the central nervous system were mentioned. This represented always a great puzzle.» — el enigma que Cronheim plantea: los relatos recientes de la ceremonia ya no mencionan ninguno de los efectos centrales antes descritos.

«Still more important, it was not just collected as a wild plant, but was regularly cultivated.» — Cronheim argumenta desde el cultivo y el comercio: se pagaba por el kava con dinero o trabajo, lo que para él supone algún placer obtenido.

«Some anti-epileptic activity was seen in patients, but none of the "tranquilizing" effects that had been described.» — el resultado negativo de los ensayos clínicos de su propio laboratorio, con actividad antiepiléptica y sin el efecto tranquilizante descrito; el término va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«At the same time, signs of skin reactions became apparent, which precluded further chronic administration.» — y la reacción cutánea que obligó a cortar la administración crónica.

«It is the purpose of the present conference to present such discrepancies and questions to groups composed of anthropologists, botanists, chemists, clinicians and pharmacologists, because the complementary approach evolving from an interdisciplinary discussion has the best chance of solving some of the existing problems.» — Cronheim enuncia el propósito de la reunión, poner la discrepancia ante antropólogos, botánicos, químicos, clínicos y farmacólogos a la vez.

«In the Manu'a island group of American Samoa no formal or informal meeting of chiefs would be complete without the distribution of the traditional Polynesian beverage kava.» — Holmes abre su ponencia con la función social del kava en Manu'a: ninguna reunión de jefes se completa sin repartirlo.

«This drink known locally as 'ava, is prepared by steeping the pulverized roots of the Piper methysticum plant in a prescribed amount of water until a cloudy, khaki-colored liquid is produced.» — y da su nombre local y su preparación, raíces pulverizadas en agua medida hasta el líquido turbio color caqui.

«Kava is in no way alcoholic, but much has been made of its narcotic properties.» — Holmes niega el carácter alcohólico del kava y a la vez marca como exagerado lo que se ha dicho de lo narcótico.

«Early missionaries maintained that the concoction partially paralyzed the lower extremities, making it difficult to walk.» — la afirmación de los primeros misioneros sobre la parálisis parcial de las piernas, que Holmes cita para discutirla.

«More recent partakers of kava, including the author, have experienced no debilitating effect which could be attributed to consumption of the drink.» — y la niega apoyándose en su propia experiencia de bebedor, declarada en la misma frase.

«Instead they have found it a refreshing, astringent drink which produces nothing more than a tingling sensation in the mucous membrane of the mouth and a short-lived numbness of the tongue.» — el efecto que Holmes sí reporta, hormigueo en la mucosa de la boca y entumecimiento breve de la lengua.

«The partial paralysis of the lower limbs is not caused by the kava but by sitting cross-legged for hours while the kava ceremony is in process.» — y la explicación que Holmes propone para la parálisis de los misioneros: horas sentado con las piernas cruzadas.

«Samoans who find the sitting posture a more natural one do not complain of any impairment to walking.» — con el contraste que la apoya: el samoano, acostumbrado a esa postura, no se queja de nada.

«I have heard it said that if people drink too much [kava], it makes them drunk in their legs; it paralyzes their lower limbs, and they have to sit where they are till the effect wears off. But it would certainly need a very large quantity to affect a man in that way, and I never saw or heard of any one in that condition» — lo que el misionero V. A. Barradale escribió en 1907, citado por Holmes: oyó decir que emborracha las piernas y nunca lo vio.

«The author's informants did on one occasion refer to one recently deceased chief whom they believed drank kava in excess because he had it prepared every morning so that he could partake throughout the day.» — el único caso de exceso que los informantes de Holmes le reportaron, un jefe que lo preparaba cada mañana.

«They also felt this excessive use of kava was the cause of his death. Actually he had died at the age of seventy-five from cancer of the stomach.» — y el desenlace con que Holmes desarma esa atribución sin discutirla: el jefe murió a los setenta y cinco años de cáncer de estómago.

«Another claim made by native informants is that over-indulgence of the drink can result in skin diseases and eye ailments. The literature produced by early missionaries contains numerous references to a scaly skin condition being attributable to kava drinking. These claims were not corroborated by the author.» — la atribución de enfermedades de piel y de ojos al kava, hecha por los informantes y repetida por los misioneros, que Holmes no halló.

«One European observer believed that the consumption of kava had the effect of preventing the Samoans from developing a taste for alcoholic liquors. The author has not observed this phenomenon either.» — otra creencia europea que Holmes niega haber observado, la del kava como preservativo del gusto por el alcohol.

«Kramer reports that he observed the addition of Capsicum pepper pods to the kava concoction and believes this strengthened its stimulating effect thereby rendering kava the equivalent in its use to Piper betle in Indonesia.» — lo que Kramer reportó del añadido de chile al kava y la equivalencia que de ahí propuso con el betel indonesio.

«The addition of this pepper to the kava mixture was not observed in contemporary Samoa, and the extent of its use in earlier days is not known. Kramer is the only 19th century observed to record its use.» — y el deslinde de Holmes: no lo vio en Samoa contemporánea y Kramer es el único observador del XIX que lo registra; el escaneo imprime observed por observer.

«Many urban centers in the South Seas boast kava saloons where local businessmen—native and European—take a kava break during the mid-morning hours.» — Holmes describe la vida urbana del kava en los Mares del Sur, con salones y pausa de media mañana para nativos y europeos por igual.

«Kava drinking in Polynesia is primarily a phenomenon of the cultures in the west, such as Tonga, Fiji and Samoa» — Holmes acota el área del kava a la Polinesia occidental.

«The Maori did not drink kava although a variety of the plant which could have been used for such purposes was indigenous to New Zealand.» — la negativa que Holmes consigna para los maoríes, con la planta disponible y sin uso, que es el tipo de dato que el simposio busca.

«In Melanesia the drink is described as being made from fresh roots, and the concoction is said to have the effect of rapidly inducing deep sleep.» — el efecto distinto que Holmes reporta para Melanesia, sueño profundo rápido, con la raíz fresca por materia.

«Chronic drinkers in this area are said to suffer from a state of depression accompanied by a permanent decrease in appetite.» — y lo que se dice del bebedor crónico melanesio, depresión y descenso permanente del apetito.

«The difference in effect between this area and western Polynesia is possibly attributable to the state of the kava root at the time of production of the beverage.» — la explicación que Holmes propone para esa diferencia regional, el estado de la raíz al preparar la bebida.

«In Samoa it appears that kava drinking and its attendant ceremonies has a long history, the practice being intimately related to indigenous religious practices and village social and political organization.» — Holmes liga el kava samoano a la práctica religiosa indígena y a la organización social y política de la aldea.

«Mythology relates how kava drinking was given to mortals by the first high chief, Tagaloa Ui, and prescribes the form for modern kava ceremonies.» — y consigna el mito de origen que además prescribe la forma de la ceremonia actual, con Tagaloa Ui como primer jefe supremo.

«While journeying home, Ui had a miscarriage, and the fetus floated away upon the waters where it was found by the hermit crab, the plover and the shrike. By manipulating the fetus and breathing life into it the animals created the first Samoan chief, Tagaloa Ui.» — el nacimiento de Tagaloa Ui en el mito samoano que Holmes recoge: tres animales insuflan vida al feto que flota en las aguas.

«On his way he walked through a grove of kava plants and discovered the house of the mortal, Pava. Pava invited the chief to enter his house and there the first kava ceremony involving mortal men was held.» — y el momento en que el mito funda la ceremonia, en casa del mortal Pava y tras atravesar un kavatal.

«Pava chewed and spit the kava into a taro leaf (laupula'a) which served as the kava bowl. Cups consisted of tautava leaves, and Pava used his fingers to wring the kava as no strainer was then known.» — el utillaje de aquella primera ceremonia según el mito, hoja de taro por tazón, hojas de tautava por copas y los dedos por colador.

«After several unheeded warnings, Tagaloa Ui picked up a coconut frond, formed it into a knife, and cut Pava's son into two pieces.» — el castigo del hijo irreverente de Pava con un cuchillo hecho de hoja de cocotero, en el mito que Holmes transcribe.

«Tagaloa Ui did not drink the kava but poured it onto his piece of the dead son of Pava and then onto Pava's piece. Then he said, "Soifua" (life). The two parts came together and the boy lived.» — y la resurrección: el kava vertido sobre las dos mitades y la palabra Soifua, que el propio texto traduce como vida.

«Pava, do not let children stand and talk while kava is being prepared for high chiefs, for the things belonging to the high chiefs are sacred.» — la prohibición con que el mito funda la etiqueta de la ceremonia, y su razón: lo que pertenece a los jefes supremos es sagrado.

«A number of ritual details of the modern Samoan kava ceremony seem to relate directly to this myth.» — Holmes enuncia la tesis de su ponencia, que la ceremonia actual remite punto por punto al mito.

«The importance of the above is indicated by the fact that although shortcuts are often taken in the modern kava ceremony the features listed are seldom if ever altered.» — y el argumento en que se apoya: en la ceremonia moderna se abrevia mucho pero esos diez rasgos casi nunca se alteran; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae short-cuts.

«Kava in contemporary Samoan society has been likened by Keesing (5) to the European cocktail or highball, in that it produces a relaxed and friendly atmosphere conducive to social cooperation.» — la comparación de Keesing que Holmes cita, el kava como el coctel europeo por la atmósfera relajada que produce.

«The kava ceremony is invariably the initial act of any meeting of the village council (fono), and is therefore a definite part of formal discussion and decision making.» — Holmes hace del kava parte de la deliberación política samoana, no un adorno previo.

«It is also an essential part of all ceremonies associated with births, marriages, deaths and title installations.» — y lo extiende a los ritos de paso y a la investidura de títulos.

«No bonito canoe or house is ever constructed without the labor being prefaced by the kava ceremony wherein the carpenter is served first kava in the name of Sao (a name which people claim was given to the first carpenter by the god Tagaloa) . The ceremony is said to insure successful work.» — la función propiciatoria que Holmes consigna: ninguna casa ni canoa se construye sin ceremonia previa, y se dice que asegura el buen trabajo.

«In earlier, less peaceful days kava was consumed by warriors prior to battle.» — el uso guerrero del kava que Holmes sitúa en tiempos anteriores.

«Aside from its ceremonial use, kava is reported to have certain medicinal uses. It is often consumed in an attempt to counteract the chills which acompany filariasis.» — Holmes separa el uso medicinal del ceremonial y da el primero de ellos, contra los escalofríos de la filariasis; el escaneo imprime acompany sin la ce.

«It is also claimed to be a cure for gonorrhea, and it is a matter of record that German drug houses at one time imported small quantities of the plant for this purpose.» — y el uso contra la gonorrea, con el dato que lo respalda del lado europeo: droguerías alemanas importaron la planta con ese fin.

«Although the kava ceremony is considered the exclusive property of titled men there are certain ceremonial occasions, such as the entertainment of a visiting party, when the society of untitled men {av>maga) or the wives of the village chiefs (Woman's Committee) conduct their own social kava ritual.» — Holmes acota la exclusividad masculina y titulada de la ceremonia con las ocasiones en que los no titulados o las esposas de los jefes celebran la suya.

«Some regional variations in kava ritual may be observed from village to village, and even in a given village the ceremony is not always performed in the same way.» — la reserva de método con que Holmes presenta su descripción, variable de aldea en aldea y aun dentro de una misma.

«perhaps the ceremony to be described in this paper is closer to the ideal than to the real. However, all the steps described herein have been observed frequently on occasions of high ceremony.» — y la declaración que la acompaña: lo que describe está más cerca del ideal que de lo real, aunque todos los pasos los haya observado.

«In Manu'a women neither hold matai titles nor partake in the drinking of kava at formal ceremonies where chiefs are present. The one exception to this was the female sovereign Tuimanu'a Makelita.» — la exclusión de las mujeres en Manu'a y su única excepción, la soberana Tuimanu'a Makelita.

«In this form kava is known as una o le P a sd, scales of the sacred or forbidden fish. This term alludes the fact that like many other sacred or taboo foods kava is reserved for the exclusive use of the chiefs.» — el nombre que el kava troceado recibe, escamas del pez sagrado, y la razón que Holmes le atribuye: como otros alimentos tabú, se reserva a los jefes; el escaneo corrompe la transcripción samoana.

«As the chiefs enter the council house an attitude of reverence prevails. Nothing may be worn above the waist, and body ornaments of all types must be laid aside. The men speak in whispers and refrain from smoking as the kava ceremony begins.» — la etiqueta de entrada al fono que Holmes describe: nada sobre la cintura, ningún adorno, susurro y nada de fumar.

«This final gesture, known as sila aloft, permits the chiefs to see whether the kava requires more water.» — el gesto final del exprimidor, que deja caer el chorro para que los jefes juzguen la mezcla; el escaneo imprime aloft por aloa.

«It is said that the correct mixture is judged by the sound of the kava splashing into the bowl as well as by its color.» — y los dos criterios con que esa mezcla se juzga, el sonido al caer y el color.

«When the kava is nearly clear of fiber particles, he must commence the verbal part of the ceremony with a poetic recitation (solo) which recounts the mythical origin of the kava or particular kava ceremonies of importance held by the ancient Samoan gods.» — la parte verbal de la ceremonia, un solo recitado que cuenta el origen mítico del kava o ceremonias célebres de los dioses samoanos.

«Many solos are traditional, but clever talking chiefs may and do compose their own.» — Holmes deja constancia de que el repertorio no está cerrado: el jefe hablante hábil compone el suyo.

«Informants state that this act of clapping corresponds to the clapping of Pava when his sons was returned to life through the action of Tagaloa Ui at the first kava ceremony.» — la lectura que los propios informantes dan del aplauso, que lo remite al de Pava cuando su hijo volvió a la vida; el escaneo imprime sons was.

«The order of drinking is of the utmost importance as it signifies the relative rank of the drinker.» — Holmes hace del orden de bebida el signo del rango, que es lo que vuelve política la ceremonia.

«To drink last kava is as prestigeful as to drink first.» — y la asimetría que lo complica: beber el último honra tanto como beber el primero.

«The pouring of kava onto the mat represents the pouring of the liquid onto the two parts of the dead son of Pava, and the word "Soifua" which may be translated "Life" or "May you live," alludes to the command given by Tagaloa Ui when he performed the miracle of returning the boy to life.» — la correspondencia que los informantes fijan entre el gesto actual de verter kava sobre la estera y el milagro del mito.

«It is also contended by informants that the right of the high chief to drink first kava and to sit in the end of the house is sanctioned by the Tagaloa Ui myth.» — y el alcance que le dan: el mito sanciona tanto la primacía en la bebida como el lugar en la casa.

«Some Samoans do not care for kava and they "drink" symbolically by merely touching the bottom of the cup as it is passed to them.» — la salida cortés del que no bebe, tocar el fondo de la copa; el verbo va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«Partially consumed kava must be cast away and the cup returned empty. It may be handed or thrown back to the server. If the cup is thrown to the server it is done to test his alertness.» — y la regla de devolución de la copa, que puede lanzarse para poner a prueba al servidor.

«All aumaga members who expect to take part in the kava ceremonies must master the etiquette of serving kava. Each rank of chief or talking chief must be served in a special and distinct manner.» — Holmes describe la etiqueta de servicio como saber obligatorio del aumaga, distinta para cada rango.

«Respect is paid to the half of the house in which the paramount chief is seated, and the kava server must walk in this area as little as possible in making his rounds to the drinkers.» — y el modo en que el espacio de la casa codifica el respeto: el servidor pisa lo menos posible la mitad del jefe supremo.

«Lower ranking chiefs are served kava with the right hand, but in the case of these lesser personages the cup is held by the edge with the thumb inside, thus showing the palm of the hand to the chiefs as it is presented to them.» — la distinción de rango cifrada en la mano y en el dorso o la palma que se muestra al beber.

