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OBRA

Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe

inglésel libro se escribió entre 1973 y 1976 y se publicó en 1978; esta es la cuarta edición, de 2026

El libro declara su objeto en la primera línea del prefacio: «The aim of this book is to describe and interpret the popular culture of early modern Europe.» «Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 14». Burke advierte de entrada que el término mayor es resbaladizo —«‘Culture’ is an imprecise term, with many rival definitions, from ‘webs of significance’ (Geertz) to ‘practices and representations’ (Chartier).» «Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 14»— y fija la definición con la que va a trabajar: «The definition adopted here is ‘a system of shared meanings, attitudes and values, and the symbolic forms (performances, artefacts) in which they are expressed or embodied’.» «Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 14».

Lo «popular» lo define por negación y con un préstamo declarado: «As for popular culture, it is perhaps best defined – initially, at least – in a negative way, as unofficial culture, the culture of the non-elite or the ‘subordinate classes’ as the Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci famously called them.» «Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 14». El corte temporal es explícito —«The period with which this book is concerned runs from about 1500 to about 1800.» «Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 15»— y el autor dice qué clase de libro quiere que sea: «I hope that this small map of a vast territory will help to orient future explorers, but I have also written with the general reader in mind. A study of popular culture should not be esoteric.» «Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 16».

El volumen es la cuarta edición de un libro antiguo, y lo dice con distancia: «The original version of this book was written between 1973 and 1976, when I was teaching at the University of Sussex, so long ago that it now seems to be the work of someone else.» «Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 22». La página de derechos imprime el sello y la ciudad —«Fourth edition published 2026 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158» «Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 6»— y la autoría —«The right of Peter Burke to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.» «Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 6».

2394 afirmaciones · 1 fuente · 1 atribución

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DECLARADA
la página de derechos consigna «The right of Peter Burke to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.» y la ficha de la Library of Congress «Names: Burke, Peter, 1937- author»
según Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)
«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 6»

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el testimonio procesado, en esmeralda
EDICIÓN · PROCESADO
Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)
inglés · 2026 · Abingdon (Oxon) y Nueva York, Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group) — «Fourth edition published 2026 by Routledge»; «© 2026 Peter Burke»; ISBN 978-1-032-65544-4 (hbk), 978-1-032-65548-2 (pbk), 978-1-032-65546-8 (ebk) · Routledge (imprimio)

Afirmaciones

2394 entradas — la voz de la obra, con su pasaje

«Qui dit le peuple dit plus d’une chose : c’est une vaste expression, et l’on s’étonnerait de voir ce qu’elle embrasse, et jusques où elle s’étend.»epígrafe del volumen, en francés: según Burke, La Bruyère enuncia en los *Caractères* (1688, capítulo *Les grands*) que decir *el pueblo* es decir más de una cosa, expresión vasta cuyo alcance asombraría; la traducción inglesa va en la plana misma

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 8»

«Jean La Bruyère, Caractères (1688), chapter ‘Les grands’.»el libro da la referencia del epígrafe al pie; es la voz que Burke escoge para abrir, no la suya

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 8»

«Culture in this sense is part of a total way of life but not identical with it.»Burke acota su definición en el prefacio: la cultura así entendida es parte de un modo de vida total, no ese modo de vida entero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 14»

«Hence I shall use the phrases ‘artisans and peasants’ or ‘ordinary people’ as convenient pieces of shorthand for the whole non-elite, including women, children, shepherds, sailors, beggars and the rest»declara que *artesanos y campesinos* y *gente común* le sirven de abreviatura para toda la no élite, mujeres, niños, pastores, marineros y mendigos incluidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 14»

«To discover the attitudes and values of craftsmen and peasants, it is necessary to modify the traditional approaches to cultural history»sostiene que llegar a las actitudes y valores de artesanos y campesinos obliga a modificar los enfoques tradicionales de la historia cultural; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 14»

«The natural discipline from which to borrow is that of folklore (now commonly known as ‘ethnology’), since folklorists have always been centrally concerned with ordinary people, with oral traditions, and with ritual.»señala al folclore —hoy llamado etnología— como la disciplina natural de la que tomar prestado, porque sus estudiosos se ocuparon siempre de la gente común, la tradición oral y el rito

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 15»

«In the first place, anthropologists are concerned to understand the whole of an alien society in its own terms, while historians tended until the later twentieth century to restrict their empathy to the upper»da la primera razón para acudir a los antropólogos sociales: entienden una sociedad ajena entera en sus propios términos, mientras los historiadores limitaban su empatía a las clases altas; el tramo se corta en el salto de renglón del troceo y sigue *classes*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 15»

«In the second place, anthropologists do not restrict themselves to the actor's view of the meaning of their actions but go on to study the social functions or uses of myths, images, and rituals.»y la segunda: no se quedan en la visión que el actor tiene de sus actos, sino que estudian las funciones o usos sociales de mitos, imágenes y ritos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 15»

«The choice of such a vast subject has serious drawbacks, most obviously the fact that no region can be studied in detail and in depth.»declara el costo de un objeto tan vasto: ninguna región puede estudiarse a fondo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 16»

«It was also necessary to be impressionistic, to renounce certain promising quantitative approaches because the sources were not sufficiently homogeneous over these long stretches of space and time to be exploited in this way.»y el segundo costo: hubo que ser impresionista y renunciar a enfoques cuantitativos porque las fuentes no son homogéneas a lo largo de tanto espacio y tiempo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 16»

«Where local studies rightly emphasize these variations, my purpose is the complementary one of trying to assemble the fragments and see them as a whole, as a system of related parts.»enuncia su tarea como complementaria de los estudios locales: reunir los fragmentos y verlos como un todo, como sistema de partes relacionadas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 16»

«In the long run, print undermined traditional oral culture, but in the process, it also recorded much of it, making it appropriate to begin the story when the first broadsides and chapbooks were coming from the press.»razona el arranque en 1500: la imprenta socavó a la larga la cultura oral tradicional, pero al hacerlo registró buena parte de ella, y por eso conviene empezar con los primeros pliegos y libros de cordel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 16»

«Think away television, radio, and cinema, which have standardized the vernaculars of Europe within living memory»el ejercicio que le pide al lector para entrar en el periodo: suprimir mentalmente televisión, radio y cine, que uniformaron las lenguas vernáculas de Europa en una sola memoria viva

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 17»

«Think away the railways, which probably did even more than conscription and government propaganda to erode the culture peculiar to each province and to turn regions into nations.»y suprimir el ferrocarril, que a su juicio erosionó la cultura de cada provincia más aún que la conscripción y la propaganda, convirtiendo regiones en naciones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 17»

«Think away universal education and literacy, class consciousness, and nationalism. Think away the modern confidence (however shaken) in progress, science and technology, and the secular modes in which hopes and fears are expressed. All this (and more) is necessary before we can re-enter the cultural ‘world we have lost’.»cierra la lista con la educación universal, la alfabetización, la conciencia de clase, el nacionalismo y la confianza moderna en el progreso: todo eso ha de irse para volver a entrar en el *mundo que hemos perdido*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 17»

«It is true that popular culture only moved from the periphery of the historian's interests towards the centre in the course of the 1960s and 1970s.»concede que la cultura popular solo pasó de la periferia al centro de los intereses del historiador en los sesenta y setenta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 17»

«The area under discussion is the whole of Europe, from Norway to Sicily, from Ireland to the Urals.»fija el ámbito geográfico: Europa entera, de Noruega a Sicilia y de Irlanda a los Urales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 15»

«Originally conceived as a regional study, this book has turned into an attempt at synthesis. Given the size of the subject, it will be obvious that no kind of comprehensive coverage is intended.»dice qué se volvió el libro: concebido como estudio regional, acabó en intento de síntesis, sin pretensión de cobertura exhaustiva

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 15»

«Although I have tried to show connections, the chapters present essays on major themes. They are concerned with the code of»declara la forma del libro: capítulos que son ensayos sobre temas mayores, ocupados del *código* de la cultura popular; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *popular culture rather than the individual messages*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 15»

«It was written in the right place, where a course on ‘Popular Culture, Leisure and the Social Order’ had been launched in 1975 (followed by one at the Open University in 1982), and published at the right moment, in 1978, when interest in popular culture had been awakened both in the world of learning and among the general public.»Burke sitúa el libro en su momento: un curso sobre cultura popular, ocio y orden social lanzado en Sussex en 1975 y la publicación en 1978, cuando el interés ya estaba despierto dentro y fuera de la academia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 22»

«The first chapter of this book, entitled ‘The Discovery of the People’ evokes the enthusiasm of some members of the upper and middle classes from many parts of Europe in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries for what they were the first to call ‘popular»enuncia el contenido de su capítulo primero: el entusiasmo de sectores de las clases alta y media europeas, a fines del XVIII y principios del XIX, por lo que fueron los primeros en llamar cultura popular; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *culture*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 23»

«The movement launched in the 1960s and 1970s should therefore be described as a ‘rediscovery’, although it felt at the time as if we were exploring a new intellectual continent, often ignoring the fact that folklorists had settled there in the nineteenth century and that a few flags had been raised by intellectuals even earlier.»de ahí que llame *redescubrimiento* al movimiento de los sesenta y setenta, aunque en su momento se viviera como la exploración de un continente nuevo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 24»

«As the term spread more and more widely, it was used more vaguely. In the newspapers, phrases such as ‘culture of fear’, ‘culture of consumption’, ‘drug culture’ and ‘gun culture’ became increasingly common.»observa que cuanto más se extendió el término, más vago se volvió: *cultura del miedo*, *cultura del consumo*, *cultura de la droga*, *cultura de las armas*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 26»

«The second context for the rediscovery of the people was political, a recovery of the Left both in Britain and on the Continent.»declara el segundo contexto del redescubrimiento del pueblo: político, la recuperación de la izquierda en Gran Bretaña y el continente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 26»

«The impact on the academic world of the political events and movements of the 1960s in Paris, Prague, Berkeley, and elsewhere included new approaches to history, which became visible – after the usual time lag – in a more general turn to the history of popular culture.»lee el efecto académico de 1968 —París, Praga, Berkeley— como un giro general, con el retardo de costumbre, hacia la historia de la cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 28»

«Since similar arguments recur in many contributions, it seems best to consider them under a few general headings, notably three: the definition of the ‘popular’, the definition of ‘culture’, and the question of conformity versus conflict.»ordena el debate en tres rúbricas: la definición de lo *popular*, la definición de *cultura* y la cuestión de la conformidad frente al conflicto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 29»

«The first problem may be posed in the form of a question. Who are the ‘people’? As the writer and moralist Jean de La Bruyère already remarked in 1688 in the passage that serves as the epigraph to this book, it is astonishing to see how wide is the range of reference of this apparently simple word.»plantea el primer problema como pregunta —quiénes son *el pueblo*— y remite al epígrafe de La Bruyère de 1688 sobre lo asombroso del alcance de una palabra tan simple

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 29»

«The term (the French peuple, the Italian popolo, and so on) was used in the early modern period itself but not always in the modern sense. In Italian city-states, for example, the word popolo referred to citizens, as opposed to the plebe, a lower class that lacked the right to vote.»señala que el término existía en la época pero no siempre en el sentido moderno: en las ciudades-estado italianas *popolo* eran los ciudadanos con voto, frente a la *plebe*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 29»

«So far as culture is concerned, the so-called ‘binary model’, in other words the contrast between ‘elite’ (or ‘learned’) and ‘popular’, has often been rejected as simplistic, for two main reasons. In the first place, it treats the culture of ordinary people as homogenous, ignoring the variety of subcultures that will be discussed in Chapter»recoge el rechazo del *modelo binario* élite/popular por simplista, y da la primera razón: trata la cultura de la gente común como homogénea; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *3*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 30»

«Since this book first appeared, particular attention has been given to two groups that had been relatively neglected by earlier historians: young people and women.»y consigna qué se atendió desde la primera edición: dos grupos antes descuidados, los jóvenes y las mujeres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 30»

«In the second place, the binary model appears to ignore the interaction between the ‘two cultures’. This interaction may be discussed from two complementary points of view.»da la segunda razón contra el modelo binario: desatiende la interacción entre las *dos culturas*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 30»

«No wonder then that cautious scholars now speak of ‘cheap print’ that was accessible to different social groups, without assuming that what was printed was read by one group alone.»de ahí que los estudiosos prudentes hablen hoy de *impreso barato* accesible a grupos distintos, sin dar por hecho que lo impreso lo leyera uno solo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 30»

«In this book, unlike Chartier, I began not with texts or other artefacts but with social groups, notably artisans, peasants, and their wives and children (without forgetting the variety of subcultures just mentioned), and attempted to reconstruct their principal attitudes and values.»declara su propio punto de partida, distinto del de Chartier: no textos ni artefactos, sino grupos sociales —artesanos, campesinos, sus mujeres e hijos— para reconstruir sus actitudes y valores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 31»

«Focusing on social groups (which are also cultural constructions, in the sense of simple models of a messy reality) led me to the conclusion that in Europe between 1500 and (roughly) 1650, a common culture did exist.»y enuncia la conclusión a la que eso lo llevó: entre 1500 y hacia 1650 existió en Europa una cultura común

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 31»

«At that time, the upper and middle classes participated in what we call ‘popular’ culture, although some of them were what I called ‘amphibious’ in the sense of having access to learned culture as well.»precisa que entonces las clases alta y media participaban de la cultura que llamamos popular, y que a algunos los llamó *anfibios* por tener acceso además a la cultura docta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 31»

«After 1650, on the other hand, there was a gradual withdrawal of the upper and middle classes from what was increasingly perceived as ‘popular’ culture, a withdrawal that made elites more aware of popular culture, both»y la contraparte: después de 1650, retirada gradual de las clases alta y media de lo que cada vez más se percibía como cultura popular, retirada que las hizo más conscientes de ella; el tramo se corta en el salto de renglón y sigue con Herder

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 31»

«More recently, the term has been used in two main ways, either to include everyone in a given nation or to describe subordinate or dominated classes. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries it sometimes referred to the peasants, sometimes to the new urban working class, and sometimes»distingue los dos usos recientes del término: incluir a todos los de una nación, o nombrar a las clases subordinadas —a veces los campesinos, a veces la nueva clase obrera urbana; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 29»

«to what the middle class perceived as ‘the masses’.»continuación en la plana siguiente: *y a veces lo que la clase media percibía como las masas*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 30»

«In its turn the withdrawal was followed in the later eighteenth century by the opposite movement of ‘discovery’ (described in Chapter 1), linked to the rise of nationalism and the consequent definition of the people as everyone, regardless of social class.»y el movimiento inverso: a la retirada le siguió a fines del XVIII el *descubrimiento*, ligado al auge del nacionalismo y a definir al pueblo como todos, sin distinción de clase

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 31»

«To make the situation still more complicated, the binary opposition between ‘elite’ and ‘people’ has been drawn in different places in different fields.»complica el cuadro: la oposición binaria élite/pueblo se ha trazado en sitios distintos según el campo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 31»

«In the case of religion, for instance, the main distinction is between the culture of the clergy (whatever their education, or lack of it), and that of the laity, whatever their social position.»y da el caso de la religión, donde la distinción principal corre entre clero y laicado, sea cual sea su educación o su posición social

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 31»

«For this reason, the debate about what counts as ‘popular’ religion has been particularly vigorous. A number of alternatives to the term ‘popular’ have been proposed, including ‘religions of the popular classes’, ‘unofficial religion’, ‘local religion’, ‘traditional religion’, and ‘religious cultures’.»de ahí lo vivo del debate sobre qué cuenta como religión popular, con las alternativas propuestas: religiones de las clases populares, religión no oficial, religión local, religión tradicional, culturas religiosas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 31»