«At the conclusion of the kava drinking ceremony there is always the fono o le 'ava (food for the kava ceremony» — Holmes consigna la comida que cierra siempre la ceremonia.

«According to the Tagaloa Ui myth the food for the first ceremony was the son of Pava and the food for the second was the sacred fish Manini and talofa'afana (recooked taro» — y su fundamento mítico: la primera comida fue el hijo de Pava y la segunda el pez sagrado manini con taro recocido.

«Today the Martini and talofa^afana remain the traditional foods for the kava ceremony but there are frequent substitutions of rice, tinned beef, or other prestige foods.» — con la sustitución actual por arroz o carne enlatada, que Holmes llama alimentos de prestigio; el escaneo imprime Martini por Manini.

«The present day kava ceremony contains a number of elements which can be traced to older religious concepts of Samoan culture.» — la tesis de Holmes sobre el estrato religioso que sobrevive en la ceremonia actual.

«but a number of scholars feel that it is a ritual reenactment of an ancient religious custom of pouring an evening offering to family or village gods.» — la lectura que varios estudiosos dan del vertido de kava sobre la estera, como reactuación de la ofrenda vespertina a los dioses de la familia o de la aldea; la frase arranca en el renglón anterior, donde el troceo reemite la marca de plana.

«O the kava to drink of thy highness Sepo. Be lovingly disposed. Bless this village.» — la oración que Steubel registró en 1895 acompañando ese gesto, dirigida a Sepo, dios de la guerra y en muchas aldeas dios doméstico.

«suggested that the casting away of unconsumed kava may be related to ancient ceremonies wherein kava was entreated to depart and take all misfortune with it.» — la hipótesis de Margaret Mead que Holmes recoge sobre el kava sobrante: ceremonias antiguas en que se le pedía irse y llevarse la desgracia.

«Certainly the sanctity of the mixing bowl and gear, the air of solemnity and respect which accompany the entire ceremony, and the inclusion of poetic recitations which always allude to ancient Samoan gods, testify to the religious nature of the ancient ceremony.» — y los tres rasgos con que Holmes sostiene el carácter religioso de la ceremonia antigua: la santidad del tazón, la solemnidad y las recitaciones que aluden a los dioses.

«Although the kava ceremony contains these unmistakable references to pre-Christian religion there seems to have been no great problem in fitting it into the Christian context.» — Holmes consigna la convivencia sin conflicto entre las referencias precristianas de la ceremonia y el marco cristiano.

«Bits of Christian prayer frequently accompany the pouring of kava onto the mat prior to drinking, and it is not uncommon to see local pastors included in the kava circle.» — y las dos formas visibles de esa convivencia, retazos de oración cristiana en el vertido y el pastor local dentro del círculo.

«On such occasions the village pastor (faife'au) drinks first kava, thus being accorded honors even greater than those shown to the village paramount chief.» — el dato que Holmes subraya: el pastor bebe primero y recibe así más honor que el jefe supremo de la aldea.

«Neither the church nor the American government has attempted to do away with the kava ceremony, and it is not unusual to see chiefs partake in a communion service in church, and then go home and conduct a kava ceremony while waiting for the midday meal.» — y la escena con que Holmes cierra la coexistencia: jefes que comulgan en la iglesia y celebran el kava al volver a casa.

«It has been said that while other Polynesian people worshipped gods, Samoans worshipped their village and social organization.» — Holmes recoge la fórmula que opone a Samoa con el resto de Polinesia: aquí se venera la aldea y la organización social.

«The detailed etiquette of serving, the prescribed order of drinking, the use of special honorific cup names, and the insistence that the beverage be prepared and served only by specially qualified persons, have been tremendously important in dramatizing the whole system of Samoan rank and prestige.» — y el papel que da a la ceremonia dentro de esa veneración: dramatizar el sistema entero de rango y prestigio.

«Through continual ceremonial exercise, social relationships are reiterated and Samoan values are intensified. The result of this seems to be an unusual stability and resistance to change which is found among few other Polynesian peoples.» — la tesis final de Holmes sobre la función del rito: la reiteración ceremonial produce una estabilidad y una resistencia al cambio raras en Polinesia.

«Samoan custom now serves as a 'refuge' from the conflict of choice and judgment resulting from Western contacts.» — la fórmula de John Copp que Holmes cita, la costumbre samoana como refugio frente al conflicto de elección que trae el contacto occidental; el término va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«Traditional aspects of Samoan culture such as the kava ceremony are, in a manner of speaking, bits of solid ground on which to anchor in a changing world.» — y la imagen con que Holmes cierra, la tradición como suelo firme donde anclar en un mundo que cambia.

«Of all the Pacific islands on which kava is still used today, Tongariki is the one on which its use has attained maximum frequency and intensity.» — Gajdusek sitúa Tongariki, en las Nuevas Hébridas, como el punto de mayor frecuencia e intensidad de uso del kava en el Pacífico.

«Quite apart from our medical and genetic studies, we were soon aware that the entire social life, mood and spirit of the island villages changed nightly at dusk to a more subdued, whispering and cautious quiet than we had seen in native villages elsewhere in the Pacific.» — y describe cómo dio con el asunto de paso: el ánimo entero de las aldeas cambiaba al anochecer a un silencio cauto.

«Whereas on most Pacific islands kava prepared by the ancient technique of premastication (particularly of the fresh, undried root) has been abandoned in favor of a much less pharmacologically potent beverage made by grating or pounding the root, usually dried, here on Tongariki the current extensive nonceremonial drinking of kava makes use of the "green", freshly harvested, locally-grown root and of mastication and salivary digestion of the pulp by the adolescent and young men.» — Gajdusek contrapone la técnica antigua de premasticación, farmacológicamente más potente, con el rallado de raíz seca que la sustituyó en casi todo el Pacífico, y sitúa a Tongariki del lado antiguo.

«The many variations of this procedure have been described exhaustively since the earliest reports from Captain Cook's voyages, and similarities in minute details of the kava ceremony have been used to suggest affinities between peoples on different islands.» — Gajdusek consigna el uso que la etnografía ha hecho de los detalles mínimos de la ceremonia, como indicio de afinidad entre pueblos de islas distintas.

«Kava drinking on this island is unusual, furthermore, in that its extent and pattern is a relatively recent phenomenon, and in that it has reached faddish proportions in terms of the number of kava drinkers and the frequency of their use of kava, which in both cases exceeds that of pre-European contact.» — y el hallazgo que da su tema a la ponencia: en Tongariki se bebe más kava, y más gente, que antes del contacto europeo.

«This resurgence of kava drinking suggests the extensive revival of kava usage on the southern New Hebridean island of Tanna in the early 1940's as a ritual of a flourishing cargo cult which repudiated much of the missionary teaching.» — Gajdusek empareja ese resurgimiento con el de Tanna en los años cuarenta, ligado a un culto cargo que repudiaba la enseñanza misionera.

«Jean Guiart, in his study of this cargo cult, believed that the fierce battle the Presbyterian Church had waged against kava drinking had focused undue attention onto the traditional use of the beverage» — la explicación de Jean Guiart que Gajdusek cita: la batalla de la Iglesia presbiteriana contra el kava le puso encima una atención indebida.

«this served to endow its new prohibition-defying use with such psychological import that the renewal of kava drinking became an important part of this anti-missionary» — y el mecanismo que de ahí sigue: la prohibición cargó de sentido psicológico al acto de beber y lo volvió pieza del movimiento antimisionero; la frase termina en la plana siguiente.

«Early in the cargo movement (called the John Frum movement after a neomythical man of that name) there was an anarchical use of the drink, without respect for the ancient ceremonial and age-group restrictions on its use; even adolescents drank it; the drinking took place in small informal groups at odd times of the day and in unappointed places, as was never permitted in pagan times.» — Gajdusek describe el uso anárquico del kava en el arranque del movimiento John Frum, sin las restricciones ceremoniales ni de edad de tiempos paganos.

«it has not had a full-blown cargo cult or Messianic movement, but the resurgence of the use of kava has been associated with a reluctance to become involved in Protestant mission or government-instigated activities, an increased clannishness, and a withdrawal from outside contacts.» — y deslinda Tongariki de Tanna: sin culto cargo declarado, pero con el kava asociado a la reticencia ante la misión y el gobierno y al repliegue.

«In spite of attempts to suppress it, the use of kava here was never fully stopped; in recent years most adult male members of the population turn each night to kava.» — Gajdusek consigna el fracaso de la supresión en Tongariki y la frecuencia actual, casi todos los varones adultos cada noche.

«The users still attend Sunday church services on the island, and do not associate their use of kava with a revolt against the church such as occurred on Tanna.» — y la diferencia de sentido que los propios usuarios marcan: aquí beber kava no es revuelta contra la iglesia.

«Kava drinking on Tongariki is a relatively relaxed and unceremonious affair, without the strict adherence to prescribed etiquette characteristic of kava drinking in much of the Pacific.» — Gajdusek contrapone el kava sin ceremonia de Tongariki a la etiqueta estricta del resto del Pacífico, que es lo que Holmes acaba de describir para Samoa.

«Girls and women may occasionally participate in the chewing, whereas this was not so in the past. Adolescents and, more rarely, women may drink kava without censure.» — y el cambio respecto del pasado: mujeres y adolescentes participan en la masticación y beben sin censura.

«On Tanna, however, by the 1950's kava usage had returned essentially to the old traditional ceremonially controlled forms.» — Gajdusek consigna el reflujo de Tanna hacia las formas tradicionales controladas en los años cincuenta.

«Those who have drunk the kava find a comfortable place to sit, often beside a dying fire in the dark house, where they remain hunched over and avoiding light and sound disturbances of all sorts.» — la escena del bebedor de Tongariki que Gajdusek describe: junto a un fuego que se apaga, encorvado y evitando luz y ruido.

«Conversation ceases, and slowly they fall into a kava-induced stupor, which is not true sleep.» — y el estado al que llegan, un estupor que Gajdusek niega que sea sueño verdadero.

«From it they can be aroused by being addressed or gently shaken, but this ruins the effect they are seeking from the kava.» — Gajdusek anota que sacarlos de ahí es posible y a la vez arruina el efecto buscado.

«In early morning they appear fresh and without any "hangover"- like sequelae.» — la ausencia de resaca que Gajdusek observa a la mañana siguiente, que es la misma que Cronheim dio por rasgo del kava al abrir la sesión; el término va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«There is no belligerency or irritability—only a quiet and friendly somnolence associated with the weakness of the lower limbs and the accompanying ataxia.» — y lo que Gajdusek niega expresamente: ni beligerancia ni irritabilidad, solo somnolencia amistosa con debilidad de piernas y ataxia.

«The drinkers reply rationally and are well oriented in time, place, and person ; they respond intelligently, even sometimes quickly, to complex questions.» — el dato que separa el kava de lo alucinógeno: el bebedor sigue orientado y responde con inteligencia a preguntas complejas.

«subdued bustle of nearby activity annoy them, and the villagers of all ages have extreme respect for this.» — la respuesta social que ese estado impone, el respeto extremo de los aldeanos de toda edad por la molestia del bebedor; la enumeración de luces, ruidos y tacto queda en la plana anterior.

«In discussions the kava users refer to a heaviness and weakness of their extremities, particularly of the feet and legs» — lo que los propios bebedores reportan, pesadez y debilidad de las extremidades y sobre todo de pies y piernas; la palabra heaviness la parte el salto de renglón y sigue una parestesia ascendente descrita con tres términos que el impreso entrecomilla.

«I have taken pulse rates and blood pressure measurements on a number of kava drinkers at varying intervals from one to three hours after drinking and found no significant change in either from that observed on the same subjects during examinations in the daytime, when they had had no kava for the preceeding eighteen hours or more.» — la negativa instrumental de Gajdusek: ni el pulso ni la presión cambian respecto de los mismos sujetos sin kava; el escaneo imprime preceeding.

«Of interest to us in our genetic studies has been the effects that kava might have on fertility, since it is quite evident that kava drinkers rarely engage in sexual activity on the nights when they drink.» — Gajdusek liga el kava a la fertilidad por una vía conductual y no farmacológica: quien bebe rara vez tiene actividad sexual esa noche.

«There is no dearth of children on Tongariki, but the population is not increasing explosively as it is in some parts of the Pacific, and kava drinking may serve as an interesting means of birth control for the small island, which could be easily over-populated.» — y la hipótesis que de ahí propone, el kava como método de control de natalidad en una isla pequeña.

«Their studies on chronic kava administration to rats, however, failed to demonstrate any impaired fertility, but they admit that they hardly reproduced essential features of kava use in the human community in their rat experiments.» — la negativa experimental sobre la infertilidad por kava, y la reserva que los propios autores declaran: el ensayo en ratas no reproduce el uso humano.

«Jean Guiart and I have occasionally taken kava with the natives, and have noticed subjectively little difference in the sequence of symptoms and reactions from those reported by many Pacific voyagers since Captain Cook's days.» — Gajdusek declara su propia experiencia con el kava y la halla sin diferencia notable respecto de lo reportado por los viajeros desde Cook.

«A few peculiar paresthesiae of the face, legs and arms—especially of the legs—a slight feeling of numbness, tingling, coldness and then weakness, accompanied early by shorter flashes of warmth or flush, occurred during the first half hour after ingestion.» — y la secuencia de síntomas que reporta de sí mismo en la primera media hora.

«There is, with higher doses, a pleasant, relaxing, paresthesia-enjoying, refreshing state of somnolence without mental dulling which eventually leads to sleep.» — Gajdusek describe el estado que da la dosis alta: somnolencia sin embotamiento mental que acaba en sueño.

«At times, members of our team have taken large doses— a large cocoanut shell full—and real weakness, even a paresis making walking impossible, has been present for several hours after ingestion.» — y la sobredosis de su propio equipo, con paresia que impedía caminar durante horas.

«Several recent accounts report little or no pharmacological action from kava prepared from grated or pounded dried kava root and used socially or ceremonially on Fiji and Samoa.» — Gajdusek consigna la negativa de los relatos recientes sobre el kava de raíz seca en Fiyi y Samoa, que es el enigma que Cronheim planteó al abrir la sesión.

«It is this dried kava root that has entered commerce, particularly on Fiji, and I wonder whether it is not this product that has been used in the pharmacological and chemical laboratories.» — y la sospecha con que Gajdusek resuelve el enigma: el laboratorio habría trabajado con la raíz seca del comercio.

«The freshly harvested root, prepared by chewing, appears to result in the more potent preparation, the effects of which I have described.» — Gajdusek adjudica la potencia a la raíz fresca masticada, con un appears que mantiene la reserva.

«but there is also the possibility that the chewing and salivary digestion that is used to break up the fibers and emulsify the ingredients may be responsible for the pharmacologically more potent product.» — y deja abierta la hipótesis alternativa, que sea la digestión salival de la masticación la responsable.

«It is also likely that a higher dose of active ingredients is taken on Tongariki, since a considerably more concentrated extract appears to be prepared ; far more root is used per individual drinker than on Fiji or Samoa.» — y la tercera explicación posible, de dosis: en Tongariki se usa mucha más raíz por bebedor.

«Dam-Bakker, A. W. I. van, DeGroot, A. P. and Luyken, R. "Influence of wati (Piper methysticum) on the fertility of the male rats." Tropical and Geographical Medicine, 10 : 68-70, 1958.» — el apéndice bibliográfico de Gajdusek registra el estudio sobre wati y fertilidad de rata que él discute en el cuerpo.

«Melville, H. "TYPEE: a peep at Polynesian life. During a four months' residence in a valley of the Marquesas." New York, 194-195, 1857.» — la bibliografía de Gajdusek llega hasta la literatura: Typee de Herman Melville figura entre las fuentes históricas del uso del kava.

«Titcomb, Margaret. "Kava in Hawaii." Journal of the Polynesian Society, 57: (June), 105-171, 1948.» — la misma bibliografía llega hasta el kava hawaiano de Margaret Titcomb.