«Again, the early modern laity was far from being a homogenous group. If we use the term ‘lay religion’, we should remember that it is a residual category, what remains after subtracting the clergy.»y añade que el laicado moderno temprano tampoco era homogéneo: *religión laica* es categoría residual, lo que queda tras restar el clero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 32»

«In architecture, it has become common to describe simple buildings in a local tradition as examples of a ‘vernacular’ style. The term has been extended to ‘vernacular science’ to discuss cases where a few years earlier, the adjective ‘popular’ would have been used.»traza el desplazamiento del vocabulario: en arquitectura se dice *vernáculo* de lo que antes se decía popular, y el término se extendió a la *ciencia vernácula*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 32»

«In similar fashion, the phrase ‘vernacular religion’ might be used to describe devotions which began locally and unofficially and were either suppressed or made official later. Whether or not the phrase is an improvement on ‘popular religion’ remains an open question.»propone *religión vernácula* para devociones nacidas local y extraoficialmente, y deja abierta la cuestión de si mejora a *religión popular*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 32»

«Each choice solves some problems but raises others. For example, although sixteenth-century Catholicism had some local characteristics such as devotion to»advierte que cada elección resuelve unos problemas y abre otros, con el ejemplo del catolicismo del XVI y sus rasgos locales; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y la frase se completa en la cita siguiente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 31»

«The widening of the idea of culture, thanks not only to anthropologists but also to the rise of Visual Culture Studies and Material Culture Studies (ignoring if not challenging the hierarchy of ‘high’ and ‘low’), has obvious implications for students of popular culture.»sostiene que el ensanchamiento de la idea de cultura —por los antropólogos y por los estudios de cultura visual y material, que ignoran o disputan la jerarquía de lo alto y lo bajo— tiene consecuencias obvias para quien estudia la cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 33»

«but must admit that I had been looking in the main for popular equivalents of the main components of ‘high’ culture – folk music as the equivalent of classical music, folk art as the equivalent of the Old Masters, folktales as the equivalent of the novel, folk healing as the equivalent of academic medicine, and so on.»y concede lo que sí hizo: buscar equivalentes populares de los componentes de la cultura *alta* —música folclórica por música clásica, arte popular por los viejos maestros, cuento por novela, curación popular por medicina académica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 33»

«What I most regret now is not saying more about popular knowledges, especially the embodied knowledges that we call ‘practical’.»y declara lo que más lamenta: no haber dicho más sobre los saberes populares, en especial los saberes encarnados que llamamos prácticos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 33»

«The obvious alternative to my choice is a history of whole ways of life. We certainly need such a history, but it is virtually impossible, given regional variations, for an individual historian to write one in a single volume about the whole of Europe over three centuries.»reconoce la alternativa —una historia de modos de vida enteros— y la declara casi imposible para un solo historiador en un solo volumen sobre toda Europa y tres siglos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 33»

«In any case, I continue to believe that the history of popular attitudes, values, and performances – in short, the world of symbols and of communication, situated midway between Williams’ two definitions of culture – offers a coherent subject, and so, in revising this book, I have resisted the temptation to turn it into something else.»y mantiene su recorte: la historia de actitudes, valores y ejecuciones populares —el mundo de los símbolos y la comunicación, a medio camino entre las dos definiciones de Williams— es un objeto coherente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 33»

«particular saints, it was increasingly shaped from Rome from the Council of Trent onwards.»continuación en la plana siguiente: la devoción a santos particulares convivía con un catolicismo cada vez más moldeado desde Roma a partir del concilio de Trento

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 32»

«Just how wide a useful concept of culture can be is still the subject of argument. Even Williams, who wrote so much on the»señala que sigue en disputa cuán amplio puede ser un concepto útil de cultura; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 33»

«Although I wrote one of the chapters in that volume, I disagreed with the title on the grounds that if culture is everything, the concept becomes unnecessary.»y objeta el título aun habiendo escrito un capítulo del volumen: si la cultura es todo, el concepto sobra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 34»

«I should perhaps have begun ‘There was no such thing as popular culture in early modern Europe, and this is a book about it’.»aplica la fórmula a su propio objeto: acaso debió empezar diciendo que no existió tal cosa como la cultura popular en la Europa moderna temprana, y que este es un libro sobre ella

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 34»

«‘Early modern’ has become a standard phrase to describe the period running from about 1500 to about 1800. The phrase sounds self-contradictory.»pasa a los otros dos términos del título y observa que *moderno temprano*, ya estándar para 1500-1800, suena a contradicción

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 36»

«It gradually came into use in the mid-twentieth century to describe a cluster of movements that changed Europe: the Renaissance, the invention of printing, the discovery of the New World, the Reformation (both Protestant and Catholic), the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment.»data su uso a mediados del siglo XX para un racimo de movimientos que cambiaron Europa: Renacimiento, imprenta, descubrimiento del Nuevo Mundo, Reforma protestante y católica, Revolución científica e Ilustración

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 36»

«Ordinary people were directly involved only in the second of these, the Reformation, but they felt the effects of the other four.»y acota la participación: la gente común intervino directamente solo en la Reforma, aunque sintió los efectos de los otros cuatro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 36»

«These events and processes used to be described as simply ‘modern’. However, the French and Industrial Revolutions made the earlier movements seem old-fashioned. Hence the appeal of the term ‘early modern’»explica el porqué del adjetivo: aquellos procesos se llamaban simplemente modernos hasta que las revoluciones francesa e industrial los hicieron parecer anticuados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 36»

«Another objection to the phrase ‘early modern’ is that it seems to imply a long-term development in a single direction over the centuries, a final destination along the lines of the ‘modernization theory’ put forward by mid-twentieth-century economists and sociologists.»y una tercera objeción: la fórmula insinúa un desarrollo de largo plazo en una sola dirección, con destino final, a la manera de la teoría de la modernización

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 36»

«More recently, emphasis has fallen on the multiplicity of paths to modernity, or indeed to different modernities arising from different cultural traditions.»frente a eso apunta el énfasis reciente en la multiplicidad de caminos a la modernidad, o en modernidades distintas nacidas de tradiciones culturales distintas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 36»

«In the pages that follow, I hope to have given readers some sense of the multiplicity of modernities in that period.»y declara su propósito: dar al lector algún sentido de esa multiplicidad de modernidades entre 1500 y 1800

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 36»

«The third and final problem to be discussed here is that of the politics of culture. Popular culture can no more be separated from politics than elite culture can.»enuncia el tercer problema: la política de la cultura, porque la cultura popular no se separa de la política más que la de élite

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 37»

«The great debate is the one between those scholars who see popular culture as expressing common values and those who view it as essentially the expression of social conflict. In other words, to what extent were the subordinate classes actually insubordinate?»formula el gran debate: quienes ven en la cultura popular valores compartidos frente a quienes la ven como expresión del conflicto social; en corto, hasta qué punto las clases subordinadas fueron insubordinadas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 37»

«This interpretation has often been criticized. In the case of chapbooks, as in that of the traditional Sicilian puppet-theatre, which also drew on romances of chivalry.»señala que esa lectura ha recibido objeciones, con el caso de los pliegos y el del teatro de títeres siciliano, que también tiraba de las caballerías

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 37»

«We need to ask what knights such as Roland (Orlando) meant to different readers, listeners or viewers, as well as juxtaposing this evidence to the bitter songs about the life of soldiers that were current in the German-speaking world and will be discussed in Chapter 3.»y enuncia la pregunta correcta: qué significaban caballeros como Roldán para lectores, oyentes y espectadores distintos, y cómo se cotejan con las canciones amargas sobre la vida del soldado del mundo germanohablante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 37»

«Moments of open struggle are common enough – many revolts in both towns and the countryside are discussed in this book – but still more important is the everyday conflict between the dominant and dominated.»y la jerarquía que Burke hace suya: los momentos de lucha abierta abundan, pero pesa más el conflicto cotidiano entre dominantes y dominados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 38»

«In both cases, opposition is often expressed by means of symbols, such as burning effigies of unpopular ministers.»señala que la oposición se expresa a menudo con símbolos, como quemar efigies de ministros impopulares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 38»

«Even violence may be symbolic as well as all too real, taking ritualized forms and enacting metaphors of purity, as in the religious wars in sixteenth-century France or today's examples of ‘ethnic cleansing’.»y que la violencia misma puede ser simbólica además de real, con formas ritualizadas y metáforas de pureza, como en las guerras de religión francesas del XVI o en las limpiezas étnicas de hoy

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 38»

«At an everyday level, resentment and resistance are part of the relation between dominant and dominated, but so are deference and conformity.»equilibra el cuadro: en lo cotidiano hay resentimiento y resistencia, y también deferencia y conformidad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 38»

«On the other hand, apparent deference may be tactical, a mask worn in order to lull the dominant into a false sense of security.»con el reverso: la deferencia aparente puede ser táctica, máscara para adormecer al dominante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 38»

«However, early modern everyday life was often interrupted by revolts in which many ordinary people played an active part. Since 1978, when this book was first published, there has been what might be called a discovery of this participation.»consigna que la vida cotidiana se interrumpía con revueltas de participación popular activa, y que desde 1978 hubo lo que llama un descubrimiento de esa participación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 38»

«In the case of continental Europe, the Peasant War of 1525 offers an obvious example of popular agency.53 Studies of the ‘politics of the excluded’ have multiplied.»da por ejemplo obvio de agencia popular la guerra de los campesinos de 1525, y registra la multiplicación de estudios sobre la *política de los excluidos*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 38»

«In other words, historians of this period have come to recognize the existence of a popular political culture, mainly concerned with local issues but increasingly with national and international issues as well, as Chapter 9 attempts to demonstrate.»y la conclusión que saca: los historiadores del periodo reconocen hoy una cultura política popular, local ante todo pero cada vez más nacional e internacional

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 39»

«If I had ever had to answer Thompson in public (a situation that I was glad to have avoided, since he was a ferocious debater) I would have said that cultural history, like social history, is equally concerned with solidarity and with conflict and that the histories of both are entangled, since nothing encourages solidarity among ‘Us’ as much as a fight with ‘Them’.»y dice lo que le habría respondido a Thompson: que la historia cultural, como la social, se ocupa por igual de la solidaridad y del conflicto, porque nada fomenta la solidaridad entre *nosotros* como una pelea con *ellos*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 39»

«However, as historians know very well, revivals are never simple repetitions of the past, even if some of the revivers would like this to be the case.»advierte sobre el renacer del interés por la cultura popular: los renaceres nunca repiten el pasado, por más que algunos de quienes reviven lo quisieran

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 39»

«For one thing, the rise of Visual and Material Culture Studies is leading participants to look at the field from new viewpoints.»da la primera causa del cambio: los estudios de cultura visual y material llevan a mirar el campo desde puntos de vista nuevos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 39»

«Interest in this topic has expanded in time as well as space, so that some scholars are now discussing popular culture in the ancient world.»y la segunda: el interés se extendió en el tiempo, hasta discutirse hoy la cultura popular del mundo antiguo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 39»

«Another change since 1978 is the rise of the history of leisure and the history of sport as semi-independent forms of history, a sign of ever-increasing specialization.»registra otro cambio desde 1978: la historia del ocio y la del deporte como formas semiindependientes, señal de especialización creciente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 40»

«The field of popular culture has been and still is dominated by studies of the contemporary world, followed by research on the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.»sitúa el peso del campo en el mundo contemporáneo y en los siglos XIX y XX

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 41»

«These studies raise the problem of what has often been described as ‘mass culture’, a concept that has even been used on occasion to refer to the early modern period, since it is distinguished from the Middle Ages by (among other things) the invention of the printing press.»y el problema que eso arrastra: el concepto de *cultura de masas*, usado a veces para la época moderna temprana porque la imprenta la separa de la Edad Media

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 41»

«In the first place, we need to recognize that the term ‘mass’ has often been the expression of a distant gaze, if not a hostile one.»objeta el término: *masa* ha sido a menudo expresión de una mirada distante, cuando no hostil

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 41»

«In a process familiar to historians, the globalization of»consigna, en un proceso que los historiadores reconocen, la globalización de la cultura popular del siglo XXI; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 39»

«If the existence of the masses may be doubted, what does exist is the process of mass-production, including the production of gramophone records, radios, cameras, televisions, videotapes, smartphones, and so on.»y concede lo que sí existe frente a las masas dudosas: el proceso de producción en masa —discos, radios, cámaras, televisores, cintas de vídeo, teléfonos inteligentes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 41»

«The mass production of food, clothes, and housing has also taken place at the expense of local forms.»y añade que la producción en masa de comida, ropa y vivienda se hizo a costa de las formas locales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 41»

«The effects of living in a world of mass-produced things rather than handmade things are difficult to assess, but it cannot be assumed that they make individuals more and more alike.»se abstiene de la conclusión fácil: los efectos de vivir entre cosas producidas en masa son difíciles de medir y no cabe dar por hecho que uniformen a los individuos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 41»

«As for the proliferation of the channels of communication today, although they have broken up what used to be more of a common culture, they also allow individuals and families to make their own combination out of those fragments.»aplica lo mismo a los canales de comunicación de hoy: rompieron lo que era más una cultura común, y a la vez dejan que individuos y familias combinen los fragmentos a su manera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 42»

«in other words attempts by the ruling classes to subject the popular classes to discipline not only at work (where a precise sense of time was more necessary in large factories than it had been in small workshops) but also at home (with rules of hygiene) and even at play, promoting what Victorian elites called ‘rational recreation’, drawing up rules for games such as football and boxing, attempting to reduce violence during festivals, and so on.»y describe en qué consiste: intentos de las clases dirigentes por disciplinar a las populares en el trabajo, en la casa con reglas de higiene y hasta en el juego, con la *recreación racional* victoriana, los reglamentos de fútbol y boxeo y la reducción de la violencia en las fiestas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 42»

«To conclude this introduction, I should like to return to the debate discussed earlier and declare where I stand today and how I think popular culture should be studied in the future.»anuncia el cierre de la introducción: declarar dónde está hoy y cómo cree que debe estudiarse la cultura popular en adelante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 42»

«The concept of ‘culture’ has often been criticized as too vague to be useful. The problem is to find an alternative to put in its place, since we continue to need a kind of intellectual glue, in other words, a concept that allows us to describe and to analyse connections between different practices.»razona por qué: se le objeta a *cultura* ser demasiado vago, pero hace falta un pegamento intelectual, un concepto que permita describir y analizar conexiones entre prácticas distintas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 42»

«Indeed, to perform the function of connection, a rival concept would have to be as all-embracing as that of ‘culture’, and in that case it would become vulnerable in its turn to the charge of vagueness.»con el argumento que las cierra: para conectar, un concepto rival tendría que abarcar tanto como *cultura*, y entonces heredaría la acusación de vaguedad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 43»

«If I were publishing this book for the first time today, I would follow this example.»y declara que si publicara hoy el libro por primera vez seguiría ese ejemplo del plural

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 43»

«Although they continue to use the keywords, ‘popular’ and ‘culture’, today's scholars are likely to place them in metaphorical inverted commas, if not in literal ones, conscious of the problems that they produce.»observa que los estudiosos de hoy siguen usando las palabras clave, pero entre comillas metafóricas cuando no literales, conscientes de los problemas que acarrean

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 43»

«In similar fashion, I make use of the opposition between ‘high’ and ‘low’. This binary model of culture has sometimes been criticized for ignoring the interaction between the two, although, paradoxically, it is impossible to discuss that interaction without using terms such as ‘elite’ and ‘popular’.»y consigna la paradoja de su propio uso de *alto* y *bajo*: al modelo binario se le objeta que ignora la interacción, y esa interacción no se puede discutir sin los términos *élite* y *popular*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 43»

«The wisest course might be both to use and to undermine the dichotomy, recognizing that the frontiers between the two cultures are not fixed but fluid.»propone lo que tiene por más prudente: usar la dicotomía y socavarla a la vez, reconociendo que las fronteras entre las dos culturas son fluidas y no fijas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 43»

«For this reason, it is only prudent to describe particular items of culture as more or less ‘popular’ in a given place and time, rather than either one thing or the other.»de ahí la regla de grado: describir cada ítem como más o menos *popular* en un lugar y un tiempo dados, y no como una cosa o la otra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 43»

«Like other intellectual models, the binary model of learned and popular culture is too simple. However, that is the point of models. We should not reject them because they are simple but use them as stepping stones to the understanding of a more complex reality.»y defiende el modelo por lo que es: demasiado simple, como todo modelo, y por eso mismo peldaño hacia una realidad más compleja, no cosa que rechazar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 43»

«The alternatives to ‘culture’ that have been proposed – among them tradition, ideology, mentality, discourse and practice – have not»mide las alternativas propuestas a *cultura* —tradición, ideología, mentalidad, discurso, práctica—; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *taken off, still less actually flown*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 42»

«It was in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, when traditional popular culture was just beginning to disappear, that the ‘people’ or the ‘folk’ became an object of interest to European intellectuals.»abre el capítulo primero con la tesis del descubrimiento: fue a fines del XVIII y principios del XIX, cuando la cultura popular tradicional empezaba a desaparecer, cuando el *pueblo* o el *folk* se volvió objeto de interés para los intelectuales europeos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 55»

«Craftsmen and peasants were no doubt surprised to find their homes invaded by men and women with middle-class clothes and accents who insisted that they sing traditional songs or tell traditional stories.»y lo dice desde el otro lado: artesanos y campesinos se sorprenderían de ver sus casas invadidas por hombres y mujeres de ropa y acento de clase media que insistían en oírles cantar o contar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 55»

«New terms are as good a guide as any to the rise of new ideas, and this was a time when a whole cluster of new words came into use, especially in Germany.»toma los términos nuevos como guía de las ideas nuevas, y sitúa el racimo en Alemania

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 55»

«The philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder gave the name Volkslieder (Folksongs’) to the collections of songs that he made in 1774 and 1778.»data el bautismo: Johann Gottfried Herder llamó *Volkslieder* a las colecciones de canciones que hizo en 1774 y 1778

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 55»

«Volkslieder was followed by Volksmärchen and Volkssage, late eighteenth-century terms for different kinds of ‘folktale’; Volksbuch, a word that became popular in the early nineteenth century after the journalist Joseph Görres published an essay on the subject; Volkskunde (sometimes Volkstumskunde), describing the study of popular culture, and Volkspiel (or Volkschauspiel), in other words, ‘folk play’ are terms that came into use around the year 1850.»y enumera la descendencia del término: *Volksmärchen* y *Volkssage* a fines del XVIII, *Volksbuch* tras el ensayo del periodista Joseph Görres, *Volkskunde* para el estudio de la cultura popular y *Volkspiel* hacia 1850

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 55»

«In English, Volksbuch became ‘chapbook’, documented in English in 1824, while Volkskunde became ‘folklore’, a term coined in 1846 by the writer William Thoms, an enthusiast for the work of Jacob Grimm who planned but never produced a book that he described as ‘The Folk-Lore of England’, though he later published a study of Folk-Lore of Shakespeare (1865).»y el caso inglés: *Volksbuch* se vuelve *chapbook* en 1824 y *Volkskunde* se vuelve *folklore*, término acuñado en 1846 por William Thoms, admirador de Jacob Grimm, que planeó sin llegar a escribirlo un libro sobre el folclore de Inglaterra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 56»

«His main point was that poetry had once possessed an effectiveness (lebendigen Wirkung) which is now lost. Poetry had been effective in this way among the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the northern peoples in early times.»expone el ensayo premiado de Herder de 1778: según Burke, Herder sostiene que la poesía tuvo una eficacia viva hoy perdida, la que tuvo entre hebreos, griegos y pueblos del norte en tiempos tempranos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 56»

«Poetry was regarded as divine. It was a ‘treasury of life’ (Schatz des Lebens); that is, it»y que esa poesía se tenía por divina, *tesoro de la vida*, con funciones prácticas; el tramo se corta en el salto de renglón del troceo y sigue *had practical functions*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 56»

«Herder went on to suggest that true poetry belongs to a particular way of life, one that would later be described as the ‘Organic Community’.»sigue exponiendo a Herder: la poesía verdadera pertenece a un modo de vida particular, el que después se llamaría *Comunidad Orgánica*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 56»

«He wrote with nostalgia of peoples ‘whom we call savages’ (Wilde), but ‘who are often more moral than we are’.»y consigna la nostalgia de Herder por los pueblos a los que llamamos salvajes, que a su juicio son a menudo más morales que nosotros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 56»

«The implication of his essay seems to be that in the post-Renaissance world, only folksong retains the moral effectiveness of early poetry because it circulates orally, is recited to music, and performs practical functions, whereas the poetry of the educated is poetry for the eye, cut off from music and frivolous rather than functional.»lee la implicación del ensayo con reserva declarada: en el mundo posterior al Renacimiento solo la canción popular conserva la eficacia moral de la poesía temprana, porque circula oralmente, se recita con música y cumple funciones, frente a la poesía de los educados, poesía para el ojo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 56»

«Their authorship was communal: ‘the people creates’ (Das Volk dichtet).»y da la fórmula: la autoría era comunal, *el pueblo crea*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 57»

«In a famous epigram, Grimm wrote that ‘every epic must write itself’ (jedes Epos muss sich selbst dichten). These poems were not made, but like trees, they just grew.»con el epigrama que la condensa: toda épica ha de escribirse a sí misma; según Burke, esos poemas no se hacían, crecían como los árboles

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 57»

«Hence Grimm described popular poetry as ‘poetry of nature’ (Naturpoesie).»de ahí que Grimm llamara a la poesía popular *poesía de la naturaleza*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 57»

«The ideas of Herder and the Grimms were extremely influential, encouraged by the rise of European nationalism.»mide el alcance: las ideas de Herder y los Grimm fueron muy influyentes, alentadas por el auge del nacionalismo europeo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 57»

«The association of poetry with the people received even more emphasis in the work of the Grimm brothers. In an essay on a»apunta que la asociación de poesía y pueblo se acentuó aún más en la obra de los hermanos Grimm; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 56»

«medieval German epic, the Nibelungenlied, Jakob Grimm pointed out that the author of the poem is unknown, ‘as is usual with all national poems and must be the case, because they belong to the whole people’.»continuación: Jakob Grimm señala, a propósito del *Nibelungenlied*, que el autor del poema es desconocido, como es usual en los poemas nacionales y como debe ser, porque pertenecen al pueblo entero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 57»

«The Mediterranean countries were backward in this movement, while one famous English editor was less of a pioneer than he may look.»matiza el mapa: los países mediterráneos llegaron tarde al movimiento, y un editor inglés famoso resulta menos pionero de lo que parece

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 57»

«Although unbelievers could be found, the Herder–Grimm view of the nature of popular poetry quickly became orthodox.»mide la fortuna de la doctrina: pese a los incrédulos, la visión de Herder y Grimm sobre la poesía popular se volvió pronto ortodoxia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 58»

«It was not only the folksong that became fashionable at this time but other forms of popular literature as well.»amplía el objeto: no solo la canción popular se puso de moda, también otras formas de literatura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 58»

«usually a little later than in Germany. Volkslieder were folkviser for the Swedes, canti popolari for the Italians, narodnye pesni for the Russians, and népdalok for the Hungarians.»da los equivalentes acuñados en otras lenguas algo más tarde que en Alemania: *folkviser* en sueco, *canti popolari* en italiano, *narodnye pesni* en ruso, *népdalok* en húngaro; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 56»

«The common reader should not make fun of the popular stories (Volksromane) which are sold in the streets by old women for a»cita a Tieck en bloque: el lector común no debería burlarse de los *Volksromane* que las viejas venden en la calle; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 58»

«groschen or two, for The horned Siegfried, The sons of Aymon, Duke Ernst and Genoveva have more true inventiveness and are simpler and better by far than the books currently in fashion.»continuación de la cita de Tieck: *El Sigfrido cornudo*, *Los hijos de Aymón*, *El duque Ernesto* y *Genoveva* tienen más inventiva verdadera y son más simples y mejores que los libros de moda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 59»

«Another object of middle-class admiration was the folktale, transmitted by oral tradition.»pasa al tercer objeto de admiración burguesa: el cuento popular, transmitido por tradición oral

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 59»

«In other parts of Europe, on the other hand, folklorists were less patronizing and more reverent.»y contrapone el resto de Europa, donde los folcloristas fueron menos paternalistas y más reverentes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 60»

«Take the example of the discovery of popular festivals. Herder, who was living in Riga in the 1760s, was thrilled by the midsummer festival of St John's Eve.»pasa al descubrimiento de las fiestas populares con Herder, que viviendo en Riga en los años sesenta del XVIII se entusiasmó con la fiesta de la noche de San Juan

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 60»

«Attempts were made at this time to write the history of the people rather than the history of the government.»señala el cuarto frente: los intentos de escribir la historia del pueblo en vez de la del gobierno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 61»

«This interest in different kinds of traditional literature was itself»encadena lo anterior con el movimiento mayor; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y la frase se completa en la cita siguiente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 59»

«part of a still wider movement, which might be called ‘the discovery of the people’ and included popular religion.»continuación en la plana siguiente: ese interés era parte de un movimiento más amplio, el que podría llamarse *el descubrimiento del pueblo*, que incluía la religión popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 60»

«The discovery of popular culture also made a considerable impact on the arts. From Walter Scott to Aleksandr Pushkin and from Victor Hugo to Sándor Petőfi, poets imitated the ballad. Composers made use of folk music, as in Mikhail Glinka's opera A Life for the Tsar (1836).»mide el efecto en las artes: de Walter Scott a Pushkin y de Victor Hugo a Petőfi los poetas imitaron la balada, y los compositores usaron música popular, como Glinka en *Una vida por el zar*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 61»

«However, a serious interest in folk art did not develop till after 1850, perhaps because popular artefacts were not threatened by mass production until that time.»acota la cronología con una explicación propuesta: el interés serio por el arte popular no se desarrolla hasta después de 1850, quizá porque hasta entonces la producción en masa no amenazaba los artefactos populares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 62»

«Perhaps the most vivid illustrations of the new attitudes to the people come from texts by travellers, who now went in search not only of ancient ruins but also of manners and customs, the simpler and wilder the better.»sitúa en los relatos de viajeros la ilustración más viva de la actitud nueva: ya no buscan solo ruinas antiguas sino maneras y costumbres, cuanto más simples y salvajes mejor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 62»

«Antiquaries had described popular customs before this time and collected printed ballads. What is new in Herder, the Grimms and their followers is their belief that ‘manners, customs, observances, superstitions, ballads, proverbs etc.’ were all part of a whole, expressing the spirit of a particular nation.»fija lo que es nuevo en Herder y los Grimm frente a los anticuarios: la creencia de que maneras, costumbres, observancias, supersticiones, baladas y proverbios forman un todo que expresa el espíritu de una nación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 63»

«Herder did in fact use the phrase ‘popular culture’ (Kultur des Volkes), contrasting it with ‘learned culture’ (Kultur der Gelehrten).»y consigna que Herder usó de hecho la expresión *cultura popular*, por oposición a *cultura de los doctos*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 63»

«In this sense the subject of this book was discovered – or should we say ‘invented’? – by a group of German intellectuals at the end of the eighteenth century.»y se pregunta por el verbo antes de afirmarlo: en ese sentido el objeto de este libro fue descubierto —¿o inventado?— por un grupo de intelectuales alemanes a fines del XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 63»

«The painter Gustave Courbet was inspired by popular»añade a Courbet, inspirado por las estampas populares; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *woodcuts*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 61»

«Where Johnson and Boswell observed the Highlanders from a»contrapone dos actitudes ante el pueblo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y la frase se completa en la cita siguiente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 62»

«distance, other members of the upper classes tried to identify with the people, an identification which seems to have gone furthest in Spain.»continuación: otros miembros de las clases altas trataban de identificarse con el pueblo, identificación que a su juicio llegó más lejos en España

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 63»

«Why did this discovery come when it did? What exactly did the people mean to the intellectuals? Needless to say, there is no simple answer to this question.»plantea las dos preguntas del capítulo y se abstiene de la respuesta única: por qué llegó el descubrimiento cuando llegó y qué significaba el pueblo para los intelectuales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 63»

«Most writers on popular culture, however, came from the middle and upper classes, to whom the people were a mysterious Them, described in terms of everything their discoverers were not (or thought they were not).»y el de la mayoría: venían de las clases media y alta, y para ellos el pueblo era un *ellos* misterioso, descrito con todo lo que sus descubridores no eran, o creían no ser

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 63»

«For some intellectuals, especially in the late eighteenth century, the people were interesting in an exotic sort of way.»distingue dos momentos: a fines del XVIII el pueblo interesaba de un modo exótico

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 64»

«In contrast, in the early nineteenth century, there was a cult of the people in the sense that intellectuals identified with them and tried to imitate them.»y a principios del XIX hubo un culto del pueblo: los intelectuales se identificaban con él y trataban de imitarlo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 64»

«There were a number of reasons for this interest in the people at this particular point in European history – aesthetic reasons, intellectual reasons, and political reasons.»ordena su explicación en tres órdenes de razones: estéticas, intelectuales y políticas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 64»

«The main aesthetic reason was what might be called the revolt against ‘art’. ‘Artificial’ (like ‘polished’) became a pejorative term, and ‘artless’ (like ‘wild’) a term of praise.»da la razón estética: la revuelta contra el *arte*, con *artificial* y *pulido* vueltos peyorativos y *sin arte* y *salvaje* vueltos elogio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 64»

«The people were viewed as natural, simple, illiterate, instinctive, irrational, rooted in tradition, and in the soil»da el retrato que se le hacía al pueblo: natural, simple, iletrado, instintivo, irracional, arraigado en la tradición y en el suelo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 63»

«of the region and lacking any sense of individuality (the individual was lost in the community).»continuación: y sin sentido alguno de la individualidad, porque el individuo se perdía en la comunidad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 64»

«Puppet-plays and mystery plays were objects of interest precisely because they ignored these unities. So was Shakespeare; Herder wrote an essay on Shakespeare while Tieck and Geijer translated his plays.»y saca la consecuencia: títeres y misterios interesaban justamente por ignorar esas unidades, y también Shakespeare, sobre quien Herder escribió un ensayo mientras Tieck y Geijer lo traducían

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 65»

«The aesthetic appeal of the wild, unclassical and (to use another favourite word of the time) the ‘primitive’ can be seen in the rising enthusiasm of the middle class for oral culture.»mide el atractivo estético de lo salvaje, lo no clásico y lo *primitivo* en el entusiasmo creciente de la clase media por la cultura oral

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 65»

«The most vivid illustration of this enthusiasm was the vogue for ‘Ossian’.»y declara la moda de *Ossian* como la ilustración más viva de ese entusiasmo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 65»

«In fact, the translation was not a translation, as»y anticipa la objeción sin desarrollarla aquí: de hecho la traducción no era una traducción; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *we shall see*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 65»

«It was in this frame of mind that Herder collected folksongs in Riga, Goethe in Alsace, and Fortis in Dalmatia.»y cierra el cuadro: con esa disposición de ánimo recogió Herder canciones en Riga, Goethe en Alsacia y Fortis en Dalmacia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 66»

«In short, the discovery of popular culture was part of a movement of cultural primitivism in which the ancient, the distant, and the popular were all equated.»resume la razón estética: el descubrimiento de la cultura popular fue parte de un movimiento de primitivismo cultural en el que lo antiguo, lo distante y lo popular se igualaban

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 66»