«Kava (1) is one of the popular names for the intoxicating drink prepared from the roots of the plant Piper methysticum Forst. by the inhabitants of the South Pacific Islands.» — Klohs abre la ponencia química acotando la palabra kava como nombre popular de la bebida, no de la planta.

«The interesting tranquilizing properties ascribed to this romantic brew has prompted numerous chemical investigations over the last century, in the search for the physiologically active principles.» — y da el motivo de un siglo de investigación química, las propiedades tranquilizantes que se le atribuyen.

«The first of the compounds to be isolated in the 5,6-dihydro-a-pyrone series, methysticin, was reported by Cuzent in 1861, followed in turn by Winzheimers isolation of dihydromethysticin in 1908.» — Klohs fecha en Cuzent y en 1861 el primer principio aislado del kava, la meticistina.

«The most extensive investigation of this plant, however, was carried out by Borsche and coworkers, who reported their findings in a series of fourteen papers published between 1914 and 1933.» — y adjudica a Borsche y colaboradores la investigación más extensa, en catorce trabajos.

«On the basis of this latter test it would seem reasonable to say that there are compounds present in the extract possessing this activity which have not as yet been isolated.» — la inferencia de Klohs a partir de la prueba de jaula rodante: en el extracto hay compuestos activos todavía sin aislar, que la raíz entera sí tiene y el cristal aislado no.

«none of the crystalline compounds had significant activity which is in sharp contrast to the ground root and the crude extract.» — el contraste que sostiene esa inferencia, entre los compuestos cristalinos sin actividad significativa y la raíz molida con el extracto crudo.

«These screening results would indicate that the methylenedioxy group is the preferred substituent and that the loss of the ethylene group causes a decrease in activity over dihydromethysticin as measured by its ability to inhibit strychnine convulsions and potentiate barbiturate sleep time.» — Klohs enuncia la relación entre estructura y actividad que halla en la primera serie de análogos.

«The effect of varying the ethylene bridge on activity is shown in Table III.» — Klohs pasa a la segunda serie de análogos, la del puente de etileno.

«The last series of compounds (Table IV) represent a more radical departure from the structure of dihydromethysticin.» — Klohs presenta la tercera serie como el apartamiento más radical respecto de la dihidrometisticina.

«On reviewing the structure activity relationship observed in this series of compounds it is apparent that the 5,6-dihydro-4-methoxy-a-pyrone ring plays» — Klohs enuncia la conclusión estructural de su serie; la frase termina en la plana siguiente, donde dice que ese anillo juega un papel clave.

«Rigid overall specificity for drug receptor interaction in this series is discounted, however, by the variations of substituents which can be substituted at C 6 while retaining activity in one or more of the test systems employed.» — y lo que Klohs niega en la misma página: no hay especificidad rígida de receptor, porque varios sustituyentes conservan actividad.

«Major interest was attributed to the question, in how far these substances can be regarded as the active principles of the drug.» — Meyer declara la pregunta de su ponencia: hasta qué punto las seis pironas aisladas son los principios activos de la droga.

«Notice the rapid onset of K and DHK action as compared to that of M and DHM, the latter being about twice as effective when given orally.» — el pie de la figura 1 de Meyer, con el arranque rápido de la kawaína frente a la meticistina.

«The most characteristic central nervous action of all Kava pyrones, including Y and DMY, was shown to be their ability to produce a mephenesinlike muscular relaxation in all species of laboratory animals.» — el hallazgo central de Meyer: la acción más característica de todas las pironas del kava es una relajación muscular del tipo de la mefenesina; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae mephenesin-like.

«According to Meyer and Kretzschmar (1966), who were the first to recognize this mechanism of action, Kava pyrones represent a new group of potent centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxants, the first of natural origin.» — y la reclamación de primacía que Meyer hace en tercera persona sobre su propio trabajo: las pironas del kava serían el primer grupo de relajantes musculares centrales de origen natural; el año entre paréntesis es del impreso y por él salta la guarda anticosido, releído entero.

«Larger doses of the pyrones, with the exception of Y and DMY, produce ataxia and an ascending paralysis without loss of consciousness, followed by complete recovery.» — Meyer describe el efecto de la dosis alta, parálisis ascendente sin pérdida de consciencia y recuperación completa, que es lo que Gajdusek observó en Tongariki.

«In doses causing muscular relaxation and paralysis Kava pyrones did not possess a curare-like action on the myoneural junction» — y la negativa que separa el kava del curare: ninguna acción curarizante sobre la placa motora.

«Inhibition of the tonic stretch reflex by dihydromethysticin {DHM), kawain (K), and mephenesin (Meph). Rabbit, male, 3.1 kg, unanaesthetized. Electromyograms of the quadriceps muscle, before and 1, 5, 10, and 20 min after injection. The injections were given intravenously with 2 hours interval. Time of stretch is indicated by points.» — el pie de la figura 3 de Meyer, que compara la inhibición del reflejo de estiramiento por dos pironas y por la mefenesina en conejo no anestesiado.

«Doses which produce decrease or block of spinal reflexes had little effect on the electroencephalogram (FIG. 4), and left EEG arousal from stimulation of the midbrain reticular formation unimpaired.» — el deslinde que Meyer traza entre lo espinal y lo cortical: las dosis que bloquean reflejos apenas tocan el electroencefalograma.

«Spontaneous cerebral cortex electrical activity in the unanaesthetized rabbit before and after injection of 40 mg/kg of dihydromethysticin (DHM) intravenously. Duration of injection 100 sec. The dose produced complete paralysis.» — el pie de la figura 4 de Meyer, con la parálisis completa y el registro cortical del conejo no anestesiado.

«Kava pyrones posses local anaesthetic properties.» — Meyer añade la anestesia local a la lista de acciones de las pironas; el escaneo imprime posses por possess.

«In surface anaesthesia K was shown to be equipotent to cocaine HC1, when concentrations of 0.5% were employed. Its duration of action was markedly longer than that of benzococaine» — y la equipotencia de la kawaína con la cocaína en anestesia de superficie, con duración mayor que la benzocaína.

«It has been established that Y and DMY possess only weak central nervous activity when given orally or intraperitoneally.» — Meyer recoge lo que se daba por asentado sobre la yangonina y la desmetoxiyangonina, débiles por vía oral.

«Surface anaesthetic action produced by kawain, benzocaine and cocaine HCl in the cornea of the rabbit.» — el pie de la figura 6 de Meyer, con la prueba corneal en conejo.

«Y was without any effect when given alone in doses up to 300 mg/kg ip.» — el dato del isobolograma de Meyer que sostiene la sinergia: la yangonina sola no hace nada hasta esa dosis.

«The experiments have shown that all the six known pyrones of the Kava rootstock are pharmacologically effective, differences in action being largely quantitative in nature.» — la conclusión de Meyer: las seis pironas conocidas son farmacológicamente activas y difieren sobre todo en cantidad.

«The finding that Y as well as DMY, contrary to all previous reports on this matter since the beginning of Kava investigation, represent biologically active principles especially on combined administration with the other pyrones, is of particular interest in view of the relatively high amount of these two compounds in the kavaroot which is reported to be one quarter to one third of total pyrone content» — Meyer declara su hallazgo contrario a todos los informes previos desde el inicio de la investigación del kava, y le da peso por la proporción de esos dos compuestos en la raíz.

«The synergism between Y and the other pyrones may provide an explanation for the high activity of a chloroform extract and of the crude root, reported by Klohs et al. (1959), which according to the authors was not evidenced by any of the pure isolated» — la sinergia con que Meyer explica el enigma que Klohs había dejado abierto, la actividad del extracto crudo que ningún compuesto puro reproducía; la frase termina en la plana siguiente y el año entre paréntesis es del impreso, releído entero.

«The central nervous and peripheral activities of the pyrones as reported herein further substantiate the idea that the various ethnopharmacological phenomena ascribed to Piper methysticum are due to the pyrone content of the plant.» — la tesis con que Meyer cierra: los fenómenos etnofarmacológicos atribuidos al Piper methysticum se deben al contenido de pironas de la planta.

«Roots of this plant have been used by inhabitants of these islands to prepare a beverage known as Kava, Kawa, or Awa, which has been reported to allay anxiety and reduce fatigue» — Buckley abre su ponencia con los tres nombres de la bebida y los dos efectos que se le reportan, calmar la ansiedad y quitar la fatiga.

«Since Professor Meyer and his colleagues have worked extensively on the pharmacology of these water-insoluble a-pyrones, this present report will be concerned primarily with the pharmacological activity of watersoluble fractions of Kava.» — y el reparto de trabajo que declara frente a la ponencia anterior: él se ocupa de las fracciones solubles en agua; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae water-soluble.

«One hundred grams of the finely pulverized root was mixed with approximately 100 ml of distilled water giving a slurry having a volume of approximately 200 ml. The slurry was steam distilled and the first 100 ml of distillate collected, filtered, and lyophilized. The yield for each extraction was approximately 50 mg of a yellow-white powder designated LE-1.» — el procedimiento de extracción al vapor con que Buckley obtiene la fracción que estudia.

«LE-1 was investigated for possible antagonism of the exaggerated irritability and aggressiveness of rats having lesions in the septal area» — Buckley describe el modelo animal de irritabilidad con que ensaya la fracción soluble, la rata con lesión septal.

«A desynchronization of the resting EEG for a period of approximately twice the duration of the stimulus or longer was taken as the arousal response.» — Buckley define el criterio de respuesta de despertar con que mide sus registros en gatos.

«Maximal contraction of the uterine horn was induced by serotonin creatinine sulfate, 0.5 to 1.0 mcg/10 ml bathing solution.» — y el montaje con que ensaya la actividad antiserotonina de las fracciones sobre útero aislado de rata.

«Nitrogen could not be detected in either fraction and aldehydes and/or ketones were detected in F 2 only.» — la caracterización química de las dos subfracciones solubles de Buckley, ambas sin nitrógeno.

«Subfraction Fa was found to be 16 times more soluble in water than F 2 .» — y la diferencia de solubilidad que las separa.

«LE-1, Fx , and F 2 depressed spontaneous motor activity in a dose-related manner.» — el primer resultado de Buckley: las tres fracciones acuosas deprimen la actividad motora espontánea según la dosis.

«Loss of righting reflex was not observed even at those doses which almost completely abolished spontaneous motor activity.» — y la negativa que lo acota, sin pérdida del reflejo de enderezamiento aun a dosis que casi anulan el movimiento espontáneo.

«Effects of lyophilized aqueous kava on spontaneous motor activity of mice Fraction I.P. Dose (mg/kg) Percentage Inhibition Photocell A r*f i vif v LE-1 42 6 67 84 6 77 120 6 89 240 6 91 Fj 5 4 14 10 4 28 25 4 35 50 4 67 F 2 5 4 47 10 4 59 25 4 84 50 4 92 a Number of groups, 5 mice/group.» — el encabezado de la tabla 2 de Buckley, con el kava acuoso liofilizado y la actividad motora espontánea del ratón.

«one-tenth as effective as chlordiazepoxide in reducing the hyperirritability of these animals» — Buckley compara su fracción con el clordiazepóxido en la rata septal y la halla diez veces menos potente; la palabra approximately queda partida por el cambio de plana, justo antes del arranque del verbatim; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae hyper-irritability.

«however, even the 50 mg/kg dose significantly affected the experimental animals and ataxia was not observed in those animals receiving doses as high as 200 mg/kg of LE-1 whereas moderate to marked ataxia occurred at the 20 and 40 mg/kg doses of chlordiazepoxide.» — y el contraste que la favorece: sin ataxia hasta dosis altas, mientras el clordiazepóxido la produce a dosis bajas.

«Effects of LE-1 and chlordiazepoxde on the rage score of septal rats Drug N" Dose (mg/kg, i.p.) Mean Score ± S.E. ED 50 ± percent S.E. (mg/kg) Control 20 62±3 LE-1 5 50 47±6 b 5 100 37±6b 170±19 5 200 26±6b Chlordiazepoxide 5 10 48±3b 5 20 26±12 b 17±20 5 40 14±2 b a N, number of rats tested.» — el encabezado de la tabla 3 de Buckley, con la puntuación de rabia de la rata septal; el escaneo imprime chlordiazepoxde.

«The lowest dose of LE-1 shortened the duration of the arousal response for approximately one hour. Although this effect was observed in recordings from both cortical and subcortical sites, no significant changes in the EEG activity were evident.» — el resultado electroencefalográfico de Buckley a dosis baja, acortamiento del despertar sin cambios significativos en la actividad de base.

«The larger doses of 100 and 150 mg/kg effectively blocked EEG arousal and caused a slowing of spontaneous cortical and subcortical activity.» — y el efecto a dosis alta, bloqueo del despertar y enlentecimiento cortical y subcortical.

«Kymograph tracings showing the effects of (a) desmethoxy-yangonin (DMY), (b) Kawain (K) and (c) F! and F2 on serotonin induced contractions of the isolated rat uterus» — el pie de la figura 1 de Buckley, con los trazos de quimógrafo sobre útero aislado de rata.

«This antagonism of the a-pyrones to the serotonin induced contraction of the isolated rat uterus appears to be specific since dihydromethysticin failed to alter the contraction induced by either bradykinin or acetylcholine» — Buckley sostiene la especificidad del antagonismo a la serotonina apoyándose en que la dihidrometisticina no toca la contracción por bradicinina ni por acetilcolina.

«Brain levels of endogenous serotonin were not altered 1 hour after the i.p. administration of dihydromethysticin, Fl5 F 2 and chlordiazepoxide. Reserpine reduced brain serotonium levels by 27%.» — la negativa central de Buckley: la serotonina cerebral no cambia con las fracciones del kava, mientras la reserpina sí la baja; el escaneo imprime serotonium y pega el subíndice de la fracción al nombre, lo que hace saltar la guarda anticosido, releído entero.

«Chromatographic data indicated that the pharmacological actions of this fraction were due to substances other than the known a-pyrones» — el hallazgo de Buckley que abre el asunto: lo activo de su fracción acuosa no son las pironas ya conocidas.

«It appears that at least part of the altered behavioral effects observed in mice and rats as well as cats could be due to blockade of the spinal interneurons, with progressive weaker depressant effects on the reticular formation, subcortex, and cortex respectively.» — la hipótesis de nivel que Buckley propone: bloqueo de interneuronas espinales y depresión decreciente hacia la corteza.

«The a-pyrones isolated from Kava possessing this antiserotonin activity have a cinnamoyl moiety which may be responsible for this particular pharmacological action.» — y la parte de la molécula a la que Buckley atribuye la actividad antiserotonina, con un may que mantiene la reserva.

«Thin layer chromatogram of certain aqueous fractions of Kava» — el pie de la figura 3 de Buckley, con el cromatograma de capa fina de las fracciones acuosas.

«Jasper, H. H. and Ajmone-Marsan, C, "A Stereotaxic Atlas of the Diencephalon of the Cat", The National Research Council of Canada (1960).» — la bibliografía de Buckley remite al atlas estereotáxico del diencéfalo del gato con que sitúa sus electrodos.

«This compound in interesting for its consistencies, and I also want to make a point illustrating a concept of a potential mechanism of tranquilizer action.» — Marrazzi declara de entrada las dos cosas que le interesan del kava, su consistencia y un mecanismo posible de la acción tranquilizante; el escaneo imprime in por is.

«In the first of these slides showing evoked cortical potentials in a cat, you see that a tranquilizer, in this case chlorpromazine (CPZ), prevents (2nd column) the cerebral synaptic inhibitory effect of LSD (1st column). It controls LSD.» — Marrazzi describe el experimento base: la clorpromazina impide el efecto sináptico inhibitorio del LSD en el gato.