«The cult of the people grew out of the pastoral tradition. Boswell and Johnson went to the Hebrides to see a pastoral society, while around 1780, porcelain figures of Norwegian peasants, made by Claus Rasmussen Tvede, joined Dresden shepherdesses in the decoration of fashionable drawing-rooms.»traza la genealogía del culto al pueblo desde la tradición pastoril: Boswell y Johnson iban a las Hébridas a ver una sociedad pastoral, y hacia 1780 las figuras de porcelana de campesinos noruegos de Claus Rasmussen Tvede se sumaban a las pastoras de Dresde en los salones de moda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 66»

«Among the intellectual roots of this movement was a reaction against the Enlightenment, as typified by Voltaire – against its elitism, its emphasis on reason, and its rejection of tradition.»pasa a la raíz intelectual: una reacción contra la Ilustración tal como la tipifica Voltaire, contra su elitismo, su énfasis en la razón y su rechazo de la tradición

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 66»

«It is no accident that Rousseau was an admirer of popular culture. The»señala que no es accidente que Rousseau admirara la cultura popular; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 66»

«In the third place, the interest in popular culture had political roots. The Enlightenment was disliked in some quarters, in Germany and Spain, for example, because it was foreign, another example of the dominance of the French.»da la tercera raíz, la política: la Ilustración se rechazaba en Alemania y en España por extranjera, como otro ejemplo del dominio francés

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 67»

«The fashion for popular culture in late eighteenth-century Spain was a way of expressing opposition to France. It was also closely associated with the rise of nationalism.»y lee la moda española de fines del XVIII por la cultura popular como expresión de oposición a Francia, asociada de cerca al auge del nacionalismo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 67»

«Later collections of folksongs were often nationalist in inspiration and sentiment, although the singers themselves probably lacked national consciousness at this time.»y acota la asimetría: las colecciones posteriores fueron a menudo nacionalistas en inspiración y sentimiento, aunque los cantores mismos probablemente carecían entonces de conciencia nacional

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 67»

«The Finns were happy enough to escape from the Swedes, but they also feared Russia and did not want to lose their identity in the Russian Empire.»y el reverso finlandés: contentos de escapar de los suecos, temían a Rusia y no querían perder su identidad en el imperio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 68»

«The songs that Lönrot collected came mainly from one region, Karelia, but when he edited them, he eliminated local dialect in order to present the texts as products of the Finnish nation.»y consigna la operación editorial: las canciones venían casi todas de Carelia, y al editarlas eliminó el dialecto local para presentarlas como producto de la nación finlandesa; el troceo imprime aquí *Lönrot* con una ene

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 68»

«To a considerable extent, then, the discovery of popular culture formed part of a series of ‘anti-colonial’ movements, in the sense of organized attempts by societies which were under foreign domination to revive their traditional culture.»y saca la conclusión: en buena medida el descubrimiento de la cultura popular formó parte de una serie de movimientos *anticoloniales*, entendidos como intentos organizados de sociedades bajo dominación extranjera por revivir su cultura tradicional

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 69»

«Folksongs could evoke a sense of solidarity in a dispersed population which lacked traditional national institutions. As Arnim put it, they ‘united a dispersed people’ (zerstreutes Volk).»señala la función: las canciones podían evocar solidaridad en una población dispersa sin instituciones nacionales, y según Arnim *unían a un pueblo disperso*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 69»

«Ironically enough, the idea of a ‘nation’ came from the intellectuals and was imposed on the ‘people’ with whom they desired to identify.»y la ironía que consigna: la idea de *nación* venía de los intelectuales y se imponía al pueblo con el que deseaban identificarse

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 69»

«Around the year 1800, as we see in the final chapter, craftsmen and peasants usually possessed a regional rather than a national consciousness.»con el dato que la sostiene: hacia 1800 artesanos y campesinos tenían por lo común conciencia regional y no nacional

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 69»

«German people, to encourage national consciousness, while the Prussian statesman Lorenz von Stein recommended it as an aid to»continuación del propósito del *Wunderhorn*: cancionero para el pueblo alemán con que alentar la conciencia nacional, que el estadista prusiano Lorenz von Stein recomendaba además como auxilio; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y la frase se completa en la cita siguiente.

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 67»

«Of course, the political significance of the discovery of popular culture was not the same in each part of Europe. To illustrate its complexities, it may be useful to discuss one example in a little more detail: the Serbian.»advierte que el significado político del descubrimiento no fue el mismo en cada parte de Europa, y anuncia el caso serbio como ejemplo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 69»

«He did not collect the songs for his first songbook but remembered them (he went song-collecting later).»con una precisión que enmienda la imagen del recolector: no reunió las canciones de su primer cancionero, las recordaba; salió a recogerlas después

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 70»

«To publish Serbian songs, including songs about outlaws, in 1814–1815, a decade after the unsuccessful Serbian rising, was itself a revolutionary act.»y mide el gesto: publicar canciones serbias, incluidas las de bandidos, una década después del alzamiento fallido, era en sí un acto revolucionario

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 70»

«It should be clear from the examples quoted so far that the discovery of popular culture took place in the main in what might be called the cultural periphery of Europe as a whole and also the peripheries of different countries within it.»enuncia la geografía del descubrimiento: ocurrió sobre todo en la periferia cultural de Europa y en las periferias de cada país

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 71»

«Italy, France, and England had long had national literatures and a literary language. Their intellectuals were becoming cut off from folksongs and folktales in a way that Russians, say, or Swedes were not.»y su razón: Italia, Francia e Inglaterra tenían desde antiguo literaturas y lengua literaria nacionales, y sus intelectuales se iban quedando cortados de canciones y cuentos como no lo estaban rusos o suecos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 71»

«Italy, France, and England had invested more in the Renaissance, in classicism, and in the Enlightenment than other countries had and so they were slower to abandon the values of these movements. Since a standard literary language already existed, the discovery of dialect was divisive.»y la segunda razón: habían invertido más en el Renacimiento, el clasicismo y la Ilustración, y por eso tardaron más en abandonar sus valores; con lengua literaria estándar ya hecha, descubrir el dialecto dividía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 71»

«There were thus good literary and political reasons for European intellectuals to discover popular culture when they did. However, the discovery might have remained purely literary had it not been for an older tradition of interest in manners and customs, an antiquarian tradition which goes back to the Renaissance but was taking on a more sociological colouring in the eighteenth century.»cierra la explicación con una tercera vía: además de las razones literarias y políticas hacía falta una tradición anticuaria de interés por maneras y costumbres, que viene del Renacimiento y en el XVIII toma color sociológico

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 71»

«From the study of manners and customs in Tahiti or among the Iroquois it was only a step for French intellectuals to look at their own peasants, scarcely less distant from them (so they thought) in beliefs and style of life.»y el paso que describe: del estudio de las maneras de Tahití o de los iroqueses solo había un paso para que los intelectuales franceses miraran a sus propios campesinos, apenas menos distantes, según creían, en creencias y estilo de vida

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 72»

«Interest did not necessarily imply sympathy, as the frequent use of terms like ‘prejudice’ or ‘superstition’ makes abundantly clear.»acota el interés: no implicaba necesariamente simpatía, como deja claro el uso frecuente de términos como *prejuicio* o *superstición*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 72»

«The variety of beliefs and practices in different parts of the world was coming to seem more and more fascinating, a challenge to»el ánimo de la tradición anticuaria: la variedad de creencias y prácticas del mundo resultaba cada vez más fascinante; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *reveal the order underlying the apparent chaos*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 71»

«The popular culture of the years around 1800 was found just in time, or so the discoverers thought.»abre el apartado de la *casa en llamas*: la cultura popular de hacia 1800 se halló justo a tiempo, o eso creyeron sus descubridores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 73»

«The idea of the ‘salvage’ of a vanishing culture, a world that we are losing and that must be recorded before it is too late recurs in their writings, as it did in those of later anthropologists.»y nombra la idea que recorre sus escritos: el *salvamento* de una cultura que se desvanece, un mundo que perdemos y hay que registrar antes de que sea tarde, como después en los antropólogos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 73»

«Arnim was doubtless exaggerating wildly, but the other witnesses, who were speaking of regions they knew well, deserve to be taken seriously.»distingue entre sus testigos: Arnim exageraba sin duda, pero los demás hablaban de regiones que conocían bien y merecen tomarse en serio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 74»

«Even before the industrial revolution, the growth of towns, the improvement of roads, and the spread of literacy were all changing traditional popular culture, as we see in Chapter 9.»y da la causa material: ya antes de la revolución industrial, el crecimiento de las ciudades, la mejora de los caminos y la difusión de la escritura cambiaban la cultura popular tradicional

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 74»

«The centre was invading the periphery. The process of social change made the discoverers all the more aware of the importance of tradition in the world they were losing.»con la fórmula que la resume: el centro invadía la periferia, y el cambio social volvía a los descubridores más conscientes de la importancia de la tradición en el mundo que perdían

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 74»

«We remain deeply in debt to the men who snatched all they could from the burning house, collecting, editing, and describing. We are their heirs.»reconoce la deuda: seguimos en deuda profunda con quienes arrancaron cuanto pudieron de la casa en llamas, recogiendo, editando y describiendo; somos sus herederos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 75»

«All the same, we need to take a critical look at this inheritance, which includes corrupt texts and misconceptions as well as reliable texts and fruitful ideas.»y abre la objeción: esa herencia incluye textos corruptos y errores de concepto además de textos fiables e ideas fecundas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 75»

«It is all too easy to continue to see popular culture through the romantic, nationalist spectacles of the intellectuals of the early nineteenth century.»con el riesgo que declara: es demasiado fácil seguir viendo la cultura popular con las gafas románticas y nacionalistas de los intelectuales de principios del XIX

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 75»

«It was one of the glories of this age of discovery that the antiquaries were poets while the poets were antiquarians.»señala la gloria de aquella edad: los anticuarios eran poetas y los poetas anticuarios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 75»

«The combination of poets with antiquaries has one serious disadvantage, at least from the point of view of a historian. Poets are too creative to make reliable editors.»y el costo de esa combinación, dicho desde el oficio del historiador: los poetas son demasiado creativos para ser editores fiables

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 75»

«By modern standards, which came to be accepted in this field in the late nineteenth century, the work of the pioneer editors of popular poetry was little short of forgery.»y lo mide con la vara de hoy: por los criterios modernos, aceptados en este campo a fines del XIX, la labor de los editores pioneros de poesía popular era poco menos que falsificación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 75»

«These songs sometimes resembled passages of Macpherson's Ossian quite closely, allowing for the problem of translating old Gaelic into eighteenth-century English.»con la matización del cotejo: esas canciones se parecían a veces bastante a pasajes del Ossian de Macpherson, salvado el problema de traducir el gaélico antiguo al inglés del XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 76»

«In other words, parts of Macpherson's text were authentically traditional (though not as old as he claimed) but the whole was not.»y la conclusión que saca: partes del texto de Macpherson eran auténticamente tradicionales, aunque no tan antiguas como él declaraba, y el conjunto no lo era

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 76»

«There is a difference in degree rather than a difference in kind between Macpherson, who is commonly considered a ‘forger’, and Percy, Scott, the Grimms, Karadžić, Villemarqué and Lönnrot, and others who are usually considered as ‘editors’.»y enuncia la tesis del apartado: entre Macpherson, tenido por falsificador, y Percy, Scott, los Grimm, Karadžić, Villemarqué y Lönnrot, tenidos por editores, hay diferencia de grado y no de especie

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 76»

«However, the brothers did not publish exactly what they found. For one thing, the stories were current in dialect, but the Grimms translated them into German.»y mide la distancia entre la consigna y la práctica: los hermanos no publicaron exactamente lo que hallaron, porque las historias corrían en dialecto y ellos las tradujeron al alemán

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 78»

«They created a masterpiece of German literature as a result. What should be stressed here, however, is what was lost and the fact that in Germany at this time the middle classes quite literally spoke a different language from the craftsmen and peasants, so that the original versions of the stories would not have been intelligible to the readers for whom the book was intended.»y consigna las dos caras: el resultado fue una obra maestra de la literatura alemana, y a la vez una pérdida, porque en la Alemania de entonces las clases medias hablaban literalmente otra lengua que artesanos y campesinos, y las versiones originales no habrían sido inteligibles para los lectores a los que iba destinado el libro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 78»

«Translation was necessary, but it produced distortions of the original. Some stories in the Grimm collection were bowdlerized, because they would otherwise have shocked their new readers.»enumera las distorsiones: la traducción era necesaria y deformaba el original, y algunos relatos se expurgaron porque habrían escandalizado a los lectores nuevos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 78»

«Individual idiosyncrasies in the telling were smoothed out so that the collection appeared to be the work of a single author.»y la segunda: se limaron las idiosincrasias del contador para que la colección pareciera obra de un solo autor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 78»

«Where the different versions of the same tale completed one another, the Grimms amalgamated them (reasonably enough, given their theory that it is not individuals but ‘the people’ who create).»y la tercera, con su razón interna: donde dos versiones se completaban, los Grimm las amalgamaban, cosa razonable dada su teoría de que no crean los individuos sino el pueblo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 78»

«For example, they inserted traditional formulaic phrases into Snow White, from ‘once upon a time’ (Es war einmal) to ‘they lived happy ever after’ (sie lebten glücklich bis an ihr Ende).»con el ejemplo: insertaron en *Blancanieves* fórmulas tradicionales, del *érase una vez* al *vivieron felices hasta el fin*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 79»

«‘Improvement’ went out through the door but came back again through the window. In addition, the brothers misrepresented what they had done.»y cierra el caso: la *mejora* salió por la puerta y volvió por la ventana, y además los hermanos dieron cuenta inexacta de lo que habían hecho

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 79»

«In the case of folk music, the changes made by the discoverers and collectors in transmitting what they found to a new public are particularly obvious.»pasa a la música popular, donde los cambios de descubridores y recopiladores al transmitir lo hallado a un público nuevo son particularmente visibles

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 79»

«The music had to be written down, since there was no other way of preserving it, and it was written down according to a system of conventions which had not been created for music of this kind.»y da la primera causa: había que escribirla, porque no había otro modo de conservarla, y se escribió con un sistema de convenciones no creado para esa música

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 79»

«It was published in order to appeal to a middle-class public with pianos and ears attuned to the songs of Haydn (and later, Schubert and Schumann). For this reason, it had to be ‘harmonized’, as the title pages often confess.»y la segunda: se publicaba para un público burgués con pianos y con el oído hecho a Haydn, y por eso había que *armonizarla*, como confiesan a menudo las portadas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 79»

«For this reason, reading the text of a ballad, a folktale, or even a tune in a collection of this period is much like looking at a Gothic church that was ‘restored’ at much the same time.»y ofrece el símil que resume el capítulo: leer una balada, un cuento o una tonada de una colección de aquel periodo se parece a mirar una iglesia gótica restaurada en esos mismos años

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 79»

«One cannot be sure whether one is looking at what was originally there, at what the restorers thought had been there, at what they thought should»y desglosa la incertidumbre: no se sabe si uno mira lo que había originalmente, lo que los restauradores creyeron que había, o lo que creyeron que debía haber; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *have been there, or at what they thought should be there now*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 79»

«Not only texts and buildings were subject to ‘restoration’, but festivals as well. Some traditional festivals have had a continuous existence from medieval or early modern times to the present day, but others have not.»extiende la restauración a las fiestas: algunas tienen existencia continua desde la Edad Media o la época moderna temprana y otras no

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 80»

«Finally, a»abre la cuarta enmienda de los Grimm; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y la frase se completa en la cita siguiente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 78»

«study of the differences between the first edition of the Märchen and later ones shows that the Grimms made emendations to the tales in an effort to make them sound more oral.»continuación: el cotejo de la primera edición de los *Märchen* con las posteriores muestra que los Grimm enmendaron los cuentos para que sonaran más orales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 79»

«ideas of the discoverers is that they were not discriminating enough. They did not distinguish (or they did not distinguish sharply enough) between the primitive and the medieval, the urban and the rural, the peasant and the whole nation.»enuncia la objeción principal a las ideas de los descubridores: no discriminaban bastante entre lo primitivo y lo medieval, lo urbano y lo rural, el campesino y la nación entera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 80»

«The intellectuals of this period liked to compare the peasant societies they visited with the tribal societies they read about, a parallel that was sometimes illuminating but often misleading.»y acota el paralelo favorito de la época —sociedades campesinas visitadas frente a sociedades tribales leídas— como a veces iluminador y a menudo engañoso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 80»

«Herder, the Grimms, and their followers made three points about popular culture that were highly influential but also highly questionable. These points may be described as ‘primitivism’, ‘communalism’, and ‘purism’.»ordena en tres las tesis influyentes y a su juicio muy discutibles de Herder, los Grimm y sus seguidores: primitivismo, comunalismo y purismo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«The first point concerned the age of the songs, stories, festivals, and beliefs. The discoverers tended to locate them in an undefined ‘primitive period’ and to believe that pre-Christian traditions had been handed on unchanged for thousands of years.»expone la primera: los descubridores situaban canciones, relatos, fiestas y creencias en un *periodo primitivo* indefinido y creían que las tradiciones precristianas se habían transmitido sin cambio durante milenios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«There is no doubt that some of these traditions are very old; the Italian Carnival, for example, may well have developed out of the Roman Saturnalia, and the commedia dell’arte out of ancient farces.»concede la parte verdadera: algunas tradiciones son muy antiguas, y el carnaval italiano bien pudo desarrollarse a partir de las Saturnales romanas, y la *commedia dell'arte* a partir de las farsas antiguas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«However, for lack of precise evidence these suggestions cannot be proved.»y pone el límite: a falta de evidencia precisa, esas sugerencias no pueden probarse

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«What can be proved is that in relatively recent times, between 1500 and 1800, popular traditions have been subject to change in all sorts of ways.»y lo que sí se puede probar: que entre 1500 y 1800 las tradiciones populares cambiaron de todas las maneras

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«The design of farmhouses might alter, or one popular hero might be replaced in the ‘same’ story by another, or the meaning of a ritual might change while the form remained more or less the same.»con los modos del cambio: podía alterarse el diseño de las granjas, sustituirse un héroe popular por otro en el *mismo* relato, o cambiar el significado de un rito mientras la forma quedaba más o menos igual

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«In short, popular culture does have a history.»y la consecuencia que da el título al capítulo: la cultura popular sí tiene historia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«The second point may be illustrated by the Grimm brothers’ famous theory about communal creation; Das Volk dichtet.»pasa a la segunda tesis, la creación comunal de los Grimm, *Das Volk dichtet*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«The value of this theory was that it drew attention to an important difference between the two cultures. In European popular culture in 1800, the role of the individual was smaller and the role of tradition, the past of the community, was greater than in the learned culture of the time.»y le reconoce su valor: llamaba la atención sobre una diferencia real, porque en la cultura popular europea de 1800 el papel del individuo era menor y el de la tradición mayor que en la cultura docta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«As a metaphor, the Grimms’ phrase is illuminating. Taken literally, however, it is false.»y traza el límite: como metáfora la frase de los Grimm ilumina; tomada al pie de la letra es falsa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«On occasion they were defined as a nation, as in Geijer's image of the whole Swedish people singing ‘as one man’, or in the writings of Grimm himself. In Polish and Hungarian, for instance, the same word is used for both ‘the people’ and ‘the nation’.»da la primera respuesta histórica: a veces el pueblo se definía como nación, como en la imagen de Geijer del pueblo sueco entero cantando como un solo hombre, y en polaco y húngaro la misma palabra sirve para pueblo y nación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 82»

«The third point might be called ‘purism’, in other words the»nombra la tercera tesis, el *purismo*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *search for authenticity*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«More often, however, the term ‘people’ has been restricted to those who have not been fully educated, as in Herder's distinction between Kultur der Gelehrten and Kultur des Volkes.»y la segunda respuesta, más frecuente: *pueblo* se restringe a quienes no han recibido educación completa, como en la distinción de Herder entre cultura de los doctos y cultura del pueblo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 82»

«In other words, the people par excellence are the peasantry.»y la consecuencia de ese estrechamiento: el pueblo por excelencia es el campesinado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 82»

«Many discoverers agreed, since the peasants lived closer to nature, were less tainted by foreign manners and had preserved primitive customs longer than anyone else.»consigna por qué muchos descubridores estaban de acuerdo: los campesinos vivían más cerca de la naturaleza, estaban menos contaminados de maneras extranjeras y habían conservado las costumbres primitivas más tiempo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 82»

«However, this view ignored important cultural and social changes and underestimated the interaction between town and country, learned and popular.»y objeta: esa visión ignoraba cambios culturales y sociales importantes y subestimaba la interacción entre campo y ciudad, docto y popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 82»

«There was no pure, unchanging popular tradition in early modern Europe, and perhaps there never had been.»y niega el objeto mismo del purismo: no hubo tradición popular pura e inmutable en la Europa moderna temprana, y quizá nunca la hubo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 82»

«Hence there is no good reason for excluding town-dwellers, whether respectable artisans or Herder's ‘mob’, from a study of popular culture.»con la consecuencia metodológica: no hay buena razón para excluir a los habitantes de las ciudades, sean artesanos respetables o la *turba* de Herder, de un estudio de la cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 82»

«The difficulty of defining the ‘people’ suggests that popular culture was not monolithic or homogeneous. It was in fact extremely various.»y cierra el capítulo: la dificultad de definir al *pueblo* indica que la cultura popular no era monolítica ni homogénea, sino extremadamente variada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 82»

«The discoverers were sure that they knew what traditional popular culture was, but in the course of study it turned out to be elusive, difficult to catch for them then as well as for us now.»abre el capítulo segundo: los descubridores estaban seguros de saber qué era la cultura popular tradicional, y al estudiarla resultó esquiva, difícil de atrapar para ellos entonces y para nosotros ahora

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 92»

«It eludes us because we are literate, self-conscious moderns or post-moderns who may find it difficult to comprehend people unlike ourselves.»da la primera razón de esa esquivez: somos modernos o posmodernos alfabetizados y autoconscientes, a quienes puede costarles comprender a gente distinta de sí

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 92»

«It also eludes its historians because the evidence for the attitudes and values, hopes and fears under investigation is so fragmentary.»y la segunda: la evidencia de actitudes y valores, esperanzas y miedos es fragmentaria

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 92»

«Much of the popular culture of this period was oral culture, and ‘words fly away’.»y la tercera: buena parte de esa cultura fue oral, y las palabras vuelan

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 92»

«Much of it took the form of festivals, which were equally impermanent. We would like to know about performances, but what have survived are texts.»y la cuarta: mucha tomó forma de fiesta, igual de impermanente; queremos saber de ejecuciones y lo que sobrevive son textos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 92»

«We would like to see these performances through the eyes of the participants themselves, but we are forced to see them through the eyes of literate outsiders.»y la quinta: querríamos ver esas ejecuciones con los ojos de sus participantes y estamos forzados a verlas con los de forasteros letrados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 92»

«It is hardly surprising that some historians have considered it impossible to discover what popular culture was like in this period.»y concede lo que de ahí se sigue: no sorprende que algunos historiadores hayan tenido por imposible averiguar cómo era la cultura popular del periodo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 92»

«It is important to be aware of the difficulties, and so in the first section of this chapter I play devil's advocate and put the sceptic's case.»y declara el procedimiento del capítulo: hacer de abogado del diablo y presentar el caso del escéptico en la primera sección

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 92»

«However, it is one thing to study a society such as Britain in the early twentieth century, in which most people were literate, through texts; quite another to study the artisan and peasant families of early modern Europe, most of whom could not read or write.»formula la asimetría: una cosa es estudiar por textos una sociedad como la Gran Bretaña de principios del XX, donde casi todos leían, y otra las familias de artesanos y campesinos de la Europa moderna temprana, que en su mayoría no sabían leer ni escribir

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 93»

«Their attitudes and values were expressed in many practices and performances, but these practices and performances were only documented when the literate upper classes took an interest in them.»y la consecuencia documental: sus actitudes y valores se expresaban en prácticas y ejecuciones, y esas prácticas solo quedaron documentadas cuando las clases altas letradas se interesaron por ellas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 93»

«It took a foreigner to think that these oral traditions were worth writing down.»y la conclusión que saca: hizo falta un extranjero para pensar que esas tradiciones orales valía la pena escribirlas; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 93»

«Unfortunately, foreign visitors are likely to miss many local or topical allusions and may misunderstand what the festivities mean to the participants.»y el precio de esa fuente: los visitantes extranjeros suelen perder las alusiones locales y de actualidad y pueden entender mal qué significan las fiestas para quienes las hacen

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 93»

«Nevertheless, I believe that we can find out a good deal about the popular culture of this period by more or less indirect means,»declara su posición frente al escéptico: cree que se puede averiguar bastante de la cultura popular del periodo por medios más o menos indirectos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con las secciones segunda y tercera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 92»

«Other popular activities are documented simply because the authorities in church or state were trying to suppress them. This is an acute problem for anyone who tries, for example, to write the history of the Feast of Fools (Chapter 6).»señala la segunda fuente torcida: hay actividades populares documentadas solo porque las autoridades de la Iglesia o del Estado trataban de suprimirlas, problema agudo para quien quiera escribir la historia de la Fiesta de los Locos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 93»

«Again, most of what we know about the rebellions, the heresies and the witchcraft of the period was recorded because the rebels, heretics, and witches were brought to trial and interrogated.»y lo extiende a lo que más importa aquí: casi todo lo que sabemos de las rebeliones, las herejías y la brujería del periodo se registró porque rebeldes, herejes y brujas fueron llevados a juicio e interrogados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 93»

«Take the case of popular rural drama. Unlike urban drama from the same period, it has left few documentary traces and what evidence we have comes mainly from judicial archives.»con el caso del teatro rural popular: a diferencia del urbano dejó pocas huellas documentales, y lo que hay viene sobre todo de los archivos judiciales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 94»

«The accounts of different witnesses allow the play to be reconstructed in some detail and suggest that some knowledge of classical culture (in this case of Pan, Cupid, and nymphs) had percolated down to the villagers.»y lo que ese expediente permite: reconstruir la pieza con detalle y sugerir que algún conocimiento de la cultura clásica —Pan, Cupido, las ninfas— había calado hasta los aldeanos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 94»

«In all these cases, the situation in which the activity was documented may distort the record, because observers and questioners, members of clerical or lay elites, were not concerned to establish what rebellions or heresies or comedies meant to the accused.»y enuncia la distorsión común: la situación misma en que se documentó la actividad puede torcer el registro, porque observadores e interrogadores de las élites clericales y laicas no se ocupaban de establecer qué significaban aquellas rebeliones, herejías o comedias para los acusados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 94»

«Another class of documents, which may look less likely to be distorted, is that of the works of popular actors, poets or preachers, published during their lifetimes or soon after their deaths.»pasa a una clase de documentos en apariencia menos torcida: las obras de actores, poetas o predicadores populares publicadas en vida o poco después de su muerte

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 94»

«These texts are indispensable sources for the historian of popular culture, but they are not exactly what that historian wants.»y su límite: son fuentes indispensables y no exactamente lo que el historiador quiere

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 95»

«A text cannot record a performance adequately. The tone of voice is missing and so are the facial expressions, the gestures, and in some cases the acrobatics.»y da la razón: un texto no registra adecuadamente una ejecución, porque faltan el tono de voz, las expresiones del rostro, los gestos y a veces las acrobacias

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 95»

«There is another problem. We cannot afford to assume that these printed texts are faithful records of performances, even to the limited extent that texts can be.»y añade otro problema: no cabe suponer que esos textos impresos sean registros fieles de las ejecuciones, ni siquiera en la medida limitada en que un texto puede serlo

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«The text may have been aimed at a different audience from that of the performances. Indeed, it would probably have been aimed at a better-educated, better-off audience, simply in order to sell.»con la razón de mercado: el texto pudo dirigirse a un público distinto del de las ejecuciones, probablemente mejor educado y más acomodado, por vender

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 95»

«We know very little about the process by which these printed texts came into being. Were the clowns, preachers, or poets consulted?»y declara el hueco: se sabe muy poco del proceso por el que esos impresos llegaron a existir, y ni siquiera si se consultó a los bufones, predicadores o poetas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 95»

«Was the text taken down faithfully during the performance? Was it censored? Was anything added? Were additions or subtractions made with the consent of the performer or without?»enumera las preguntas sin respuesta sobre esos impresos: si el texto se tomó fielmente durante la ejecución, si se censuró, si se añadió algo, y si las añadiduras o supresiones se hicieron con o sin consentimiento del ejecutante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 96»

«In the case of sermons, there is an additional complication. Maillard preached in French and Barletta preached in Italian, but their sermons were published in Latin.»señala la complicación añadida de los sermones: Maillard predicaba en francés y Barletta en italiano, y sus sermones se publicaron en latín

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 96»

«The point of the publication was not to record the performance but to make the themes and the exempla available to other preachers all over Europe.»y da la razón: el fin de la publicación no era registrar la ejecución sino poner los temas y los *exempla* al alcance de otros predicadores de toda Europa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 96»

«Hence a famous collection of printed sermons was known as Dormi secure because it ensured that preachers slept well on Saturday night.»con el ejemplo que lo nombra: una colección famosa de sermones impresos se llamaba *Dormi secure* porque aseguraba al predicador un buen sueño el sábado por la noche

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 96»

«The Latin of these sermon collections is not very literary – it may be ‘macaronic’, in other words mixed with the vernacular – but it forms an additional obstacle to the recovery of the performance, not just the specific performance, but what matters still more from our point of view, the typical performance.»y el obstáculo que añade: ese latín, a veces *macarrónico* y mezclado con la lengua vulgar, estorba la recuperación de la ejecución, y más aún de la ejecución típica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 96»

«Printed sermons are sometimes full of learned references. Barletta's text refers to Livy, to Eusebius and to Bede. Would he have made such references in the sermon itself?»con la duda que deja abierta: los sermones impresos van a veces llenos de referencias doctas —Barletta cita a Livio, Eusebio y Beda— y no se sabe si las haría en el sermón mismo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 96»

«Behind this problem of the relation between text and performance lies another, still more serious. The texts were rarely produced directly by the artisans and peasants whose attitudes and values we are trying to reconstruct. We are not approaching them directly, but through mediators.»enuncia el problema mayor: los textos rara vez los produjeron directamente los artesanos y campesinos cuyas actitudes se quiere reconstruir, de modo que no se llega a ellos directamente sino a través de mediadores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 96»

«The historian of popular culture in early modern Europe faces the same sort of problems as the historian of traditional sub-Saharan Africa. For a long time, the documents of African history were written by outsiders, whether travellers, missionaries or officials, individuals who were often ignorant of the local language, did not know the local culture well and were sometimes trying to suppress it.»y lo empareja con el historiador del África subsahariana tradicional, cuyos documentos los escribieron largo tiempo forasteros —viajeros, misioneros, funcionarios— a menudo ignorantes de la lengua local y a veces empeñados en suprimir la cultura que describían; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 96»

«It may be useful to distinguish six kinds of mediator.»y anuncia la clasificación del capítulo: seis clases de mediador

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 97»

«Villon and Rabelais were of course familiar with the little tradition of their day, the culture of the tavern and the marketplace; but they were also familiar with the great tradition, and they drew freely on it. They do not offer us direct examples of popular culture but the results of mediation between the two traditions.»y enuncia por qué no sirven como acceso directo: conocían la pequeña tradición de la taberna y el mercado, y también la grande, de la que echaban mano libremente, así que ofrecen los resultados de una mediación entre ambas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 97»