«This is one of the typical actions of a psychotogen, and we think that tranquilizers have a similar but weaker action. The data actually then lend themselves to the notion—and we have further data supporting it—that they have the same kind of action as the psychotogens, illustrated by LSD, but weaker, and therefore are able to compete for the same receptor.» — la tesis de Marrazzi: el tranquilizante tendría la misma acción que el psicotógeno pero más débil, y por eso competiría por el mismo receptor.

«A preliminary water extract proved quite potent, and three-tenths of a cc given intracarotidly, elicited an affect very similar to that of LSD.» — y el resultado que trae al simposio: el extracto acuoso de kava dado por vía intracarotídea produjo un efecto muy parecido al del LSD.

«The effect of LSD is a prolongation of the response time. This would be expected from the synaptic inhibitory action.» — Marrazzi liga el alargamiento del tiempo de respuesta en la rata a la acción sináptica inhibitoria.

«Inhibition of inhibition, i.e. disinhibition or a release phenomenon, occurs at smaller doses but is here masked by the over-riding over-all inhibition.» — y consigna el fenómeno de desinhibición a dosis menores, enmascarado aquí por la inhibición general.

«It then seems interesting, in the first place, that this material is quite active, because that amount of synaptic inhibition is the equivalent of forty micrograms of serotonin.» — la medida con que Marrazzi cifra la potencia del kava, equivalente a cuarenta microgramos de serotonina.

«In the second place, it acts like LSD on synaptic transmission and behaviorally, and you heard rather an extensive follow-up from Dr. Buckley and related data from Dr. Meyer.» — Marrazzi enuncia su segunda conclusión y remite a las ponencias de Buckley y Meyer de la misma sesión.

«The point that I was trying to bring out is the possibility that a tranquilizer is, in fact, a weak psychotogen, and this has very definite implications for the method of looking for new tranquilizers.» — y la consecuencia de método que extrae: si el tranquilizante es un psicotógeno débil, cambia el modo de buscar tranquilizantes nuevos.

«Those of you who watched the television news last October saw that the Samoans offered cups of Kava to President and Mrs. Johnson.» — Pfeiffer abre su ponencia con la ceremonia de kava ofrecida a los Johnson en Samoa, que Holmes ya había mencionado como honor a dignatarios visitantes.

«Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson is the first woman ever offered the royal Kava drink, the highest honor Samoan chiefs can bestow on a visitor. She drank it, too.» — la nota del New York Times que Pfeiffer reproduce, con el kava como el mayor honor que los jefes samoanos pueden conceder.

«Both she and her husband also made the traditional gesture of pouring a bit of the juice on the ground to get rid of evil spirits.» — y el gesto de verter un poco al suelo, que el periódico interpreta como expulsión de los malos espíritus donde los informantes de Holmes lo remitían al mito de Tagaloa Ui.

«In 1954 we made various extracts of the powdered Kava root and obtained brown gums which, while insoluble in water, could be easily suspended in gum tragacanth.» — Pfeiffer data en 1954 el inicio de su propio trabajo con extractos de raíz de kava.

«We studied in two groups of six normal subjects at the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary both dl-ethysticin and dl-methysticin in single oral doses of» — Pfeiffer declara sin rodeos dónde ensayó los dos congéneres en sujetos normales, el penal federal de Atlanta; la dosis queda en la plana siguiente.

«No significant changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, grip strength, hand steadiness, or pupil size occurred.» — el resultado negativo de ese ensayo en las medidas objetivas.

«The subjective responses were equally divided between stimulant, placebo and sedative reports.» — y el reparto en tercios de las respuestas subjetivas, entre estimulante, placebo y sedante.

«We conclude that these two congeners were not sufficiently active to be recognized by our crew of drug sophisticated tasters.» — la conclusión que Pfeiffer saca de ese reparto, con la expresión con que nombra a sus catadores.

«When the crude root was given to 9 selected, uncontrolled epileptics (5) in doses up to 6 grams per day a better degree of seizure control was obtained.» — Pfeiffer consigna el control de crisis obtenido con raíz cruda en epilépticos, y marca el ensayo como no controlado.

«However, continued therapy for several weeks produced a lemon tinted skin and sclera which was apparently owing to a chemical pigment and is seen characteristically in the Samoans who take Kava regularly.» — y el efecto que obligó a suspenderlo, la piel y la esclerótica teñidas de limón, que Pfeiffer dice ver también en los samoanos que beben kava con regularidad.

«The anti-epileptic effect was characterized by fewer grand mal seizures but no change in petit mal seizure activity.» — Pfeiffer acota el efecto antiepiléptico de la dihidrometisticina al gran mal y lo niega para el pequeño mal.

«Saunders and Kline (6) treated schizophrenics with this drug using doses of 800 mgm/day.» — Pfeiffer consigna el ensayo de Saunders y Kline con esa misma sustancia en esquizofrénicos; Kline es uno de los coeditores del volumen.

«The drug had no antipsychotic effect in the schizophrenic patients.» — y el resultado negativo de ese ensayo.

«For example, we have found that male schizophrenic patients have much less EEG variability than nonpsychotics.» — el hallazgo lateral de Pfeiffer sobre la variabilidad del electroencefalograma en esquizofrénicos varones.

«The subjective reaction of these normal subjects was that the Kava principles produced mild sedation or sleepiness.» — la respuesta subjetiva de los sujetos normales a los principios del kava, sedación leve o somnolencia.

«Quantitative electroencephalographic studies in normal volunteers given Kava type chemicals» — el encabezado de la tabla 3 de Pfeiffer; el título de la sección anterior imprime Volumteers por Volunteers.

«We have found that dihydrokawain is very similar to mephenesin in its effect on the strychnine thresholds of mice.» — Pfeiffer empareja la dihidrokawaína con la mefenesina por su efecto sobre el umbral a la estricnina, que es la misma analogía que Meyer propuso.

«If Samoan groups can be found who imbibe Kava only during a ceremonial week one would expect to find some degree of yellow banding of their finger and toe nails if the Kava-pyrones are deposited in keratin.» — la prueba de campo que Pfeiffer propone al simposio: bandas amarillas en las uñas de quienes beben kava solo en semana ceremonial, si las pironas se depositan en la queratina.

«The Kava ketopyrones are blocking compounds of three oxygen and a methyl functional groups. Other molecules which have a similar sedative effect are griseofulvin and aspirin.» — el pie de la figura 1 de Pfeiffer, que pone la aspirina y la griseofulvina en la misma familia estructural que las pironas del kava.

«Aspirin is the only small analgesic which has a typical sedative or antianxiety effect on the human brain.» — el dato propio de Pfeiffer sobre la aspirina entre los analgésicos menores.

«One wonders then if aspirin is not a mild type of Kava which has been developed in modern society and used without ceremony by the tons (as long as the recommended dose on the label does not exceed two tablets).» — la analogía con que Pfeiffer cierra ese pasaje, la aspirina como kava moderno consumido por toneladas y sin ceremonia.

«Conversely one might ask if the Samoans use Kava as a "pain-killer". I have been told that the plains Indians have in times past used peyote as a pain killing drug.» — Pfeiffer invierte la pregunta y trae de oídas el uso del peyote como analgésico entre los indios de las llanuras; el término va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«Also the main physical characteristic of these Kava principles, that of poor water solubility and good lipid solubility, will always result in a preponderance of pharmacological action on the brain and skin i.e. ectodermal tissues.» — Pfeiffer deduce de la solubilidad en lípidos que la acción de estas sustancias recaerá siempre en el cerebro y la piel.

«Finally the study of the Samoans and their Kava ceremony remains the best and possibly the last area of scientific interest insofar as the intoxicating effect of Kava is concerned.» — y el lugar que Pfeiffer deja al trabajo etnográfico, el mejor y quizá el último campo de interés científico sobre el efecto embriagante del kava.

«Compared to modern synthetic central relaxants all of the Kava congeners are relatively inactive.» — el juicio comparativo con que Pfeiffer resume su trabajo.

«From the data now available, further study of Kava as a modern medicinal agent would not appear to be needed.» — y la conclusión con que cierra, contraria a la del resto de la sesión: no haría falta seguir estudiando el kava como medicamento moderno.

«Kawa-Pyrone eine nenartige substansgruppe zentraler Muskelrelaxantien vom Typ des Mephenesins.» — la bibliografía de Pfeiffer cierra con el trabajo de Meyer y Kretzschmar que reclama las pironas del kava como grupo nuevo de relajantes musculares centrales; el escaneo corrompe el alemán.

«The Polynesian term kava is generally used in English to specify the shrub Piper methysticum (Forster), its root, and a beverage made from it.» — Ford abre su ponencia etnográfica acotando el alcance de la palabra kava: cubre a la vez el arbusto, la raíz y la bebida.

«The Maori took with them to New Zealand tales concerning the use of kava but did not find the plant in their new home. They found another plant, Piper excelsum, which they did not make into a beverage, but which they named kawakawa.» — el caso maorí que Ford consigna: se llevaron los relatos del kava sin la planta, y dieron su nombre a otra que no bebieron.

«The term kava or its equivalent in Polynesia is also an adjective designating various properties of food and drink.» — Ford señala el doble uso de la palabra, también como adjetivo de sabor.

«In Hawaii it means bitter, sour, sharp, pungent. In the Marquesas it signifies bitter, sour, sharp. In Tahiti the range is broad, including bitter, sour, acid, acrid, salt, sharp, and pungent» — y el abanico de sentidos que cubre de isla en isla, del amargo a lo salado y lo picante.

«In Melanesia its use is of spotty distribution. In some instances islands only a few miles apart differ from one another in regard to the use of kava.» — Ford describe la distribución melanesia como salteada, con islas vecinas que difieren.

«For example the people of Ambrym in the New Hebrides look down upon their neighbors on Pentecost Island, only seven miles away, because they drink the beverage.» — y el ejemplo que la ilustra, el desprecio de los de Ambrym hacia sus vecinos de Pentecost a once kilómetros.

«On Tikopia, interestingly enough, the beverage is not drunk but is poured on the ground as a libation to the gods.» — el caso de Tikopia que Ford subraya: ahí el kava no se bebe, se vierte como libación a los dioses.

«Since our personal experience with kava and its uses is for the most part confined to Fiji and Tonga, the remainder of this discussion will relate to those islands.» — Ford acota su propio testimonio a Fiyi y Tonga.

«In practically all of these places we have participated in kava ceremonies of one sort or another, and I must admit that this has been an enjoyable experience.» — y declara haber participado en las ceremonias, con el juicio personal que añade.

«The Fijian term for the plant, the root, and the beverage made from it is Yaqona.» — Ford da el término fiyiano y lo señala sin paralelo fuera del archipiélago.

«He suggests that this may indicate that it was to this part of Fiji that kava was first brought and that these were the people who supplied the name Yaqona, which is now universally used throughout the archipelago.» — la hipótesis de Lester que Ford recoge sobre la puerta de entrada del kava a Fiyi, deducida del nombre.

«More commonly in Fiji "bitter" is gaga, which also means» — y la palabra fiyiana corriente para amargo, que dice además venenoso; los dos términos van entrecomillados en el impreso y el verbatim se corta antes del segundo.

«The Fijians on the island of Naviti had an English vocabulary of scarcely more than "quite," "rather," and "hello," and our Fijian was nil.» — Ford describe su propia situación de campo al llegar a Naviti, sin lengua común.

«The roots or leaves are first chewed by young girls or boys, care being taken that only those possessing sound teeth and excellent general health shall take part in this operation.» — lo que la Encyclopaedia Britannica decía del kava y Ford leyó antes de viajar: la masticación por muchachos de dentadura sana.

«The drunkenness produced by kava is of a melancholy, silent and drowsy character.» — y la fórmula de la misma enciclopedia sobre la embriaguez que produce.

«Excessive drinking is said to lead to skin and other diseases, but per con tra many medicinal virtues are ascribed to the preparation.» — la enciclopedia consigna a la vez la enfermedad de la piel por exceso y las virtudes medicinales atribuidas; el escaneo parte per contra en tres.

«This liquor the Rombetty serves out in small plantain leaves to his people, and as each one receives it, they all clap their hands and say mannor angooner, which is returning thanks to God in their way.» — el relato de Patterson que Ford cita, con el reparto del kava leído como acción de gracias a Dios a su manera.

«After partaking of this they think they are happy, its effect being similar to that of laudanum» — y la comparación con el láudano que ese mismo viajero propone.

«Kava has medicinal qualities of not a little power. Drunk to excess, it acts like opium, and the habit once formed cannot easily be broken.» — lo que Adams escribió del kava, con la comparación con el opio y el hábito difícil de romper.

«The habitual kava drinker may be recognized by bis fishy-looking eyes and the scaly appearance of his skin» — las señales con que Adams dice reconocer al bebedor habitual; el escaneo imprime bis por his.

«And kava, as a matter of fact, is not an alcoholic intoxicant. Rather it might be described as a mildly stimulating drug.» — el deslinde que Foster hace en el relato que Ford cita, entre embriagante alcohólico y droga levemente estimulante.

«Its constant and immoderate use over a long period of years is sometimes injurious to the eyes, so that old fcara-topers often become nearly blind, but taken moderately or even in large quantity from time to time it is of acknowledged medicinal value, to such extent that the most zealous missionaries do not combat the native custom.» — y la convivencia que ese viajero reporta: hasta los misioneros más celosos no combaten la costumbre por el valor medicinal reconocido; el escaneo imprime fcara-topers por kava-topers.

«The funny thing about it, however, is that it does go to one's legs.» — la frase de Foster que recoge la creencia de las piernas que Holmes discutió en su ponencia.

«We had been schooled to beware of water unless it had been boiled. And here was a stalwart Fijian plunging his brown hands and wrists into a wooden bowl to knead the mixture while another poured water over the powdered root.» — Ford relata su propia aprensión higiénica ante la preparación del yaqona.

«What risks were we taking: drunkenness, disease, polluted water, unclean hands?» — y la enumera en cuatro riesgos.

«We had been told by Europeans in Suva that it was imperative that we accept what we were offered, including kava, when we were in a Fijian village.» — la regla de trato que le habían dado los europeos de Suva y que decidió el asunto.

«During the year that we spent in Fiji on that field trip in 1935-36 we drank a great deal of kava, probably as much if not more than many of the Fijians. We became quite fond of it and never experienced, insofar as we could detect, any of the ill effects attributed to the drink.» — Ford declara la escala de su propio consumo durante un año de campo en Fiyi y niega haber notado ninguno de los males atribuidos.

«Nor did we ever, during that trip or subsequent shorter trips to the islands of the South Pacific, see a native "drunk" from kava drinking. Exhausted, yes.» — y la negativa que más pesa en su ponencia: nunca vio a un nativo ebrio de kava; el término va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«Apparently the early inhabitants of Fiji brought the kava plant with them from Indonesia. From Fiji it was probably introduced somewhat later to Tonga and to Samoa.» — la ruta de difusión que Ford propone para el kava, de Indonesia a Fiyi y de ahí a Tonga y Samoa.

«The practice of chewing {mama) the root seems to have been introduced to Fiji by Tongans or Samoans, although there is a possibility that it may have come to them from other parts of Melanesia.» — Ford consigna la masticación como práctica importada a Fiyi, probablemente desde Tonga o Samoa.

«The church and the government discouraged the practice, and today the root is either brayed between two stones or pulverized in a wooden mortar with a pestle.» — y el fin de esa práctica por presión de la iglesia y del gobierno.

«An oft-repeated story justifying the discouragement of chewing kava as a method of preparation relates that in the 1870s a Dr. Macgregor weighed six ounces of the root, which was then chewed in the usual manner. When deposited in the bowl it weighed seventeen ounces» — el relato con que Ford ilustra el argumento contra la masticación, la raíz que pasó de seis a diecisiete onzas al salir de la boca.