«To study the history of the attitudes of the illiterate by this means is necessarily to see that history through two pairs of alien eyes, our own and those of the authors of»la fórmula que cierra el problema del mediador: estudiar así la historia de las actitudes de los iletrados es verla por fuerza a través de dos pares de ojos ajenos, los nuestros y los de los autores de los documentos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 96»

«the documents, both of them obstacles to understanding the people whom we are trying to reach.»continuación: los dos son obstáculos para entender a la gente a la que se trata de llegar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 97»

«Twentieth-century readers, who stand outside both the learned and the popular traditions of sixteenth-century France, may easily fail to see when Rabelais is working within one tradition and when he is combining two.»con la advertencia al lector: quien está fuera de las dos tradiciones del siglo XVI francés puede no ver cuándo Rabelais trabaja dentro de una y cuándo combina las dos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 98»

«The mistake is just as easy to make in the case of writers in the great tradition who draw on popular culture for their own purposes, as in the case of the Spanish texts known today as ‘picaresque’ because rogues (pícaros) are their protagonists.»extiende el aviso a los escritores de la gran tradición que echan mano de la cultura popular para sus fines, como los textos españoles hoy llamados picarescos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 98»

«The sermons of the friars, the Franciscans in particular, are among the most important sources for the popular culture of Catholic Europe.»abre el segundo mediador: los sermones de los frailes, en particular los franciscanos, entre las fuentes más importantes para la cultura popular de la Europa católica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 99»

«The simple way of life of the friars kept them close to the people. Their sympathies were often with Pauper against the rich man Dives, with the powerless against the powerful.»y su posición: el modo de vida simple los mantenía cerca del pueblo, y sus simpatías iban a menudo con el pobre contra el rico Epulón y con los sin poder contra los poderosos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 99»

«The friars were popular preachers in the sense that they deliberately appealed to the uneducated and often drew large audiences.»define en qué sentido eran predicadores populares: apelaban deliberadamente a los no educados y atraían públicos grandes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 99»

«The friars drew on the oral culture of their time. They preached in a colloquial style, making much use of puns, rhymes and alliteration, shouting and gesturing, drawing on folktales to illustrate their message, and composing songs for their congregations to sing.»describe su técnica: predicaban en estilo coloquial, con retruécanos, rimas y aliteraciones, gritando y gesticulando, echando mano de cuentos populares para ilustrar el mensaje y componiendo canciones para que las cantara la congregación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 100»

«It is not surprising that folklorists have drawn on sermons in order to study the folktale in this period.»y de ahí que los folcloristas hayan usado los sermones para estudiar el cuento popular del periodo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 100»

«Similar texts about beggars, their tricks and their organization, circulated in the»consigna que textos semejantes sobre los mendigos, sus trucos y su organización circularon; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 98»

«medieval Middle East and in early modern England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and elsewhere.»continuación: en el Oriente Medio medieval y en la Inglaterra, Francia, Alemania, Italia y España modernas tempranas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 99»

«They are surely right to do so, but caution is necessary. The friars were amphibious or bi-cultural, men of the university as well as men of the marketplace.»y matiza el uso de los sermones: hacen bien, y hace falta cautela, porque los frailes eran anfibios o biculturales, hombres de universidad además de hombres de plaza

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 100»

«They had often been trained in scholastic philosophy and theology and they were interested in passing on at least something from the great tradition in their sermons.»con la razón: solían tener formación escolástica en filosofía y teología y les interesaba pasar al menos algo de la gran tradición en sus sermones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 100»

«The image is a homely one, but we should not assume that this world-picture was already part of the culture of most of his audience. Savonarola may have been popularizing science.»y saca la lectura con su reserva: la imagen es casera, pero no cabe suponer que esa imagen del mundo formara ya parte de la cultura de la mayoría de su auditorio; Savonarola pudo estar divulgando ciencia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 100»

«The friars usually preached in the colloquial style, but this does not mean that they were just talking naturally. The choice of the colloquial style was a conscious literary choice from three possible styles, the others being the plain style and the ornate style.»y la consecuencia que saca: predicar en estilo coloquial no era hablar con naturalidad, sino una elección literaria consciente entre tres estilos posibles, con el llano y el ornado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 101»

«Each style had its own rules. The audience may not have known this, but the preachers did.»y añade que cada estilo tenía sus reglas, que el auditorio podía no conocer y los predicadores sí

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 101»

«The friars drew on popular themes but often transformed them. They told traditional tales but gave them a moral that was not necessarily traditional. They used popular tunes but wrote new words for them.»y desglosa la transformación: tomaban temas populares y a menudo los transformaban, daban a los cuentos tradicionales una moral no necesariamente tradicional y ponían letras nuevas a las tonadas populares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 101»

«Some of the elements of their performances may be described as popular, but, as in the case of Villon's proverbs, the whole is not.»con la misma conclusión que en Villon: algunos elementos de sus ejecuciones pueden llamarse populares, el conjunto no

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 101»

«If the sermons of the friars do not give us direct access to popular culture, perhaps chapbooks and printed ballads known in English as ‘broadsides’ will do so. Yet here too there are problems.»abre el tercer mediador con una pregunta: si los sermones no dan acceso directo, quizá los pliegos y las baladas impresas —los *broadsides*— lo den; y aquí también hay problemas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 101»

«The songs and stories printed in this cheap format may have expressed the values of artisans and shopkeepers, but this is not the only possibility.»y la acota: las canciones y relatos de ese formato barato pueden haber expresado los valores de artesanos y tenderos, y no es la única posibilidad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 101»

«The possibility of propaganda has always to be borne in mind when one is studying broadsides and chapbooks. These were the ‘mass media’ of the period, and it was obvious to political and religious leaders that these media might be used in order to influence as many people as possible.»abre la cuestión de la propaganda: pliegos y baladas eran los *medios de masas* del periodo, y a los dirigentes políticos y religiosos les resultaba obvio que podían servir para influir en cuanta gente fuera posible

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 102»

«Perhaps they simply express the hostility of townsmen to countrymen (although some towns did collaborate with the peasants in 1525), but it is also possible that these ballads were commissioned by the ruling classes as propaganda.»y deja las dos lecturas sin arbitrar: quizá expresen sin más la hostilidad del habitante de la ciudad hacia el del campo, y quizá las encargaran las clases dirigentes como propaganda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 102»

«In any case, what the ballads do not express are the attitudes of the rebels.»con lo único que da por seguro: lo que esas baladas no expresan son las actitudes de los rebeldes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 102»

«In other words, some contemporaries were aware of the value of the media as a means of social control.»y la conclusión que saca: algunos contemporáneos eran conscientes del valor de los medios como instrumento de control social

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 102»

«This ‘library’ was a collection of chapbooks, published at Troyes and elsewhere from the early seventeenth century onwards, and distributed throughout the country by pedlars (colporteurs).»describe la colección: pliegos publicados en Troyes y otros sitios desde principios del XVII y distribuidos por el país por buhoneros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 103»

«So many copies were sold that they must have reached at least some of the peasants, while the chapbooks were also bought and read by artisans. If, as is likely, only 30 per cent of adult males could read in late seventeenth-century France, other men and women could easily have listened when the books were read aloud.»y estima su alcance: se vendieron tantos ejemplares que debieron llegar al menos a algunos campesinos y a los artesanos, y si solo el treinta por ciento de los varones adultos leía en la Francia de fines del XVII, otros pudieron escuchar la lectura en voz alta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 103»

«In the first place, it cannot be assumed that the Bibliothèque Bleue represented French popular culture in the early modern period. In the first place, the texts were read by other kinds of reader, on occasion even a duchess, so that there is a case for describing these little books as part of a ‘common culture’.»da la primera objeción: no cabe dar por hecho que la *Bibliothèque Bleue* representara la cultura popular francesa, porque los textos los leían otros lectores, en una ocasión hasta una duquesa, y hay razones para llamarlos parte de una *cultura común*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 103»

«Again, the texts do not represent the whole culture of French craftsmen and peasants at this time. Printed texts coexisted with oral traditions, while in some regions, they were relatively unimportant.»y la segunda: tampoco representan la cultura entera de los artesanos y campesinos franceses, porque los impresos coexistían con tradiciones orales y en algunas regiones pesaban poco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 103»

«Chapbooks may have been an important part of the culture of late eighteenth-century Champagne, where they were printed and where three-quarters of adult males were literate, but they could hardly have been taken very seriously in Morbihan (say) in the late seventeenth century, where the literacy rate for adult males was below 10 per cent and the language spoken was not French but Breton.»con el contraste que la mide: los pliegos pudieron ser importantes en la Champaña de fines del XVIII, donde se imprimían y donde tres cuartas partes de los varones adultos leían, y difícilmente se tomarían en serio en Morbihan a fines del XVII, con menos del diez por ciento de alfabetización masculina y con el bretón por lengua

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 103»

«In the third place, we must not forget the mediator. The books which the chapmen carried round had often been composed by priests, nobles, doctors, and lawyers, sometimes centuries earlier.»y la tercera objeción: los libros que llevaba el buhonero los habían compuesto a menudo sacerdotes, nobles, médicos y abogados, a veces siglos antes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 104»

«Someone revised, abridged, or translated the book, and someone else chose to print it. A pedlar selected it for his pack, and thus the book arrived at a given village.»y describe la cadena: alguien revisó, abrevió o tradujo el libro, otro decidió imprimirlo, un buhonero lo escogió para su fardo y así llegó a una aldea dada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 104»

«There is thus a whole chain of mediators between a particular text and the peasants whose attitudes it is supposed to express, and we cannot assume that the peasants passively accepted the ideas expressed in the texts any more than contemporary viewers believe everything that they see on television.»con la consecuencia: hay toda una cadena de mediadores entre un texto y los campesinos cuyas actitudes se supone que expresa, y no cabe suponer que los aceptaran pasivamente, igual que los espectadores de hoy no creen todo lo que ven en televisión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 104»

«The example of the ballads printed during the Peasants’ War»usa el caso de las baladas de 1525 como advertencia; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 102»

«should make us a little wary of accepting the claims that some French scholars have made for the Bibliothèque Bleue as a mirror of the attitudes of the French peasants of the old regime.»continuación: debe volvernos cautos ante lo que algunos estudiosos franceses reclaman para la *Bibliothèque Bleue* como espejo de las actitudes del campesinado francés del antiguo régimen

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 103»

«If printed sources are misleading, we can surely rely on oral tradition. The discovery of popular culture in the late eighteenth century led to the collection of many songs and stories from individual craftsmen or peasants or their wives.»abre el cuarto mediador con la salida aparente: si los impresos engañan, cabe fiarse de la tradición oral, cuya recolección arrancó con el descubrimiento de fines del XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 104»

«Yet between these individuals and the modern reader there is, once more, a whole chain of mediators.»y la niega: entre esos individuos y el lector moderno hay, de nuevo, toda una cadena de mediadores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 104»

«In any case the presence of the collector, an outsider with a notebook, in the singing or storytelling situation is bound to affect what is recorded. Singers may refuse to perform altogether.»y el efecto del observador: la presencia del recolector, un forastero con cuaderno, altera por fuerza lo que se registra, y el cantor puede negarse a cantar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 104»

«Even the individual singer or storyteller may be a mediator in a sense, because in early modern Europe oral and written, town and country, great tradition and little tradition, see p. 69 below»y el último eslabón: el propio cantor o narrador puede ser mediador, porque en la Europa moderna temprana lo oral y lo escrito, la ciudad y el campo, la gran tradición y la pequeña coexistían e interactuaban; el troceo arrastra aquí dentro del cuerpo la remisión editorial *see p. 69 below*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 104»

«In any case, her interest in the supernatural, her sentimentality, and her avoidance of the erotic all reflect middle-class attitudes of the late eighteenth century.»y el rastro que Burke lee en ellas: su interés por lo sobrenatural, su sentimentalismo y su evitación de lo erótico reflejan actitudes burguesas de fines del XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 105»

«How different were the views of these individuals from other members of the culture that the anthropologist wished to describe?»y la pregunta que deja: cuán distintas eran las opiniones de esos individuos de las de los demás miembros de la cultura que el antropólogo quería describir

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 106»

«If early folklorists cannot be trusted to record oral traditions, perhaps inquisitors can. The trials and confessions of heretics and witches are obviously an important source for popular attitudes.»abre el quinto mediador: si no cabe fiarse de los primeros folcloristas, quizá de los inquisidores, porque los procesos y confesiones de herejes y brujas son fuente evidente para las actitudes populares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 106»

«In the trial records the historian can discover the favourite turns of phrase of the accused, and almost hear their voices. Yet here too there are mediators, for the confessions were not often spontaneous.»y le pone su reserva: en las actas se descubren los giros favoritos del acusado y casi se oye su voz, y también aquí hay mediadores, porque las confesiones no solían ser espontáneas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 106»

«The confessions of witches, for example, were the product of a situation in which an interrogator, usually a friar, an educated man, was face to face with the accused, while a clerk took down what was being said.»describe la escena: las confesiones de brujas eran producto de una situación en que un interrogador, por lo común un fraile y hombre educado, estaba frente al acusado mientras un escribano anotaba lo dicho

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 106»

«What the historian is looking at in the archive is usually the clerk's record, often in Latin, of a dialogue in which the interrogator, who may have been new to the region, probably spoke a standard form of the vernacular while the accused replied in dialect.»y lo que queda de ella: lo que el historiador mira en el archivo suele ser el registro del escribano, a menudo en latín, de un diálogo en que el interrogador, quizá recién llegado a la región, hablaría una forma estándar de la lengua vulgar mientras el acusado respondía en dialecto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 106»

«The possibilities for misunderstanding were considerable.»con la consecuencia: las posibilidades de malentendido eran considerables

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 106»

«The interrogator had been through the whole business many times before and knew, all too well, what he was trying to find. The accused did not know what was happening and may well have been searching frantically for cues and clues to what was wanted.»y la asimetría de saber: el interrogador había pasado por todo aquello muchas veces y sabía demasiado bien qué buscaba, mientras el acusado no sabía qué ocurría y bien pudo buscar frenéticamente pistas de qué se quería de él

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 106»

«The situation was like a parody of the interviews and conversations that take place between modern anthropologists and their informants in the field – for anthropologists are naturally concerned about the possibility that the answers they receive may be little more than what they have suggested, unconsciously, to the informant.»y el símil con que lo mide: la situación era como una parodia de las entrevistas del antropólogo moderno con sus informantes, que se preocupa de que las respuestas no sean poco más que lo que él mismo sugirió sin darse cuenta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 106»

«aware), and also because torture might be used to extract confessions.»y la segunda: que podía usarse la tortura para arrancar confesiones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 107»

«In other words, the accused may have told the interrogators what they expected to hear, and what they expected to hear was what they had read about in the treatises on witchcraft.»y la lectura que saca: los acusados pudieron decir a los interrogadores lo que estos esperaban oír, y lo que esperaban oír era lo que habían leído en los tratados de brujería

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 107»

«The treatises described what was confessed in the trials, but the trials also followed what was described in the treatises.»y enuncia el círculo: los tratados describían lo confesado en los procesos, y los procesos seguían lo descrito en los tratados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 107»

«It is very hard for the historian to escape from this vicious circle and to discover what the accused believed they had been doing.»con la dificultad que declara: es muy difícil para el historiador salir de ese círculo vicioso y averiguar qué creían los acusados que habían estado haciendo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 107»

«If trials for heresy and witchcraft are tainted evidence, perhaps riots and rebellions give us more direct access to popular culture. Instead of listening to isolated and defeated individuals we can look at large groups.»abre el sexto mediador: si los procesos por herejía y brujería son evidencia viciada, quizá los motines y las rebeliones den acceso más directo, porque en vez de individuos aislados y derrotados se miran grupos grandes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 107»