«Whether the design for the bowl originated in Kambara or was introduced there from Samoa and/or Tonga is not known, but since the term by which the bowl is known in Fiji, tanoa, is a Polynesian word, it seems likely that the bowls are of Polynesian origin.» — Ford deduce el origen polinesio del tazón fiyiano del nombre con que se lo conoce, y declara desconocido el resto.

«The tanoa is never used for any other purpose than that of mixing kava, and after a long period of use its interior surface collects a blue-green patina.» — Ford consigna la exclusividad de uso del tazón y la pátina que deja el tiempo.

«It is believed that the kava ceremony in Fiji was formerly a predominately religious rite, carried out by priests.» — la tesis de Ford sobre el origen de la ceremonia fiyiana, rito religioso en manos de sacerdotes.

«The purpose was to establish communion with the supernatural. Through the kava ceremony the priests were believed to reach the gods and ensure their assistance in life here and hereafter.» — y la finalidad que le atribuye: comunión con lo sobrenatural, con los sacerdotes alcanzando a los dioses para asegurar su ayuda aquí y en el más allá.

«As the latter grew in strength by virtue of consolidating more and more territory under their control, they ousted the priestly class from their position of power.» — Ford narra el desplazamiento del sacerdocio por el poder político conforme este consolidaba territorio.

«Coincidentally, the missionaries came in to take over the allimportant function of cementing the relationship between the people and the supernatural.» — y el relevo simultáneo de los misioneros en la función de unir al pueblo con lo sobrenatural; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae all-important.

«The political leaders took over the kava ceremony, and from that time on it has been more socio-political than religious, though much of the ritual can be traced back to usages in the past that were strictly religious in character.» — la tesis de Ford sobre la ceremonia actual: sociopolítica desde entonces, con el ritual heredado de usos que fueron estrictamente religiosos.

«One of the major functions of the kava ceremony is clearly to reaffirm (or establish) status. When visiting dignitaries arrive, this is the means by which strangers are accorded their position in the village or district to which they have come.» — la función que Ford da por principal, reafirmar el estatus y asignar al forastero su lugar.

«were more often than not of a warlike nature, this was a respected medium through which rapport could be established, at least a temporary truce declared, and a modicum of trade relations ensured.» — el valor diplomático que Ford deriva de esa función entre pueblos habitualmente en guerra: tregua temporal y comercio; la frase arranca en la plana anterior.

«The wa> ni tanoa, the sennit braid with its white cowries, is stretched out directly away from the mixer pointing toward the most important personage present, the chief of the district or a visiting dignitary. The first cup of kava will be presented to him.» — la trenza del tazón apuntando al personaje principal, que es el dispositivo por el que la ceremonia dice el rango sin hablar.

«The following incident illustrates the method of indirection dearly loved by the Polynesians.» — Ford cita a Sir Peter Buck, que él presenta como polinesio él mismo, sobre el método de la indirecta.

«He looked casually across at his companions and saw what must have been a soul-stirring sight. The suspensory lug of the bowl was pointing at him. The chiefs had not spoken, but the speechless bowl was announcing a king» — y el episodio de Tonga que Buck relata: la espita del tazón apuntando a George Tubou anunciaba un rey sin que nadie hablara.

«With the presentation of a tabua at a proper kava ceremony, one may obtain from a chief almost anything one is desirous of having.» — la nota al pie de Ford sobre el diente de ballena como moneda ceremonial de Fiyi y su poder en una ceremonia de kava.

«From this point on none of the participants, seated cross-legged in fixed position, will make any movement that is not a part of the prescribed ritual.» — Ford describe el corte que marca el inicio del rito: ningún movimiento que no esté prescrito.

«The important things to note here are, first, that throughout the entire proceeding the arrangement of participants and their behavior, including the chanting and the movements of the cupbearer who serves the kava, are rigidly prescribed by custom and, second, that the occasion is a very solemn affair.» — los dos rasgos que Ford subraya de la ceremonia entera, la prescripción rígida y la solemnidad.

«In the not-too-distant past, the entire village was compelled to be silent while kava was being prepared in formal fashion, and if anyone, even a child, made any noticeable noise, he was clubbed.» — y la medida de esa solemnidad en el pasado reciente: al que hacía ruido, aun a un niño, se le apaleaba.

«In native schools they are taught the ceremonial, using plain water as a substitute for kava and wooden tabuas.» — Ford consigna la transmisión escolar de la ceremonia con agua y dientes de madera en lugar de kava y tabua.

«Among the Fijians, kava seems to be holding its own against the importation of alcoholic beverages and soft drinks.» — y el balance que Ford hace frente al alcohol importado, contrario al que Cronheim planteó para otras islas.

«Drinking kava is considered appropriate to a wide variety of occasions, from birth through marriage and death.» — Ford extiende el kava a todo el ciclo de la vida.

«Kava is never, to my knowledge, drunk alone. The practice is solidly imbedded in social and political context.» — y enuncia la regla que él da por firme: el kava no se bebe a solas, la práctica está incrustada en lo social y lo político.

«It is important to remember, however, that such parallels as may exist in other parts of the world rarely imply any direct historical connection.» — la cautela comparativa de Ford: el paralelo no implica conexión histórica directa.

«And the premastication of food by mothers to feed their infants is such a universal custom that the probability of independent inventions using this method for the preparation of beverages is extremely high.» — y el argumento con que sostiene la invención independiente de la premasticación.

«There certainly does not appear to be any support for the notion, implied by Ling Shun-sheng (pp. 84-86), for example, that there is a specific historical connection between the practice of premasticating grains for fermented beverages in Asia and in South America and the chewing of kava in the South Pacific.» — Ford niega apoyo a la conexión histórica que Ling Shun-sheng insinúa entre la premasticación asiática, la sudamericana y la del kava.

«The sharing of food and drink as a means of declaring a temporary truce or ensuring protection through the establishment of a mutual bond has many parallels» — Ford pone el reparto de comida y bebida como tregua y vínculo en una serie de paralelos que incluye el partir el pan y la hermandad de sangre.

«In its religious aspects, some of the rituals associated with kava drinking have parallels that come readily to mind, including certain aspects of Christian ritual.» — y señala el paralelo con ciertos aspectos del ritual cristiano sin desarrollarlo.

«There still remains the basic question: To what can the all-pervasive role of kava be attributed ? Is it due to the physiological effects of the beverage itself? Are these so powerful that they in a sense demand recognition and that from this flows the development of the involved social, political, and ceremonial practices which surround its usage?» — la pregunta de fondo que Ford deja planteada al simposio: si el papel omnipresente del kava se debe a su efecto fisiológico y de ahí sale el edificio ceremonial.

«It has been suggested that the accounts of the effects of drinking kava are simply erroneous fabrications by the early missionaries, which have been perpetuated throughout the decades» — Ford recoge la sospecha de Churchill sobre los relatos misioneros del efecto del kava, tenidos por fabricaciones repetidas durante décadas.

«In this connection it is interesting to note that some of the early descriptive phrases continue to be repeated verbatim in later accounts, usually without any reference to an earlier source.» — y el indicio que la apoya: frases descriptivas tempranas repetidas literalmente en relatos posteriores sin citar la fuente.

«As I experienced it, it gives a pleasant, warm, and cheerful, but lazy feeling, sociable, though not hilarious or loquacious; the reason is not obscured.» — lo que Hocart reporta de su propia experiencia con el kava, con la razón intacta, citado por Ford como testimonio difícil de descartar.

«One matter which has not been stressed but which might conceivably be important is that social kava drinking commonly takes place inside of a bure, or native house. The drinking may last for hours. During this time quantities of strong native tobacco are smoked. And if the doors are closed, as is the case in relatively cool weather, the atmosphere can become pretty thick with smoke.» — la variable que Ford señala y nadie había puesto sobre la mesa: se bebe dentro de una casa cerrada y llena de humo de tabaco fuerte.

«The atmosphere, coupled with sitting cross-legged for such a long time, can easily produce some unsteadiness which, I suppose, could be attributed to the drinking of kava if one were predisposed to think so.» — y la explicación alternativa que de ahí extrae para la inestabilidad atribuida al kava.

«Of course it is possible that the experiences we have had are not comparable to those of earlier times. The drink may have been much stronger than that which we have been accustomed to.» — Ford concede que su propia experiencia puede no ser comparable con la de los relatos antiguos.

«With the evidence available, it seems that early reports on the physiological effects of kava drinking were greatly exaggerated.» — y el juicio con que cierra, que los informes tempranos exageraban mucho.

«But this seems hardly sufficient by itself to account for the part which kava plays in the socio-political and ceremonial life of the people.» — Ford niega que el efecto fisiológico baste para explicar el lugar del kava en la vida sociopolítica y ceremonial.

«It seems more likely that in considerable measure the importance of kava to the people of western Polynesia and Fiji is derived from the part it plays in their life rather than froni whatever physiological effects it may have.» — y da la vuelta a la pregunta del simposio: la importancia del kava vendría del papel que juega en la vida, no de su farmacología.

«Kava has become the focus of importance in so much of their lifetime activities that they have come to treasure it far more than seems warranted by its intrinsic properties.» — Ford formula la desproporción entre el aprecio por el kava y sus propiedades intrínsecas; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae life-time.

«Mariner, William. "An account of the natives of the Tonga Islands, in the South Pacific Ocean." Compiled and arranged from the extensive communications of Mr. William Mariner, several years resident in the islands. By John Martin. 2 vols. London, printed for the author, 1817.» — la bibliografía de Ford cierra con el relato de William Mariner sobre Tonga, recogido por John Martin.

«Several of the speakers have stated that, while Kava drinking produces ataxia and physical weakness, it leaves the intellect clear. Is there any corroboration for this other than introspective reports?» — la pregunta escrita del público con que arranca la discusión de la sesión del kava, leída por el presidente Cronheim.

«For example, the drinking of Kava by the young men very frequently is followed by very active dancing. It is a very energetic and physical sort of dancing» — Holmes responde con un argumento de campo: tras beber kava los jóvenes bailan con energía.

«I would have the boys prepare Kava, and I would sit there and work up my notes and drink Kava constantly.» — y con su propio experimento de gabinete, escribiendo notas mientras bebía kava sin parar.

«I was sitting there typing, but I was thinking and reasoning out certain things that I had observed, and as far as I am concerned, I did not experience any curtailment of intellectual abilities, nor did I experience any emotional problems.» — y el resultado que reporta de sí mismo, sin merma intelectual ni problemas emocionales.

«It seemed to me that the Fijians were much sharper in their decisions and thoughts how to proceed while they were having Kava, than during other casual conversations.» — Ford añade su propia observación, con los fiyianos más agudos al deliberar bebiendo kava que en la charla casual.

«I never noticed that drinking Kava made the men dull. If it were anything it would be the reverse» — y niega el embotamiento, con la afirmación contraria si acaso.

«I would suspect in regard to the compounds we worked with, the d-pyrones, where water solubility is negligible, that mastication may result in a sort of an emulsion being formed where the particles are suspended in the water, and in that way you could get some of the physiological effects.» — la hipótesis que Klohs ofrece a la pregunta de Pfeiffer sobre el emulsionante: la masticación formaría una suspensión de las pironas insolubles.

«In the particular cult on Tanna, there was a gradual disenchantment of the people on the Island with the European planters, and the missionary people.» — Gajdusek explica al panel qué es un culto cargo partiendo del desencanto con los plantadores europeos y los misioneros.

«There was a turning back to traditional ceremonies and the traditional way of life, with the addition of many of new features taken from the missionary teaching but re-interpreted in the way the people themselves wanted to interpret them.» — y describe su mecanismo: vuelta a la ceremonia tradicional con rasgos tomados de la enseñanza misionera y reinterpretados por los propios nativos.

«This was definitely associated with a request that all Europeans leave the Island and that the Government not bother them.» — y su exigencia política, que se fueran los europeos y el gobierno los dejara en paz.

«Kava came into the matter in that it became a part of the whole cult.» — Gajdusek sitúa el kava dentro de ese culto, no como su causa.

«I think there must be a mistake here, since I never quoted on the anticonvulsive effectiveness of the benzodiazepines which is indeed not very strong, at any rate much weaker than is found with the Kava pyrones.» — Meyer enmienda una pregunta del público que le atribuía una comparación que él no hizo.

«Had we had a larger sample, and had we done a careful comparison with chlordiazepoxide, we might have found different results.» — Pfeiffer acota sus propios resultados por el tamaño de la muestra, doce pacientes a lo sumo.

«Maybe Dr. Holmstedt who sent in this question can provide also the answer. Dr. Holmstedt : No.» — el intercambio más breve del volumen: Cronheim devuelve a Holmstedt su propia pregunta sobre la estatua pascuense llamada Moa Kava Kava y la respuesta es una sola palabra.

«I have already brought up the question of whether or not it is a pain killing drug and the consensus seems to be that it is not a pain killing drug in general.» — Pfeiffer recoge del panel el consenso negativo sobre el kava como analgésico.

«I did mention this morning that it is often taken to relieve the chills of filariasis, but other than that I know of no claims for Kava as a therapeutic drug.» — y Holmes acota su propia ponencia: fuera de la filariasis, no conoce reclamo terapéutico para el kava.

«We think that this is an appreciable difference between hypnotics and soporific agents like the Kava pyrones, the action of which are apparently more related to the physiological mechanisms of sleep.» — Meyer distingue las pironas del kava de los hipnóticos por su relación con los mecanismos fisiológicos del sueño.

«Moreover, animals put into sleep by Kava pyrones, easily can be aroused at any time of drug action.» — y el rasgo que lo apoya, el animal dormido por pironas se despierta con facilidad, que es lo mismo que Gajdusek observó en Tongariki.

«It may be that other aspects of the situation account for part of this. For example, decision-making and considering future plans of the villagers might help to provide this alertness rather than the Kava itself.» — Ford se desmarca de su propia observación sobre la lucidez: la deliberación misma podría explicarla, no el kava.

«He claims that during the first half hour of such a drinking bout, during which he consumed maybe a quart, or so of this diluted Kava, he became quite drowsy and sleepy, but that after this period passed he was well alert and wide awake enough to actually speak Fijian better than he felt he had normally been able to do.» — el testimonio de segunda mano que Ford aporta, el de su hijo de veintitrés años hablando mejor fiyiano tras el sopor inicial.

«The Tongarikans obviously are not drinking Kava socially.» — Gajdusek marca la diferencia que a su juicio explica la discrepancia del panel: en Tongariki no se bebe socialmente, y a menudo se bebe a solas.

«They are anxious to get the expected effect, and therefore having taken a large dose and eaten, and if they are not getting the effect, they often go back and have their boys chew more.» — y la conducta que de ahí sigue, la dosis ajustada hasta obtener el efecto buscado.

«They like the feeling and they refer particularly to numbness of their lower extremity up to the waist.» — lo que los bebedores de Tongariki dicen apreciar, el entumecimiento que sube hasta la cintura.

«There is a great deal of concern whose Kava one is using, what garden plot it comes from, whether it is too dry, or if it is grown in the wrong soil or in the wrong place.» — Gajdusek señala la atención de los nativos a la procedencia de la raíz, que él traduce como posible variación farmacológica.

«I know one very fine author who can only write a book consuming a case of bourbon a week. It is a very tine book and this is the way the man works; he is productive on whiskey but not otherwise productive.» — la anécdota con que Pfeiffer sostiene que un sedante puede mejorar el rendimiento de un sobreestimulado; el escaneo imprime tine por fine.

«can the three of you in some way point out the differences, either in the time of the year or the type of the plant» — Cronheim plantea al panel la contradicción de la sesión, entre lo que Gajdusek experimentó y lo que Ford y Holmes no; la pregunta sigue en la plana siguiente, con la identidad botánica de la planta.

«However, all of my informants told me that the Kava chewers were trained not to get saliva on the Kava. I don't know how you do this, but the attempt was made not to get a big, messy cud and to keep the Kava as dry as possible.» — Holmes aporta un dato que va contra la hipótesis salival: en Samoa a los masticadores se los entrenaba para no ensalivar la raíz.

«I have never tasted Kava that has been pre-masticated and this would seem to be one variable. Another is the variable of the green versus the dry root. Another is the variable of maybe different varieties in different soils, and the final one is obviously the tremendous difference in the amount of concentrate.» — Ford enumera las cuatro variables que quedan abiertas al cerrar la sesión: la premasticación, la raíz verde o seca, la variedad y el suelo, y la concentración.

«The quantity of Kava you are describing is less than is used in Tongariki for one man, let alone for thirty Chiefs. A large quantity sufficient for six young men is made, and I suspect this amount of root is more than you are using for your whole ceremony. This is one person's production.» — Gajdusek resuelve la discrepancia por la dosis: lo que en Samoa sirve para treinta jefes, en Tongariki es la ración de uno.

«The young men that are chewing the Kava have a thoroughly anaesthetized mouth. They claim that they cannot taste anything for» — Gajdusek responde desde el piso que los masticadores sí reciben efecto, con la boca del todo anestesiada; la frase termina en la plana siguiente, con la boca rígida y la dificultad para articular.

«We should always remember that the active principles in any plant vary enormously with respect to the soils in which they may grow.» — Leake interviene desde la presidencia general del simposio con la variable del suelo, que él ejemplifica con la nicotina y la efedrina.

«The natives themselves said it was necessary to get the saliva in to release the active principle.» — el testimonio del antropólogo Holder desde el piso, con la explicación que los propios nativos de las Nuevas Hébridas daban de la masticación.

«they told me that in the past Kava had been used as part of the sexual ceremony, which was poured over a stone phallus prior to being mixed and drunk.» — y el uso ritual que Holder reporta de oídas, el kava vertido sobre un falo de piedra antes de mezclarse y beberse.

«The uppermost question that plagues the conscious of an investigator in this field is whether, by discussing publicly a substance with a potential for abuse by the lay public, he is inadvertently opening another Pandora's box of human ills.» — Truitt abre la sesión de la nuez moscada con el escrúpulo del investigador: discutir en público una sustancia abusable puede abrir otra caja de Pandora; el escaneo imprime conscious por conscience.

«One answer to this question, in the case of nutmeg, appears to be that this substance has enough unpleasant effects mixed with its centrally stimulating actions to discourage misuse by any but the most reckless psychodelic adventurers.» — y la respuesta que se da a sí mismo: la nuez moscada trae bastantes efectos desagradables como para desalentar el abuso; el escaneo imprime psychodelic.

«A lesson from LSD should be applied here, so that the human risks of nutmeg derivatives, mental as well as organic, will be carefully evaluated by clinical pharmacologists in anticipation of the possibility of widespread misuse.» — Truitt pide aplicar aquí la lección del LSD, evaluando el riesgo antes del mal uso generalizado y no después.

«Myristicin is unique among psychotropic agents in that it lacks a nitrogen atom.» — el rasgo que Truitt da por único de la miristicina entre los agentes psicotrópicos.

«What is the relationship between the central feelings of anxiety, detachment, and excitation with somatic effects such as tachycardia, xerostomia, hypothermia, vasomotor lability, pupillary changes, and heaviness of the limbs ?» — la pregunta de Truitt sobre la relación entre lo central y lo periférico en la intoxicación por nuez moscada.

«The marked degree and variety of peripheral effects prompts the question as to how much of the psychic action is attributable to the centripetal stimuli.» — y su formulación más aguda: cuánto de la acción psíquica se debe al estímulo centrípeto.

«From a therapeutic viewpoint, one might ask whether some aspect of the syndrome induced by nutmeg might have a therapeutic application. This is, indeed, the most central question to the purposes of this conference.» — Truitt declara la pregunta terapéutica como la más central del simposio entero.

«However, this goal has not yet been achieved for any of the drugs presently labeled as hallucinogens.» — y la negativa que la acompaña: ese objetivo no se ha logrado con ninguna de las drogas rotuladas hoy de alucinógenas.

«The program to follow cannot begin to treat all aspects of nutmeg because extensive communication with other scientists and reviews of the scattered literature did not lead to the finding of experts on the anthropogical and other facets of the spice.» — Truitt declara el hueco de la sesión: no halló expertos en los aspectos antropológicos de la especia; el escaneo imprime anthropogical.

«The last speaker, Dr. Enoch Callaway, III, is an authority on nutmeg by reason of personal experience as well as having conducted clinical experimentation with a purified myristicincontaining fraction of oil of nutmeg.» — Truitt presenta a Callaway acreditándolo por experiencia personal además de por experimentación clínica; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae myristicin-containing.

«I believe that his experience with the drug, if widely known, should certainly dissuade public abuse of nutmeg.» — y el uso disuasorio que espera de ese testimonio.

«Clearly, nutmeg is unique among the less familiar psychoactive drugs. It is the only one widely known to millions of persons in all countries—albeit for other-than-pharmacological purposes.» — Weil abre su ponencia con la paradoja de la nuez moscada, la única droga psicoactiva poco familiar que millones conocen por otra razón.

«It is also the only one whose use as a drug may be on the verge of an enormous increase.» — y el pronóstico con que justifica la ponencia.

«The aim of this paper is to review the botany, history, and commerce of nutmeg as well as to describe the ways it is used for effects on consciousness.» — Weil declara el plan de su ponencia, con la botánica, la historia y el comercio antes del uso sobre la consciencia.

«Two spices—nutmeg and mace—come from the nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans (family Myristicaceae) , a handsome tropical tree native to the Banda Islands and other islands of the East Indian archipelago.» — y el hecho botánico de partida: dos especias del mismo árbol de las islas Banda.

«The genus Myristica comprises about 100 species found throughout the torrid zone, especially in the Malayan region; but of these M. fragrans alone contains enough of an aromatic essential oil to make it worthy of cultivation.» — Weil acota que de un centenar de especies del género solo una tiene aceite bastante para cultivarse.

«When ripe, the fleshy husk, or pericarp, of this fruit splits open into two halves, revealing a shiny brown seedcoat, or testa. Inside this shell is the seed, which is the nutmeg of commerce. Outside the shell, closely enwrapping it, is a bright crimson network, or arillus, which is the mace.» — la anatomía del fruto que separa las dos especias, la semilla y el arilo.

«In the calendar year 1965, the United States imported nearly 5,300,000 pounds of nutmeg worth about $3,800,000.» — la cifra de importación con que Weil mide la presencia de la nuez moscada en los Estados Unidos.

«Until 1955, the U.S. obtained about half of its annual supply of both nutmeg and mace from the West Indies. In that year, however, a hurricane devastated the island of Grenada, and the nutmeg groves there have still not recovered from the damage» — y el desplazamiento de origen que un huracán en Granada produjo en 1955.

«Depending on the variety, whole nutmeg contains from 5 to 15 per cent of a volatile oil that accounts entirely for the aroma and flavor of the spice.» — Weil sitúa en el aceite volátil todo el aroma y el sabor de la especia, que es donde estará el principio activo.

«The American Spice Trade Association estimates that 55 percent of nutmeg and mace imported into this country is sold through retail stores to home consumers.» — el dato con que Weil sostiene que la droga está en la despensa de cualquiera.

«Chemically, it is a complex mixture of alcohols, esters, and organic acids, including about four percent myristicin, the main pharmacologically active component» — Weil nombra la miristicina como el componente activo principal del aceite de nuez moscada, y da su proporción.

«Nutmeg was unknown to the ancient Greeks and Komans, but probably, Arabian traders began importing it from the East Indies by the first centuries A.D.» — Weil fecha la entrada de la nuez moscada al Mediterráneo por los comerciantes árabes y la niega para griegos y romanos; el escaneo imprime Komans.

«No definite evidence of Myristica's appearance in Europe is recorded until the 12th Century, and the source of nutmeg was not discovered by the West until the Portuguese reached Banda in 1512.» — y las dos fechas europeas del asunto, la aparición en el siglo XII y el hallazgo del origen por los portugueses.

«In order to keep prices of the spices very high, the Dutch tried to limit cultivation of the nutmeg tree to two islands, but their monopoly» — Weil consigna el intento holandés de monopolio por restricción del cultivo a dos islas; la frase termina en la plana siguiente, donde franceses e ingleses lo desafían con éxito.

«Its therapeutic applications were first catalogued by Arab physicians as early as the 7th Century A.D.» — Weil fecha en los médicos árabes del siglo VII el primer catálogo de aplicaciones terapéuticas de la especia.

«Originally, it seems to have been a remedy for disorders of the digestive system, but before long it was considered beneficial in such diverse conditions as kidney disease, pain, and lymphatic ailments; it was even described as an aphrodisiac.» — y la expansión de indicaciones que siguió, hasta el afrodisiaco.

«Many of these beliefs are preserved in contemporary Arab folk medicine ; in fact, Yemenite men still consume it to increase virility.» — Weil consigna la supervivencia de esas creencias en la medicina popular árabe de su tiempo.

«Similarly, nutmeg was and is a significant item in the Hindu pharmacopeia, where it has been prescribed for fever, consumption, asthma, and heart disease. Traditional Malayan medicine designates nutmeg for madness as well.» — y el lugar de la nuez moscada en la farmacopea hindú y en la medicina malaya, esta última contra la locura.

«According to an adviser in the Indian Ministry of Health, nutmeg is still used as an analgesic and sedative by folk practitioners, and is given in small quantities to induce hypnotic effect in irritable children.» — el uso vigente que Weil recoge de un asesor del ministerio de salud indio, incluido el sedante para niños irritables.

«Near the end of the 1800's, a rumor spread among women in England and America that nutmeg could bring on overdue menstruation and even induce abortion.» — Weil data el rumor abortivo que causó la mayoría de las intoxicaciones documentadas por nuez moscada.

«The origin of this mistaken belief is unclear, but its influence is well documented in dozens of case reports of nutmeg poisoning published in British and American medical journals of the period» — y declara oscuro el origen de esa creencia y bien documentada su consecuencia.

«I have myself had an accidental occasion of observing its [nutmeg's] soporific and stupefying power. A person by mistake took two drams or a little more of powdered nutmeg ; he felt it warm in his stomach, without any uneasiness» — el caso que el médico inglés William Cullen describió en 1789, citado por Weil como registro temprano del poder estupefaciente de la especia; el corchete con la palabra nutmeg es de la cita y va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«In 1829, the great physiologist J. E. Purkinje conducted self-experiments with nutmeg. Following a dose of three whole nutmegs, he experienced spatial and temporal disorientation similar to that of Cannabis intoxication.» — Weil fecha en 1829 el autoexperimento de Purkinje con tres nueces moscadas enteras y lo empareja con la intoxicación por cannabis.

«The distance was long, but this time I thought it had no end. My movements appeared entirely adequate, but were lost momentarily in dream pictures, from which I had to extricate myself with considerable force in order to keep on walking.» — lo que Purkinje escribió de su trayecto al teatro, con el movimiento perdiéndose en imágenes de sueño.

«During this time dreams and physical activity battled one another.» — y la fórmula con que lo resume, el sueño y la actividad física en pugna.

«patients have consumed from 1 to 3 nutmegs and have experienced restlessness, dizziness, fear of death, coldness of extremities, occasional nausea and vomiting, abdominal pafn, and precordial pain or oppression.» — el cuadro que McCord resumió en 1962 de los casos de intoxicación, citado por Weil; el escaneo imprime pafn por pain.

«Only one fatality has ever been ascribed to nutmeg ingestion : near the beginning of this century, an eight year old boy ate two whole nutmegs, became comatose, and died less than 24 hours later» — la única muerte que Weil halla atribuida a la nuez moscada, la de un niño de ocho años.

«The apparent epidemic of nutmeg intoxications around the turn of the century subsided after the First World War. Cases since then have been rare.» — Weil marca el fin de la epidemia de intoxicaciones tras la Primera Guerra.

«each had the onset of a significant pharmacologic effect, heralded by a leaden feeling in the extremities and a nonchalant, detached mental state described as 'unreal' or 'dreamlike.'» — el caso de dos universitarios que Payne publicó en 1963, con el arranque a las cinco horas y el estado descrito como irreal o de sueño.

«One described a sense of impending doom, as if he were 'breaking up inside.'» — y la sensación de ruina inminente que uno de ellos reportó.

«A history of the use of nutmeg for the express purpose of inducing these bizarre physical and mental effects is hard to piece together simply because reliable data on Myristica narcosis are not available.» — Weil declara el problema de fuentes de su propio asunto: no hay datos fiables sobre la narcosis por Myristica.

«The medical literature is of no help, for example, because nearly all the reported cases have resulted from accidental ingestions or overdoses taken as remedies.» — y explica por qué la literatura médica no sirve: sus casos son accidentes o sobredosis de remedio.

«Most of the information on nutmeg as a psychoactive drug is anecdotal, and it has been most difficult to document the anecdotes.» — Weil declara anecdótico el grueso de su material y difícil de documentar, lo que vuelve su ponencia un ejercicio de método además de contenido.

«Stories in circulation about nutmeg at the present time develop several recurrent themes. One is that Myristica is used as an intoxicant in certain parts of Asia. Another is that nutmeg is widely consumed by prison inmates in this country. A third is that students and 'beatniks' have adopted the the spice as a new hallucinogen.» — y ordena los rumores en tres temas: Asia, los presos y los estudiantes.

«A suggestive clue is one of the synonyms for nutmeg used in Ayurveda, an ancient Hindu scripture. Here, nutmeg is called Mada shaunda meaning "narcotic fruit.» — el único indicio textual que Weil halla para el uso asiático, el nombre ayurvédico que él traduce como fruto narcótico.

«There is reason to believe that nutmeg is, in fact, eaten as an intoxicant even today by some people in India who add it to betel chew.» — y el uso indio actual que da por probable, añadida al bolo de betel.

«Still another unsubstantiated assertion is that nutmeg is often substituted for hashish in Egypt w7hen the hemp product is not available.» — Weil marca como no sustanciada la sustitución del hachís por nuez moscada en Egipto; el escaneo imprime w7hen.

«I first got high in Charlestown [prison] on nutmeg. My cellmate was among at least a hundred nutmeg men who, for money or cigarettes, bought from kitchenworker inmates penny matchboxes full of stolen nutmeg. I grabbed a box as though it were a pound of heavy drugs. Stirred into a glass of cold water, a penny matchbox full of nutmeg had the kick of three or four reefers.» — el pasaje de la autobiografía de Malcolm X que Weil cita como testimonio del uso carcelario, con el centenar de hombres de la nuez moscada; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae kitchen-worker.

«We are aware of the narcotic reaction these spices may have when improperly used, and, therefore, it is standard practice in the Federal prisons to maintain careful control of both items [i.e., nutmeg and mace]» — la respuesta oficial del Federal Bureau of Prisons que Weil reproduce, con el control estricto de las dos especias; la frase termina en la plana siguiente, donde dice que por eso no tienen problemas.

«However I do not know of a single instance in the Federal Prison system where either spice was used by inmates for its narcotic effect.» — y la negativa con que ese funcionario cierra, que Weil contrapone al estudio de Weiss.

«It is widely believed by inmates of correctional institutions that the drug action of nutmeg produces reactions similar to those of legally prohibited drugs which are considered habit-forming and addicting.» — lo que Weiss halló creído entre los presos de Trenton sobre la nuez moscada.

«The number of times these men had tried Myristica was impressive. One had taken nutmeg on 10 different occasions, one 30, one 52, and one 475.» — Weil subraya la frecuencia de uso entre los diez presos que Weiss estudió.

«Most of the subjects compared nutmeg to marihuana, although some also likened it to heroin and alcohol.» — y las comparaciones que los propios presos hacían.

«Most experienced a sense of being transported aloft, along with drowsiness in some cases and excitement in others.» — el efecto más común que Weiss reporta, la sensación de ser transportado hacia arriba.