«This approach has proved a fruitful one, but to employ it safely the historian has to remember the mediator.»y la cautela de siempre: el enfoque ha resultado fecundo, y para emplearlo con seguridad el historiador ha de recordar al mediador

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 107»

«One source for this history of rebellions is the interrogation of captured participants, a source which has the same kind of built-in distortions as the interrogations of heretics and witches.»con la primera fuente: el interrogatorio de participantes capturados, con las mismas distorsiones incorporadas que el de herejes y brujas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 107»

«Another kind of source is the narrative or description written down at the time, usually in reports by officials who were trying to suppress the rebellions.»y la segunda: la narración o descripción escrita en el momento, por lo común en informes de funcionarios que trataban de sofocar las rebeliones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 107»

«Interrogations of supposed witches were all the more»abre las razones que hacen menos fiables las interrogaciones de supuestas brujas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 106»

«unreliable a guide to the true opinions of the accused because the interrogator had power over them (the accused were all too well»continuación: eran guía poco fiable de las verdaderas opiniones del acusado porque el interrogador tenía poder sobre él, cosa de la que el acusado era muy consciente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 107»

«It is only to be expected that officials would interpret as ‘blind fury’ a movement that the participants viewed as a defence of specific traditional rights.»señala la distorsión previsible: era de esperar que los funcionarios interpretaran como *furia ciega* un movimiento que sus participantes veían como defensa de derechos tradicionales concretos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 108»

«The officials are mediators between us and the rebels, and unreliable mediators at that.»y los nombra como lo que son: mediadores entre nosotros y los rebeldes, y mediadores poco fiables

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 108»

«Fortunately, the historian is not always forced to see revolts exclusively through official eyes. The demands of the rebels have often survived in manuscript or even in print, and they are obviously an extremely valuable kind of source, provided that they are authentic.»y abre la salida: las demandas de los rebeldes sobrevivieron a menudo en manuscrito o impresas, y son fuente valiosísima siempre que sean auténticas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 108»

«In other words, the Bretons thought that the dreaded salt-tax, the gabelle, against which they had revolted, was a person. Or did they?»y lee la cláusula: los bretones tenían por persona al temido impuesto de la sal contra el que se habían alzado; y acto seguido se pregunta si de veras lo tenían

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 108»

«The text may have been tampered with, and these ‘folkloristic’ details added to make the movement seem absurd.»con la lectura alternativa que deja abierta: el texto pudo haberse manipulado y esos detalles *folclóricos* añadirse para que el movimiento pareciera absurdo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 108»

«The demands of the rebels during the German peasants’ war of 1525 survive in a more reliable form because they were printed at the time to gain publicity for the cause.»y el caso mejor documentado: las demandas de 1525 se conservan de forma más fiable porque se imprimieron entonces para dar publicidad a la causa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 108»

«In fact, this right of Pfarrerwahl is mentioned in only 13 per cent of the local lists of grievances of the Swabian peasants, and in only 4 per cent of those drawn up before the Twelve Articles.»y la responde con cifras: el derecho de *Pfarrerwahl* aparece solo en el trece por ciento de las listas locales de agravios de los campesinos suabos, y en el cuatro por ciento de las anteriores a los Doce Artículos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 109»

«In many cases, the leaders of peasant risings were not peasants themselves but noblemen or priests, whether they were chosen in order to legitimate the movement or because the peasants lacked experience of leadership.»y otro mediador: en muchos casos los cabecillas de los alzamientos campesinos no eran campesinos sino nobles o sacerdotes, elegidos para legitimar el movimiento o porque los campesinos carecían de experiencia de mando

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 109»

«On occasion it is possible that these noblemen or clergymen were not even voluntary leaders but were forced to take command. They often claimed this afterwards, perhaps to escape responsibility.»con la reserva de la fuente: es posible que a veces esos nobles o clérigos ni siquiera fueran cabecillas voluntarios sino forzados a tomar el mando, cosa que solían alegar después, quizá para esquivar responsabilidades

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 109»

«Whether voluntary leaders or not, these men were also mediators, and it is difficult for the historian to discover how the rank and file of the movement – like the witches – actually viewed what they were doing.»y la consecuencia: voluntarios o no, también ellos eran mediadores, y al historiador le cuesta descubrir cómo veía la tropa del movimiento —como las brujas— lo que estaba haciendo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 109»

«The local grievance lists of 1525 offer us something like an early public opinion poll, but a distorted one.»compara las listas locales de agravios de 1525 con una encuesta de opinión temprana, aunque distorsionada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 109»

«The same objection may be made to the famous French cahiers of 1789. There are 40,000 such booklets, which were discussed in village assemblies. The assembly might include all men aged 25 or over who paid taxes, but we rarely know how they drew up their grievances.»y hace la misma objeción a los cuarenta mil *cahiers* franceses de 1789, discutidos en asambleas de aldea que podían incluir a todos los varones de veinticinco años o más que pagaran impuestos, sin que se sepa casi nunca cómo redactaron sus agravios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 109»

«In one case, a local shopkeeper brought a list out of his pocket, and this was accepted with little modification.»con el caso que lo ilustra: un tendero local sacó una lista del bolsillo y se aceptó con poca modificación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 109»

«Yet a problem remains, because we do not know how the articles were drawn up. The famous Twelve Articles of Memmingen (a small town in Swabia»con el problema que queda: no se sabe cómo se redactaron los artículos de 1525, y los famosos Doce Artículos salieron de Memmingen; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 108»

«where one of the peasant armies had assembled) begin with the demand that each parish should be allowed to choose its own priest.»continuación: allí se había concentrado uno de los ejércitos campesinos, y los artículos abren con la demanda de que cada parroquia pueda elegir a su propio párroco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 109»

«However, historians can never trust their documents completely. The point about the different classes of document discussed so far is not that they are worthless, but that they are distorted, and distortion can to some degree be allowed for – indeed, it is the historian's traditional business to do this.»y responde: los historiadores nunca pueden fiarse del todo de sus documentos, y lo importante de las clases de documento discutidas no es que carezcan de valor sino que están distorsionados, y la distorsión puede compensarse en alguna medida, que es el oficio tradicional del historiador

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 110»

«Some of the documents may be less unreliable than others, and some parts of them less unreliable than other parts, as a re-examination of the witch-trials should suggest.»y afina: unos documentos son menos poco fiables que otros, y unas partes menos que otras, como sugiere volver a examinar los procesos de brujería

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 110»

«Some historians working on witchcraft have reached new conclusions not by discovering new kinds of source but by using old sources in a new way.»y enuncia el procedimiento: algunos historiadores de la brujería llegaron a conclusiones nuevas no por hallar fuentes nuevas sino por usar de otro modo las viejas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 110»

«In these cases, it is clear that the answers did not conform to the inquisitorial stereotype of the witch as servant of Satan.»y por qué importa: en esos casos queda claro que las respuestas no se ajustaban al estereotipo inquisitorial de la bruja como sierva de Satanás

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 110»

«If this does not bring us much nearer to understanding the mentality of the witch herself, it has often cast a clear light upon her neighbours.»con su alcance y su límite: si eso no acerca mucho a entender la mentalidad de la bruja misma, ha arrojado a menudo luz clara sobre sus vecinos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 110»

«These people were ‘cultural brokers’. In a situation in which the great and the little traditions coexisted, they were a fundamental fact of cultural life, whether welcome or unwelcome missionaries to the little community from the outside world.»y los nombra: eran *intermediarios culturales*, hecho fundamental de la vida cultural en una situación de coexistencia de las dos tradiciones, misioneros bienvenidos o no del mundo exterior a la pequeña comunidad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 111»

«Given that a direct approach is impossible, an oblique approach to popular culture via these mediators is the least likely to put us on the wrong track. In fact, there are several oblique approaches.»y declara el método del libro: imposible el acceso directo, el rodeo por esos mediadores es el que menos riesgo tiene de descarriar, y hay varios rodeos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 111»

«One of them is to study texts when what we want to recover is the performance. The dangers of this approach have already been discussed, but there is also a more positive point to be made, which is that some texts are much closer to performances than others are.»el primero: estudiar textos cuando lo que se quiere recuperar es la ejecución, con el punto positivo de que unos textos están mucho más cerca de la ejecución que otros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 111»

«A second approach to popular culture might be described as socially oblique. It consists of studying the attitudes of craftsmen and peasants through the testimony of the clergy, the nobility, and the bourgeoisie.»y el segundo rodeo, socialmente oblicuo: estudiar las actitudes de artesanos y campesinos por el testimonio del clero, la nobleza y la burguesía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 111»

«Texts such as these bring historians as close to this vanished world as they will ever get.»con el valor que les da: textos así acercan al historiador a ese mundo desaparecido tanto como llegará nunca

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 112»

«It is time to turn from a critique of the sources to the positive evidence for the history of popular culture. We have seen that there»abre la segunda mitad del capítulo: pasar de la crítica de las fuentes a la evidencia positiva para la historia de la cultura popular; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 109»

«is some force in the objections made by traditional historians to that history on the grounds that the undertaking is impossible because the documents are either lacking or untrustworthy, contaminated by misunderstandings or by the desire to make propaganda for some cause.»continuación: concede fuerza a las objeciones de los historiadores tradicionales, que tienen la empresa por imposible porque los documentos faltan o no son fiables, contaminados por malentendidos o por el afán de propaganda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 110»

«The essential point is surely to accept the fact that we cannot»enuncia el punto esencial del capítulo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 110»

«often reach the craftsmen and peasants of early modern Europe directly, but that we can come closer to them via preachers, printers, travellers and officials.»continuación: no se llega a menudo de manera directa a los artesanos y campesinos, y sí cabe acercarse a ellos por predicadores, impresores, viajeros y funcionarios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 111»

«The dangers of this procedure have already been underlined; but they are not insuperable. For one thing, the upper»concede que ya subrayó los peligros de ese rodeo social y los declara salvables; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 111»

«classes participated in popular culture, especially in the first half of the period, so that they were not total outsiders. They would at least have understood ballads and carnivals from the inside, if not riots and rebellions.»continuación: las clases altas participaban de la cultura popular, sobre todo en la primera mitad del periodo, así que no eran forasteros totales y habrían entendido desde dentro las baladas y los carnavales, si no los motines y las rebeliones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 112»

«Three more oblique approaches deserve to be discussed in rather more detail – the iconographical method, the regressive method and the comparative method.»anuncia los tres rodeos que trata con más detalle: el método iconográfico, el regresivo y el comparativo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 112»

«Roughly speaking, one might say that iconography is concerned with what contemporaries knew about images, and iconology with what they did not know about themselves – or at any rate, did not know they knew.»y la distinción en corto: la iconografía se ocupa de lo que los contemporáneos sabían acerca de las imágenes, y la iconología de lo que no sabían acerca de sí mismos, o al menos no sabían que sabían

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 113»

«There is no reason why we should not study popular imagery in this way as well as the works of art produced for princes and noblemen, whether we choose to look at Staffordshire pottery figures, the hand-coloured woodcuts produced at Épinal, or the peasant paintings of Dalarna.»y la aplica al objeto del libro: no hay razón para no estudiar así la imaginería popular —las figuras de cerámica de Staffordshire, las xilografías coloreadas a mano de Épinal, las pinturas campesinas de Dalarna— además de las obras hechas para príncipes y nobles

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 113»

«Since the craftsmen and peasants with whom we are concerned were often illiterate and better at using their hands than at using words, the iconographical approach to their attitudes and values ought to be a fruitful one.»y da su razón: como los artesanos y campesinos eran a menudo iletrados y más diestros con las manos que con las palabras, el rodeo iconográfico debería ser fecundo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 113»

«The artefacts which they produced are our most immediate contact with the dead whose world we are trying to reconstruct and interpret, so much so that it may seem odd to call this approach ‘oblique’ at all.»y hasta objeta su propio rótulo: los artefactos que produjeron son el contacto más inmediato con los muertos cuyo mundo se trata de reconstruir, tanto que puede extrañar llamar oblicuo a ese rodeo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 113»

«The reason for doing so is simply that most history – films and television programmes apart – is written, so that when cultural historians interpret artefacts they necessarily translate from paint, wood or stone into words.»y explica el rótulo: casi toda la historia se escribe, de modo que al interpretar artefactos el historiador cultural traduce por fuerza de la pintura, la madera o la piedra a las palabras

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 113»

«This kind of translation is always somewhat presumptuous. It is particularly difficult in the case of popular art for the same reason that it is so necessary, because of the lack of reliable literary evidence for the worldview of the illiterate.»y su riesgo: esa traducción es siempre algo presuntuosa, y particularmente difícil en el arte popular por la misma razón que la hace necesaria, la falta de evidencia literaria fiable de la visión del mundo de los iletrados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 113»

«It is hardly surprising to find that little work has been done in this field. The artefacts have been collected into museums of folk art, their distribution has been carefully plotted on maps, and many iconographical problems, in the narrow sense of the term, have been solved, so that it is easy to recognize the charity of St Martin, the mill of youth or the world turned upside down.»y consigna el estado del campo: se ha hecho poco; los artefactos se reunieron en museos de arte popular, se cartografió su distribución y se resolvieron muchos problemas iconográficos en sentido estricto, de modo que es fácil reconocer la caridad de san Martín, el molino de la juventud o el mundo al revés

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 113»

«But what did that upside down world mean to ordinary people? Were its associations frightening or exhilarating? Does the frequency with which soldiers turn up in eighteenth-century popular art mean that ordinary people approved of wars?»y las preguntas que quedan sin responder: qué significaba aquel mundo al revés para la gente común, si sus asociaciones eran aterradoras o excitantes, y si la frecuencia de los soldados en el arte popular del XVIII significa que la gente común aprobaba las guerras

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 113»

«They include models of hands or legs, referring to the part of the body that was healed, or paintings that reconstruct the scene of the accident, including the intervention of the saint. They bring the popular religion of the past so close to us that we feel we can touch it.»y qué son: modelos de manos o piernas que remiten a la parte del cuerpo sanada, o pinturas que reconstruyen la escena del accidente con la intervención del santo, y acercan tanto la religión popular del pasado que parece que se la puede tocar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 114»

«What might be called the ‘iconology of rebellion’ might lead more directly to the aims of the rank-and-file than the confessions of the leaders do.»propone lo que llama la *iconología de la rebelión*, que a su juicio puede llevar más directamente a los fines de la tropa que las confesiones de los cabecillas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 114»

«The German peasants of the early sixteenth century often marched to revolt behind a banner bearing the image of a shoe with laces, the Bundschuh. What did this image mean to them?»con el caso del *Bundschuh*: los campesinos alemanes de principios del XVI marchaban a menudo tras un estandarte con la imagen de un zapato con cordones, y la pregunta es qué significaba esa imagen para ellos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 114»

«Was this a kind of she that only peasants wore and so a symbol of a social class?»y la hipótesis que ensaya: si era un calzado que solo llevaban los campesinos y por tanto símbolo de clase social; el troceo imprime *she* donde el libro quiere decir *shoe*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 114»

«The religious images perhaps legitimated revolt in their eyes by transforming it into a crusade or even a pilgrimage (the revolt was known at the time as the ‘Pilgrimage of Grace’).»con la lectura que propone: las imágenes religiosas quizá legitimaban a sus ojos la revuelta transformándola en cruzada o aun en peregrinación, y la revuelta se llamó entonces Peregrinación de Gracia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 114»

«The whole vast area of material culture is a potential subject for iconological analysis. Food, for example, has been analysed as a system of signs, a system that varies between cultures and over time.»extiende el método: toda el área de la cultura material es objeto potencial de análisis iconológico, y la comida se ha analizado como sistema de signos que varía entre culturas y en el tiempo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 114»