«Users consider themselves to be more lively and cheerful. Thus, they feel they have dispelled their inner gloom.» — la función que Weiss atribuye al uso carcelario, disipar la tristeza interior.

«However, drug users seldom take nutmeg once they leave the prison since they consider its effects to be inferior to those of heroin or marihuana, whatever may be the similarity between them.» — y el dato que apoya esa lectura por contraste: fuera de la cárcel casi nadie la toma, por tenerla por inferior.

«Convicts, because of the nature of their environment, have rarely any alternative high.» — la explicación que uno de los corresponsales de Weil da del asunto, por falta de alternativa.

«Convicts and sailors sometimes have recourse to nutmeg. About a tablespoon is swallowed with water. Result vaguely similar to marihuana with side effects of headache and nausea.» — la línea de Naked Lunch de William Burroughs que Weil cita como referencia literaria del uso.

«Bird introduced this nutmeg to the guys. It was a cheap and legal high. You can take it in milk or Coca Cola. The grocer across the street came over to the club owner and said, "I know you do all this baking because I sell from 8 to 10 nutmegs a day." And the owner came back and looked at the bandstand and there was a whole pile of nutmeg boxes.» — el recuerdo del jefe de la banda en que Charlie Parker debutó, citado por Weil: el tendero delató el consumo por las ventas diarias.

«They either eat or snuff it in variable amounts and commonly experience symptoms much more like those of the familiar hallucinogens than those described in the old reports of nutmeg poisoning.» — la conclusión de Weil sobre el uso moderno: los síntomas se parecen más a los de los alucinógenos conocidos que a los de las viejas intoxicaciones.

«In our own society the fastest-growing group of drug-takers is not the prison population or jazz world but rather students and» — Weil sitúa el grupo de consumo de crecimiento más rápido en los estudiantes y no en presos ni músicos; el término que sigue va entrecomillado en el impreso.

«It is especially noteworthy that many of these people would never have indulged in such activities even five years ago.» — y el cambio de época que subraya, con gente que cinco años antes no lo habría hecho.

«Students have also been the initiators of drug fads in recent years. The flurry of excitement over morning-glory seeds in 1963 and 1964 was generated largely by college undergraduates and high school pupils.» — Weil adjudica a los estudiantes la iniciativa de las modas, con el episodio de las semillas de dondiego de 1963 y 1964.

«I have been particularly interested in this possibility because I first learned of Myristica's psychopharmacological potential through an invitation to a "mace party" given by several undergraduates at Haverford College near Philadelphia in 1961.» — Weil declara el origen personal de su interés, una fiesta de macis en Haverford College.

«Over the past six months I have been in touch with officials of student health services at representative universities throughout the country in an attempt to collect additional reports of Myristica intoxications. Significantly, most of the responding physicians were unaware of nutmeg's nonculinary uses.» — y el resultado de su encuesta a los servicios de salud universitarios: casi ningún médico sabía de esos usos; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae non-culinary.

«Does the scarcity of reported cases indicate a low frequency of nutmeg use by students? Probably not—just because students are reluctant to present themselves for medical treatment of drug intoxications, even when they suffer alarming symptoms.» — Weil niega que la escasez de casos registrados mida el uso real, y da la razón: el estudiante no acude al médico.

«To get a more accurate idea of the extent of experimentation with nutmeg on college campuses, I placed advertisements requesting information on the spice in several student newspapers and also interviewed students from many areas of the country.» — y el método que empleó en su lugar, anuncios en periódicos estudiantiles y entrevistas.

«Convinced that the alleged hallucinogenic properties of mace were imaginary, we separated and I went to bed.» — el primer caso que Weil recoge, con la fiesta de macis dada por fallida antes de que llegara el efecto; el escaneo imprime sypmtoms más abajo.

«At this time he had a vivid impression that he was floating with his limbs separated from his body.» — la imagen que uno de los estudiantes del caso dos reporta, flotando con los miembros separados del cuerpo.

«I was very belligerent, a condition apparently precipitated by the belief that I was going to be executed. I became ill and vomited. I imagined the other prisoners were Nazis who were guarding me.» — el caso tres de Weil, un exestudiante de San Francisco que pasó un día en la cárcel creyendo que lo iban a ejecutar.

«The method of these people was to take the nutmeg before they went to bed so that they would wake up high and avoid the nausea nutmeg often caused.» — la técnica de un grupo de Colorado que Weil recoge, tomarla antes de dormir para despertar con el efecto y saltarse la náusea.

«I closed my eyes and saw : silver spears of grass waving across an azure sky, silver waves of poplar trees swaying and dancing in the sun.» — lo que la mujer del caso diez de Weil vio al cerrar los ojos.

«About 12 :30 I opened my eyes and noticed that the stove was far, far away ; the very walls had receded ; the kitchen was cathedral-like in its dimensions. I stood up to look at myself, and I was unusually tall. My feet were small and far away ; it was like looking through the wrong end of binoculars.» — y la distorsión de tamaño y distancia que reporta, con la cocina vuelta catedral.

«Unlike prisoners or musicians, who resort to nutmeg when their supplies of standard drugs are cut off, students often take nutmeg as a first experience before they try Cannabis or other substances. Nutmeg and mace are cheap, legal, and available at the nearest grocery store.» — la segunda conclusión de Weil, y la que marca la diferencia de sus tres grupos: para el estudiante la nuez moscada es la primera experiencia, no el sustituto.

«Onset of action is commonly 2 to 5 or more hours after ingestion. Most neophytes are not aware of the delay.» — la demora de acción que Weil da por característica y desconocida para el novato.

«Some of the reported reactions to nutmeg must be purely psychological. A dose of one teaspoon is probably insufficient to cause true symptoms. Similarly, hallucinations or mental changes that come on within thirty minutes of ingestion are likely to be factitious.» — Weil descarta como psicológicas las reacciones a dosis mínima o de aparición inmediata.

«Reactions to nutmeg vary from no mental changes at all to full-blown hallucinogenic experiences like those caused by hashish or LSD. There is no apparent correlation between dose and psychoactive effect.» — y consigna la ausencia de correlación entre dosis y efecto, que es su hallazgo más incómodo.

«Might this extreme variability represent differences in pharmacological potency of different batches of nutmeg? Or do people vary greatly in their sensitivity to the active principle?» — y las dos explicaciones posibles que deja abiertas, la variación del lote o la del sujeto.

«Sensations of floating, being transported aloft, or having one's limbs separated from the body are frequently reported.» — los fenómenos corporales que Weil da por frecuentes con la nuez moscada.

«Most young people who try nutmeg take it once or twice but do not use it habitually. Those who regularly smoke marihuana regard nutmeg as an inferior hallucinogen, largely because of the unpleasant side effects.» — Weil consigna que el uso estudiantil no se vuelve hábito y la razón que los propios usuarios dan.

«Ignorance of the psychoactive properties of nutmeg is unquestionably the most important factor limiting extent of its use as a drug.» — la undécima conclusión de Weil, que es la que da sentido al escrúpulo con que Truitt abrió la sesión: lo que limita el uso es la ignorancia.

«Not only is nutmeg cheap, legal, and available, it is also familiar, which makes it seem safe and inviting to those looking for a first hallucinogenic experience.» — y los cuatro rasgos que la vuelven atractiva como primera experiencia, con la familiaridad tomada por seguridad.

«These considerations lead to one inference: as publicity is accorded the psychopharmacological properties of Myristica, use of nutmeg and mace as intoxicants will certainly increase.» — la inferencia con que Weil cierra su ponencia, que la publicidad misma aumentará el uso.

«X, Malcolm with Alex Haley. "The Autobiography of Malcolm X." New York, Grove Press, 1964.» — la bibliografía de Weil registra la autobiografía de Malcolm X entre sus fuentes sobre el uso carcelario.

«But even before this, we must define in botanical terms just what is meant by the name nutmeg.» — Shulgin abre su ponencia química exigiendo primero una definición botánica del nombre; la portadilla imprime Claudia Naranjo donde el índice pone Claudio, y Alexander T. Shulgin donde el índice pone Andrew.

«Both contain primarily fats and myristic acid, and being virtually without odor or volatile oil have achieved no position of importance.» — y descarta dos especies indias del género por carecer de aceite volátil.

«The plant that has achieved the widest study and commercial exploitation, and which is the subject of this portion of this symposium, is M. fragrans.» — Shulgin acota la especie de la que habla el simposio.

«As it is only the nutmegs that are invested with the reputation of psychotropic efficacy, they have served as the primary focal point of our analysis.» — y la razón por la que analiza la semilla y no el macis ni la hoja: solo a la semilla se le atribuye eficacia psicotrópica.

«The residue that remains after the expression of the solubles and the distillation of the volatiles constitutes some 50% of the original mass of the nutmeg. It is presumably a cellulose-like pulp, and it remains totally unexplored as far as any chemical analysis is concerned.» — Shulgin declara sin explorar la mitad de la masa de la nuez moscada, que es la pulpa.

«It must be stated here, in anticipation of later discussions on the pharmacology of nutmeg, that no definitive evaluation of these fractions (fats and pulp) have been made.» — y consigna que ninguna de las dos fracciones descartadas, la grasa y la pulpa, ha sido evaluada.

«volatile oil fraction to which one must look for the effective agents of nutmeg» — Shulgin apoya su recorte en lo generalmente aceptado, que el agente eficaz de la nuez moscada está en la fracción de aceite volátil; la frase arranca en la plana anterior y ahí el troceo reemite la marca de plana.

«Figure 2 shows what might well be called a fingerprint of the oil of nutmeg.» — Shulgin llama huella digital al mapa tridimensional con que caracteriza el aceite de nuez moscada.

«The preponderance of a-pinene has been mentioned, but both sabinine and y-terpinene (1, 4-menthadiene) warrant special note as neither has been observed in nutmeg before.» — y consigna dos terpenos no observados antes en la nuez moscada.

«The second and smaller group, the aromatic ether fraction, is the more interesting and as will be shown later is the more likely to be implicated in the psychopharmacology of nutmeg.» — Shulgin acota la fracción de éteres aromáticos como la sospechosa de la actividad psicofarmacológica.

«In the previously reported studies of nutmeg, myristicin has always been recognized as a major component, and has thus often been thought to be responsible for the psychopharmacological activity of the total extract.» — y consigna la atribución corriente de la actividad a la miristicina por ser el componente mayor.

«Here the surprisingly wide variation that can occur between these principle components is apparent.» — el hallazgo comparativo de Shulgin entre aceites de distinto origen, que es la variación que Weil no podía explicar.

«The single consistent item is the presence of myristicin as a major component.» — y lo único constante en esa variación.

«The assignment of the chemical structures of these compounds is a direct and simple matter when compared to the task of assigning responsibility for the intoxicating and psychotropic properties of nutmeg.» — Shulgin separa la tarea fácil de la difícil: asignar estructuras frente a adjudicar responsabilidad por el efecto.

«Human experiments with ground nutmeg depleted of its volatiles have failed to show psychopharmacological responses» — la negativa experimental que sostiene el recorte de Shulgin: la nuez moscada sin volátiles no da respuesta psicofarmacológica.

«It is tempting to dismiss the terpenes out of hand. Although they constitute by far the larger portion of the volatile fraction, the terpene hydrocarbons are generally held to be of biological effectiveness mainly as irritants.» — Shulgin argumenta contra los terpenos por su acción conocida de irritantes.

«Turpentine has a composition quite similar in make-up to this terpene fraction; it has been widely used in many home remedies, but it has certainly not commanded reputation as an intoxicant.» — y da el argumento comparativo: la trementina, de composición parecida, nunca tuvo fama de embriagante.

«It may, however, have some function in assisting in the absorption of the various aromatic compounds through the gut.» — aunque le deja a los terpenos una función auxiliar de absorción.

«The possibility must always be kept in mind that one of the minor components could have an unusually high potency and thus contribute to the activity.» — la reserva de método que Shulgin mantiene abierta sobre los componentes menores.

«Doses of 400 mg. myristicin, almost twice the amount present in 20 g. of typical nutmeg, were given to human volunteers and the observed symptoms were at least suggestive of psychotropic effects in 6 out of 10 subjects.» — el ensayo de Truitt con miristicina pura en voluntarios, citado por Shulgin con la cautela de un at least suggestive.

«Safrole is also a component of other natural oils and spices, the most notable being the Oil of Sassafras which contains some 80%. Both the oil and the derived sassafras tea have enjoyed wide use, modestly as a flavoring, and in larger amounts as an internal medicament ; yet neither has a reputation for psychotropic activity as does nutmeg.» — Shulgin objeta la candidatura del safrol con el caso del aceite de sasafrás, que lo tiene en abundancia y no tiene fama psicotrópica.

«Elemicin is unusual in that among the flavoring oils and spices, it occurs in appreciable amounts only in nutmeg.» — y presenta la elemicina como el componente exclusivo de la nuez moscada entre las especias.

«The myristicin employed in all earlier pharmacology (including the human studies mentioned) was obtained by distillation from oil of nutmeg, and was taken to be the single substance myristicin. It thus may or may not have contained elemicin as well, depending on the origin of the oil.» — Shulgin señala el defecto que atraviesa toda la farmacología previa: la miristicina destilada podía traer elemicina sin que nadie lo supiera.

«The variability of elemicin may account for the apparently highly variable degree of reported psychoactive effects of nutmeg, which in turn implies that elemicin may indeed be an active component.» — y la hipótesis que de ahí propone, que la variabilidad de la elemicina explique la del efecto y la señale como activa.

«It is worth noting that nutmeg is the only plant source within which these three compounds have been reported as occuring together in any appreciable» — Shulgin subraya que la nuez moscada es la única planta que reúne los tres aromáticos en cantidad apreciable; la frase termina en la plana siguiente.

«The ring substitution patterns of these compounds are notable in thatseveral of them, specifically myristicin, elemicin and safrole, are identical to the ring structures of materials of established psychotogenic activity.» — el puente estructural de Shulgin: los anillos de miristicina, elemicina y safrol son idénticos a los de sustancias psicotogénicas conocidas; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae that- several.

«It has been suggested (8) that the in vivo addition of ammonia to the olefinic site in either the allyl or the propenyl isomer would yield amphetamines directly.» — la hipótesis que Truitt anunció en su introducción: la adición de amoniaco in vivo convertiría el éter aromático en anfetamina.

«Support for this transformation occurring in vivo has been obtained by Barfknecht (9), who found evidence for the production of amphetamine in rats after feeding them allylbenzene.» — y el indicio experimental que Shulgin cita en su favor, anfetamina hallada en ratas alimentadas con alilbenceno.

«The latter measure is defined as the quotient of the effective dose of mescaline (assumed to be 3.75 mg/Kg as the base) divided by the effective dose of the substance in question, as determined by human titration.» — la unidad mescalina con que Shulgin compara potencias, definida por titulación en humanos.

«This was first described pharmacologically by Gordon Alles (11) who reported visual effects at some 120 mg.» — Shulgin atribuye a Gordon Alles la primera descripción farmacológica de la MDA; es el mismo Alles que Leake nombró al abrir el simposio.

«Subsequent experience (12) on a more extensive number of subjects has shown modest, if any, distortion or change of either visual or auditory perception, but rather a pronounced increase in emotional effect, which has proved to be of considerable value in psychotherapy.» — y el perfil que la experiencia posterior le adjudica, poco perceptivo y muy emocional, con valor psicoterapéutico.

«The psychotropic effects of MMDA are rather similar to those of MDA, but in addition some 30% of the subjects reported rather vivid and well structured visual images appearing when the eyes are closed, although there are virtually no changes in eyes-open perception.» — el rasgo que Shulgin reporta como propio de la MMDA, imágenes vívidas y bien estructuradas con los ojos cerrados y ninguna alteración con los ojos abiertos.

«More extensive appraisal of this compound in psychotherapeutic settings has confirmed the eyes-opened distortions and occasional hallucinatory phenomena, and strongly suggests that its characteristic property is one of causing projection, in the psychological sense, by the subject.» — la propiedad que Shulgin da por característica de la TMA, causar proyección en sentido psicológico.

«It is entirely possible that the combination of the amines derivable from the essential oil aromatics could produce the psychological effects of nutmeg, while the clearly toxic effects could be due to the terpene fraction.» — la hipótesis de reparto con que Shulgin cierra: lo psicológico por las aminas de los aromáticos y lo tóxico por los terpenos.

«A corollary study would involve the chemical investigation of the metabolic fate of both the essential oils and the derived amines, on administration to human subjects, and may clarify whether or not these oils are in fact converted to amines in vivo.» — y el estudio que propone para decidirlo, el destino metabólico de los aceites en el hombre.

«The Chemistry and Pharmacology of 3-Methoxy-4,5-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MMDA)." A Monograph. C. Naranjo, T. Sargent and A. T. Shulgin (in preparation).» — la bibliografía de Shulgin anuncia en preparación la monografía sobre la MMDA firmada con Naranjo y Sargent.

«A central problem in the pharmacology of nutmeg has been identification of the active component of the crude drug.» — Truitt enuncia el problema central de la farmacología de la nuez moscada, que es el mismo que Shulgin acaba de dejar sin resolver.

«As early as 1676, van Leeuwenhoek, the original microscopist noted that a volatile component which evolved from pieces of nutmeg in a glass tube repelled or killed mites.» — la observación más antigua que Truitt recupera sobre la volatilidad activa de la nuez moscada, de van Leeuwenhoek.

«The well-known English pharmacologist, Cushny, stated that the residue from which the volatile oil has been removed has no effect upon animals.» — la negativa de Cushny sobre el residuo sin aceite volátil, que Truitt dice haber comprobado él mismo en humanos.

«Sir Henry Dale in 1907 most clearly differentiated the primary psychotropic effect from the secondary hepatic coma causing death in cats.» — Truitt adjudica a Sir Henry Dale el deslinde entre el efecto psicotrópico primario y el coma hepático secundario.

«Pharmacologic interest in nutmeg then subsided for more than 50 years, until renewed by the curiosity of Dr. John C. Krantz at the University of Maryland who was consulted by several former students encountering cases of nutmeg intoxication.» — Truitt fecha el medio siglo de silencio farmacológico y su reapertura por casos clínicos que llegaron a Krantz.

«Subsequent gas-chromatographic studies by Shulgin have shown this to be a mixture of myristicin with elemicin and perhaps a small amount of methylisoeugenol.» — y consigna, citando a Shulgin, que lo que él llamó miristicina era en realidad una mezcla, que es la objeción que Shulgin acaba de hacer.

«The intravenous injection of large doses in the order 50-76 mg/kg to dogs, monkeys, and cats confirmed the feline species toxicity and showed clearly that tranquilization of wildness is not produced in the jungle-bred monkey.» — la negativa que Truitt deja escrita sobre el efecto tranquilizante en el mono criado en selva.

«Casida and his associates have shown that the methlyenedioxy bridge is the initial point of metabolic attack» — el hallazgo metabólico que Truitt toma de Casida sobre el puente metilenodioxi; el escaneo imprime methlyenedioxy.

«This metabolic transformation increases the chemical similarity of myristicin to the catecholamines.» — y la consecuencia que le importa: esa transformación acerca químicamente la miristicina a las catecolaminas.

«Major metabolic pathway for methylene C14 dioxyphenyl labeled myristicin in liver microsomal systems of the mouse.» — el pie de la figura 1 de Truitt, con la vía metabólica principal de la miristicina marcada.

«When given orally 18 hours in advance, East Indian ground nutmeg gave some evidence of tryptamine potentiation (Figure 2). The optimum dose was 500 mg/kg. However, a much larger dose, 1000 mg/kg showed reversal of the activity.» — el resultado de Truitt en la prueba de triptamina, con la inversión del efecto a dosis mayor.

«Both of these preparations showed considerable activity when the sample was fresh and lemon yellow in color.» — Truitt liga la actividad de la miristicina sintética al color fresco de la muestra.

«Effect of ground nutmeg on tryptamine convulsive threshold in mice when given orally in acacia suspension 18 hr before test» — el pie de la figura 2 de Truitt, con el umbral convulsivo a la triptamina en ratón.

«Gas-chromatographic analysis of this oil showed the presence of volatile components similar to ground nutmeg, but no increased concentration of the myristiein, as expected from the selected distillation temperature.» — y la anomalía analítica que Truitt consigna, sin el enriquecimiento de miristicina que la temperatura de destilación hacía esperar; el escaneo imprime myristiein.

«Safrole, isoborneol, and geraniol, which are other volatile components of nutmeg, did not cause potentiation of tryptamine in doses up to 1 g/kg despite obvious signs of hyperactivity and excitement in the mice.» — la negativa de Truitt sobre otros tres volátiles de la nuez moscada en la prueba de triptamina, pese a la excitación visible del animal.

«Myristicin appears to be less active in the rat. Comparable activity to other MAO inhibitors was obtained only with the largest dose 17 hours after oral administration.» — y la diferencia de especie que consigna en la prueba de ptosis por reserpina.

«Effect of monoamine oxidase inhibitors and synthetic myristicin on tryptamine convulsive thresholds in mice when given orally in acacia suspension 18 hr before test» — el pie de la figura 4 de Truitt, que compara la miristicina con la tranilcipromina y la iproniazida.

«One year after these data were obtained, the same groundnutmeg source was completely inactive in the mouse as well, and the declining activity was attributed to a loss of volatile components owing to a nearby heater.» — el accidente de almacén con que Truitt explica la pérdida de actividad de su propia muestra, que es la fragilidad del material de trabajo; span() unió el guion de fin de renglón y el impreso trae ground-nutmeg.

«The potency of myristicin is not adequate in most of these tests to account for the full action of nutmeg.» — la conclusión negativa de Truitt, que la miristicina no basta para explicar la acción de la nuez moscada entera.

«The insufficiency is present with intravenous doses and therefore poor absorption is not a likely explanation.» — y el argumento con que descarta la explicación de Dale por absorción deficiente.

«The main virtue of these data may be to reawaken interest in myristicin and its activity.» — Truitt mide el alcance de su propio trabajo con modestia declarada.

«Low activity of a prolonged nature, such as that shown by nutmeg, is sometimes a more useful drug attribute than high potency and rapid onset.» — y da la vuelta al criterio farmacológico corriente: la actividad baja y prolongada puede ser mejor atributo que la potencia rápida.

«An important question remains to determine if the myristicin stimulation is inevitably followed by depressed feelings, even upon continued intake.» — la pregunta que Truitt deja abierta sobre si a la estimulación le sigue inevitablemente la depresión.

«A myristicin-elemicin fraction of oil of nutmeg produces many of the characteristics of crude ground nutmeg, but lacks adequate potency to explain the nutmeg intoxication syndrome on a quantitative basis.» — el resumen de Truitt, con la fracción reproduciendo el carácter pero no la potencia del síndrome.

«Monoamine oxidase inhibition and other actions of crude extracts depend upon the volatile component.» — y la conclusión que comparte con Shulgin, que todo depende del componente volátil.

«I understand that Connecticut is known as the Nutmeg State, and I remember when I was in college about twenty years ago there was some reference to the fact that people in Connecticut acted awfully crazy, because they ate so much nutmeg.» — el psiquiatra Phillips interviene desde el piso con la explicación corriente del apodo de Connecticut.

«I am afraid the origin of Connecticut's nickname is somewhat less romatic. In colonial times, Connecticut traders often palmed off carved wooden nutmegs as the real thing. This practice was considered a fine example of Yankee shrewness in business; consequently, Connecticut acquired the name» — y Weil la niega con la explicación comercial, los comerciantes que vendían nueces moscadas talladas en madera; el escaneo imprime romatic y shrewness.

«It was first used in a group of subjects under the assumption that this would be a hallucinogen, as suggested by Dr. Alles. This did not appear to be quite the case, for the drug produced only enhancement in feelings.» — Naranjo consigna que la MDA no resultó el alucinógeno que Alles había sugerido sino un realzador del sentimiento.

«It is not something to be used as an antidepressant, but only to increase communication during a therapeutic session.» — y acota su uso a facilitar la comunicación dentro de la sesión, no a tratar la depresión.

«I have tried several drugs to facilitate psychotherapy, including the more widely known hallucinogens, and never as with this compound has there been such a frequency of reminiscence of childhood events, in a very dramatic and spontaneous way, completely unexpected by the subjects.» — el hallazgo clínico que Naranjo da por propio de la MDA, la reminiscencia espontánea de la infancia.

«This has been described in therapy with LSD and mescaline, but in my own experience has occurred spontaneously only once in approximately fifty experiences with LSD» — y la comparación con que lo mide: una sola vez espontánea en medio centenar de sesiones con LSD.

«the aesthetic or mystical overtones that is so characteristic of most hallucinogens.» — Naranjo deslinda esa experiencia de la de los alucinógenos por lo que le falta; la frase arranca en la plana anterior, donde la llama experiencia casi sin contenido simbólico.

«It is notable that in many of the subjects there was amnesia after it, and this was very much like the similar events that take place sometimes in the hypnotic trance.» — y la empareja con el trance hipnótico por la amnesia posterior.

«Now with the trimethoxy substituted compound, which has been previously described as evoking hostile reactions when we used this in a therapeutic setting, this did not occur overtly ; but the compound was remarkable in that the delusional content was more frequent that with any of the others that I know.» — Naranjo consigna que la hostilidad atribuida a la TMA no se dio abiertamente en su encuadre y sí el contenido delirante, el mayor que conoce.

«This delusional content was very often paranoid.» — y su carácter.

«This produces the greatest incidence of color effects, whereas the previously mentioned one, (MDA), is notable for the absence of distortions and color effects.» — Naranjo reparte los efectos de color entre las dos sustancias, máximos con la TMA y ausentes con la MDA.

«MMDA produces the qualities of both, and what is typical of this substance is that the experience, which has mostly a personal quality, enhancement of feeling, warmth, but very little symbolic content, makes it different from mescaline.» — y sitúa la MMDA entre las dos, con una cualidad personal y poco contenido simbólico que la aparta de la mescalina.

«Dr. Sargent mentioned one experiment where the formation of amphetamine in rats was actually observed. Administration of allylbenzene led to chromatographically distinct spots, with the strong implication that these spots were amphetamine. Although allylbenzene may be converted to propenylbenzene first, the simple addition of ammonia to the allyl double bond would be the most direct route. I don't know if it has any validity.» — Shulgin responde a Waser sobre la aminación in vivo y cierra con una reserva sobre su propia hipótesis; el escaneo imprime Shttlgin.

«They are the same, but mystiques about the uses of the two spices have sprung up. It is interesting, for example, that at Haverford College students believed they could only get "high" with mace, even though they knew nutmeg to be very similar in taste. Other groups use nutmeg only, and are unaware of mace as an intoxicant.» — Weil niega diferencia de potencia entre nuez moscada y macis y adjudica la creencia contraria a la mística de cada grupo.

«Who knows? Perhaps in five years we will have a symposium just on spices.» — la respuesta de Weil a si otras especias de cocina son psicoactivas.

«In fact, a distant friend writes that anything in the spice cabinet except monosodium glutamate will get you "high". Ginger, paprika, cinnamon and pepper have all been said to have effects on the mind, but we have no reliable evidence on them.» — y el dicho que recoge sobre el especiero entero, con la negativa de evidencia que él mismo le opone.

«First, in my opinion the psychopharmacology testing is such a difficult one that we never can use one or two tests. One has to use a battery of tests, and even then, often we are not sure what they mean.» — Efron objeta desde el piso el método de Truitt: en psicofarmacología hace falta una batería de pruebas y aun así no se sabe qué significan.

«In this case, you have put all your chips on the monoamine oxidase inhibition. If this would be really the only action of these drugs, then we should forget about them, because we have much more potent reversible and irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors that we can use.» — y la consecuencia que extrae: si la inhibición de la monoaminooxidasa fuera toda la acción, habría inhibidores mejores.

«The other problem I would like to comment on is that I really don't know why everybody is working with myristicin, the compound represented mostly in this large mixture of compounds found in nutmeg extracts. There might be a possibility that one of the other compounds present in a very small amount may be much more potent.» — Efron objeta también la concentración de todo el trabajo en la miristicina y apunta a los componentes menores.

«A very curious cycle is involved, because every drug which has been useful in the treatment of schizophrenia or the major psychoses has produced Parkinsonism as one of its side effects.» — Kline interviene desde la psiquiatría con el ciclo que le parece curioso, todo fármaco útil en psicosis produce parkinsonismo.

«Another part of the curious business is that the monoamine oxidase inhibitors or other antidepressants, if given in large enough doses, will produce hallucinations, delusions and uncontrolled euphoria.» — y la otra mitad del ciclo, los antidepresivos a dosis alta produciendo alucinaciones y delirio.

«When asked how one judges if depression is present in rats and mice, the answer was that this is judged upon the basis of reduced activity and reduced "sociability"; i.e. they didn't go poking around at each other.» — Kline desarma el criterio con que se mide la depresión en roedores, reducción de actividad y de sociabilidad.

«What was called depression might simply be the fact that the animals couldn't get to sniff their neighbors.» — y propone la lectura alternativa: lo que se llamaba depresión sería un animal parkinsonizado que no alcanza a olfatear al vecino.

«Professor Holmstedt mentioned yesterday that Lewin has found harmine, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor, useful in the treatment of Parkinsonism.» — Kline enlaza su argumento con la ponencia de Holmstedt del día anterior sobre la harmina de Lewin en el parkinsonismo.

«Certainly I would be the first to disclaim that we can extrapolate easily this way from a test to the whole animal.» — Truitt acepta la objeción y niega que se pueda extrapolar de la prueba al animal entero.

«When we are speaking of emotional effects rising and falling, we are speaking of a complex set of behavior changes that we have a healthy respect for.» — y deslinda el parámetro preciso del temblor frente al conjunto complejo de lo emocional.

«There is slight variation in blood pressure. There is occasionally an increase but this is not consistent, and it is hard to evaluate to what extent the observed changes are secondary to the emotional states, for sometimes anxiety is a prominent component of the induced reaction. No lowering of blood pressure has been observed.» — Naranjo reporta la presión arterial con sus compuestos y la dificultad de separar el cambio del estado emocional que lo acompaña.

«Even though chemical compounds in a series are very close, insofar as their molecular weights are concerned, Gordon Alles insisted on using equal molecular concentrations so as to compare each drug with the other on a molecular basis.» — Leake recomienda desde el piso el método de Gordon Alles, comparar a concentración molar igual y no por peso.

«Alles had an enormous amount of material that has never been published, and I don't know whether it will be.» — y consigna la obra inédita de Alles, que Leake da por posiblemente perdida.

«This compound produced another remarkable effect: if he were to strike his finger, he could see the strike, and feel it afterwards by a definitive period of time.» — el efecto que Alles describió informalmente de su derivado metilenodioxi, ver el golpe y sentirlo un rato después.

«Since he had them all on an equal molecular basis, and since he did most of the experimentation on himself as one subject, at least his findings had that comparative validity.» — y la validez que Leake le concede al trabajo de Alles pese a ser todo sobre sí mismo.

«This is reminiscent of the old work of Gunn, which showed that the methoxylation has a muzzeling action, decreasing activity.» — Marrazzi trae desde el piso el trabajo antiguo de Gunn sobre la metoxilación que amordaza la actividad; el escaneo imprime muzzeling.

«We grade LSD as 3000 in mescaline units, the effect dose being a tenth of a milligram.» — Sargent fija la equivalencia del LSD en unidades mescalina y se aparta un poco de la escala de Leake.