«Food has also been a powerful symbol of national identities, associating the British with roast beef, the French with frogs and the Germans (‘Krauts’) with cabbage.»y su uso identitario: la comida ha sido símbolo potente de identidades nacionales, asociando a los británicos con el asado de vaca, a los franceses con las ranas y a los alemanes con la col

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 115»

«There is also much to say about the significance of drink in different cultures: who drinks what (beer or wine, tea or coffee), with whom, and also when, where and in what amount.»y añade la bebida: quién bebe qué —cerveza o vino, té o café—, con quién, cuándo, dónde y en qué cantidad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 115»

«Drinking rituals have had and still have an important function in the construction of communities.»con la función que les da: los rituales de la bebida tuvieron y tienen una función importante en la construcción de comunidades

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 115»

«Clothes form a symbolic system, as folklorists and anthropologists have long recognized. In a given community, within which meanings are shared, there are certain rules governing what can be worn, by whom, on what occasions, so that the clothes worn by an individual transmit various messages to members of the community.»pasa al vestido: forma un sistema simbólico, con reglas sobre qué puede llevarse, quién y en qué ocasiones, de modo que la ropa de un individuo transmite mensajes a los miembros de la comunidad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 115»

«At the iconographical level this is obvious enough; a glance at a peasant woman would tell the initiated what village she came from, how prosperous her family was, and whether she was single, married, or a widow.»y en el nivel iconográfico: una mirada a una campesina decía al iniciado de qué aldea venía, cuán próspera era su familia y si era soltera, casada o viuda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 115»

«Is it also possible to study the iconology of clothes? Strong regional variations in clothes tell the observer that the wearers identify strongly with their region; a sharp distinction between ordinary working days and festivals may be expressed by a sharp distinction between working clothes and ‘Sunday best’.»y en el iconológico: las variaciones regionales fuertes dicen que quien las lleva se identifica con su región, y la distinción tajante entre día de labor y fiesta puede expresarse en la distinción entre ropa de trabajo y ropa de domingo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 115»

«A house is not just a machine for living in but also a centre of ritual.»con la fórmula que lo resume: una casa no es solo una máquina de habitar sino también un centro de ritual

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 115»

«the hearth and the threshold were places of symbolic importance – for example, witch-bottles were buried under them in East Anglian houses of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, while brides were carried over the threshold by their partners.»y lo aplica a Europa: el hogar y el umbral eran lugares de importancia simbólica, y bajo ellos se enterraban botellas de bruja en las casas de East Anglia de los siglos XVI y XVII, mientras a las novias se las pasaba en brazos por el umbral; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 116»

«Houses are bound both to reflect, and to shape, family life, and habits of work or leisure. Like food and clothes, they may be seen as systems of signs. The organization of space and the placing of major items of furniture in a house transmit messages at one level about the men and women who live in it and at another level about the culture.»y lo que las casas hacen: reflejan y modelan la vida familiar y los hábitos de trabajo y ocio, y la organización del espacio y la colocación de los muebles mayores transmiten mensajes sobre quienes viven en ellas y sobre la cultura

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 116»

«We need to remember, of course, that we cannot enter an early modern house, that the interiors that we see in museums of folk art are reconstructions – that is, interpretations.»con la reserva que declara: no se puede entrar en una casa moderna temprana, y los interiores que se ven en los museos de arte popular son reconstrucciones, es decir interpretaciones

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«Another example of research on popular imagery is the study of ex-votos, images commissioned by ordinary people from local»el segundo ejemplo de investigación sobre imaginería popular: los exvotos, imágenes encargadas por gente común a artesanos locales; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 114»

«In Britain, venison, for instance, had a high status, since»con el ejemplo británico de la comida como signo: el venado tenía estatus alto; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *ordinary people were not allowed to kill deer*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 114»

«If it is ever possible to study the whole material culture of the early modern period as a system of signs, this will involve another oblique approach, chronologically oblique this time, the so-called ‘regressive method’.»anuncia el segundo de los tres métodos, cronológicamente oblicuo: el llamado *método regresivo*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 116»

«To avoid misunderstanding, it should be emphasized that the regressive method does not consist of taking descriptions of relatively recent situations and cheerfully assuming that they apply equally well to earlier periods.»y acota el método para evitar malentendidos: no consiste en tomar descripciones de situaciones recientes y suponer alegremente que valen igual para periodos anteriores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 116»

«What is advocated here is a more indirect use of the modern material, to criticize or interpret the documentary sources.»y lo que sí propone: un uso más indirecto del material moderno, para criticar o interpretar las fuentes documentales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 116»

«The historian of traditional popular culture is in a similar position to Marc Bloch. Popular prints, broadsides, and chapbooks of the eighteenth century are very much more common than earlier ones, whether because more were printed or because a greater proportion have survived.»y aplica la situación de Bloch a su objeto: las estampas, pliegos y baladas del siglo XVIII son mucho más comunes que las anteriores, sea porque se imprimieron más o porque sobrevivió una proporción mayor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 117»

«A high percentage of the artefacts preserved in European museums of popular art come from the eighteenth century or later, a time of relative prosperity for many.»y el dato que lo acompaña: un porcentaje alto de los artefactos de los museos europeos de arte popular viene del siglo XVIII o después, época de prosperidad relativa para muchos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 117»

«There is therefore a strong case for writing the history of popular culture backwards and for using the late eighteenth century as a base from which to consider the more fragmentary evidence from the seventeenth and sixteenth centuries.»y la propuesta que saca: hay buen argumento para escribir hacia atrás la historia de la cultura popular, usando el XVIII tardío como base desde la que considerar la evidencia más fragmentaria del XVII y el XVI

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 117»

«That historians need to be very cautious in doing this goes without saying.»con la cautela dicha en una línea: no hace falta decir que el historiador ha de ser muy prudente al hacerlo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 117»

«In similar fashion, the information we possess on the techniques of divining and folk-medicine in France or Serbia, Sweden, or Southern Italy, is incomparably more detailed for the twentieth century than for earlier periods.»y lo mismo con lo nuestro: la información sobre las técnicas de adivinación y de medicina popular en Francia, Serbia, Suecia o el sur de Italia es incomparablemente más detallada para el siglo XX que para periodos anteriores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 117»

«Their recordings made it possible to compare two singers’ versions of the same song, as well as the same song sung by the same singer on different occasions.»y qué permitieron: comparar las versiones de dos cantores de una misma canción, y la misma canción por el mismo cantor en ocasiones distintas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 118»

«It is particularly useful for suggesting links between fragments of information, connecting the dots, and for making sense of descriptions that are so allusive or elliptical that»con su utilidad concreta: sugerir vínculos entre fragmentos de información, unir los puntos y dar sentido a descripciones muy alusivas o elípticas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *they do not make sense by themselves*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 116»

«The risks of moving backwards from the recent past to early modern Europe are obviously greater than moving back from the eighteenth century to the seventeenth and sixteenth centuries, but historians whose sources consist of fragmentary texts have much to learn from folklorists and anthropologists whose sources are living people who can be»mide el riesgo: retroceder del pasado reciente a la Europa moderna temprana es más arriesgado que del XVIII al XVII, y el historiador de textos fragmentarios tiene mucho que aprender de folcloristas y antropólogos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *observed and even questioned*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 117»

«They accepted too easily the myth of an unchanging popular culture, a myth created by educated townspeople who saw the peasants as part of nature rather than part of culture, in other words, as closer to animals than to civilized humans.»y la tercera: aceptaban con demasiada facilidad el mito de una cultura popular inmutable, mito creado por citadinos educados que veían a los campesinos como parte de la naturaleza y no de la cultura, más cerca de los animales que de los humanos civilizados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 119»

«In rural communities such as the West Highlands of Scotland, where a majority of families remained from one generation to the next, living in the same houses as their fathers and grandfathers and tilling the same soil, it is reasonable to assume a good deal of cultural continuity.»y dónde vale el supuesto: en comunidades rurales como las Tierras Altas occidentales de Escocia, donde la mayoría de las familias permanecía de una generación a otra en las mismas casas y labrando la misma tierra, cabe suponer bastante continuidad cultural

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 119»

«In this kind of community, oral traditions were probably stable and so a more reliable guide to the past than modern historians have been willing to admit.»y la consecuencia: en ese tipo de comunidad las tradiciones orales fueron probablemente estables y por tanto guía del pasado más fiable de lo que los historiadores modernos han querido admitir

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 119»

«Of course, oral traditions change as they are handed down. Incidents that took place centuries apart may be conflated, or modern concerns projected on to the past.»y la reserva que añade: las tradiciones orales cambian al transmitirse, y pueden fundirse sucesos separados por siglos o proyectarse preocupaciones modernas sobre el pasado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 119»

«They will rely on the regressive method more for structures than for details, more to interpret attitudes than to discover what attitudes were. Their basic problem remains that of knowing how much to allow for change in any given case.»y la regla de uso: apoyarse en el método regresivo más para las estructuras que para los detalles, más para interpretar actitudes que para descubrir cuáles eran, con el problema de fondo de cuánto cambio hay que descontar en cada caso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 120»

«The history of the English mummers’ plays may serve to illustrate this difficulty. More than 600 texts survive, but almost all of them come (like the texts of the Tuscan maggi or the Swedish ‘star-plays’) from the nineteenth century or later.»ilustra la dificultad con las piezas de los *mummers* ingleses: sobreviven más de seiscientos textos y casi todos, como los *maggi* toscanos o las piezas suecas de la estrella, son del siglo XIX o posteriores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 120»

«The problem is, we might say, to make ends meet and to reconstruct a fifteenth-century play from versions recorded some 400 years later.»y formula el problema: reconstruir una pieza del siglo XV a partir de versiones registradas unos cuatrocientos años después

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 120»

«We may begin by subtraction, by the elimination of such figures as Oliver Cromwell, King William (whether William III or William IV), and Admiral Vernon, all of whom occur in nineteenth-century versions.»y el procedimiento: empezar por sustracción, eliminando figuras como Oliver Cromwell, el rey Guillermo y el almirante Vernon, presentes en las versiones decimonónicas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 120»

«Textual criticism has enabled scholars to recover some names and phrases which had become corrupted in the process of oral transmission, to emend ‘Turkey Snipe’, for instance, to ‘Turkish Knight’.»y el segundo paso: la crítica textual ha permitido recuperar nombres y frases corrompidos en la transmisión oral, enmendando por ejemplo *Turkey Snipe* en *Turkish Knight*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 120»

«We must allow something for the fact that some nineteenth-century versions were recorded in bowdlerized form by local vicars.»y el descuento que hay que hacer: algunas versiones decimonónicas las registraron expurgadas los párrocos locales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 120»

«Like picture-restorers stripping off layer after layer of overpainting, historians find themselves left with the fundamental structure of the action: the sequence of combats, the slaying of the hero and his revival.»y lo que queda al final: como el restaurador que quita capa tras capa de repinte, el historiador se encuentra con la estructura fundamental de la acción, la secuencia de combates, la muerte del héroe y su resurrección

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 120»

«In this last example, the regressive method may be supplemented by a final oblique approach: comparison.»y anuncia el tercer método: el comparativo, que en ese ejemplo complementa al regresivo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 120»

«Again, if we are trying to decide how far back the figure of the comic doctor goes in England, then it is useful to know that a similar figure occurs in German carnival plays of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.»y un segundo uso: para decidir cuán atrás llega la figura del médico cómico en Inglaterra sirve saber que una figura semejante aparece en las piezas carnavalescas alemanas de los siglos XV y XVI

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 121»

«The historian of rituals is in even greater need of the comparative method than the historian of ballads. It would be difficult either to reconstruct or to interpret sixteenth-century Roman carnivals without making some comparison with Florence or Venice.»y dónde hace más falta: el historiador de los rituales necesita el método comparativo más aún que el de las baladas, porque sería difícil reconstruir o interpretar los carnavales romanos del XVI sin compararlos con Florencia o Venecia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 121»

«The more fragmentary the surviving evidence from one region, the more useful the comparative approach proves to be. It has to be practiced with care but when employed as a consciously oblique approach, it has its uses.»y la regla de proporción: cuanto más fragmentaria la evidencia de una región, más útil resulta el enfoque comparativo, que ha de practicarse con cuidado y sirve cuando se emplea como rodeo consciente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 121»

«More controversial is the second variety of this approach, comparisons between two societies relatively remote in space or time. Have historians of early modern Europe something to learn from social anthropologists who have studied the Trobriand Islanders, or the Nuer, or contemporary Sicily or Greece?»y la segunda variedad, más discutida: comparar dos sociedades remotas en el espacio o en el tiempo, y preguntarse si el historiador de la Europa moderna temprana tiene algo que aprender de los antropólogos de los trobriandeses, los nuer o la Sicilia y la Grecia contemporáneas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 121»

«That they cannot simply take over conclusions goes without saying. However, anthropologists have experienced at first-hand what historians try so hard to imagine, the quality of life in pre-industrial societies, and they have come back to tell us about it in our own language.»con su límite y su ganancia: no se pueden tomar prestadas las conclusiones sin más, y los antropólogos han experimentado de primera mano lo que el historiador se esfuerza por imaginar, la calidad de vida de las sociedades preindustriales, y han vuelto a contárnoslo en nuestra propia lengua

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 121»

«Anthropologists are often more at ease with theories and more articulate about their methods than their historical colleagues, and this makes their example particularly worth following in a field such as the history of popular culture.»y una segunda razón para seguirlos: suelen estar más cómodos con las teorías y ser más explícitos sobre sus métodos que sus colegas historiadores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 121»

«Historians cannot imitate these methods, but the example of the anthropologists has at least helped liberate them from the pressure exerted by the documents to look at witches through the eyes of their judges.»y qué saca de ahí el historiador: no puede imitar esos métodos, y el ejemplo de los antropólogos ha ayudado al menos a liberarlo de la presión que los documentos ejercen para mirar a las brujas con los ojos de sus jueces

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 122»

«For historians concerned with the attitudes and values of peasants who have rarely left written records, the study of public rituals is obviously important, and in this field too, the anthropologists have long been at home.»y el segundo campo: para quien se ocupa de actitudes y valores de campesinos que rara vez dejaron registros escritos, el estudio de los rituales públicos es importante, y ahí los antropólogos llevan mucho tiempo en su casa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 122»

«As Chapter 7 suggests, a student of European carnivals can learn something from recent studies of ‘rites of reversal’ in India and Africa.»con el préstamo concreto que anuncia: quien estudie los carnavales europeos puede aprender de los estudios recientes sobre *ritos de inversión* en la India y en África

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 122»

«The Greek plays make it easier to imagine what the English plays were»y qué aporta la comparación: las piezas griegas facilitan imaginar cómo eran las inglesas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *like before bowdlerization*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 120»

«An obvious example of what a historian of popular beliefs can»abre el ejemplo que más importa aquí, el de la brujería; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 121»

«The comparative method, like the regressive method, involves speculation. If it seems too speculative, the reader should remember that the method is not supposed to be employed by itself but in conjunction with all other methods, and in particular to make sense of surviving fragments of evidence, not as a substitute for them.»y la salvaguarda final: el método comparativo, como el regresivo, implica especulación, y no se emplea por sí solo sino junto con los demás y sobre todo para dar sentido a fragmentos de evidencia, no para sustituirlos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 123»

«Herder once called folksongs ‘the archive of the people’ (Das Archiv des Volkes).»y cierra el capítulo con Herder, que llamó a las canciones populares *el archivo del pueblo*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 123»

«To read in that archive is impossible without techniques of this kind. Since the popular culture of early modern Europe is so elusive, it needs to be approached in a roundabout manner, recovered by indirect means, and interpreted by a series of analogies.»y la consecuencia: leer en ese archivo es imposible sin técnicas de esta clase, porque la cultura popular de la Europa moderna temprana es tan esquiva que hay que acercarse a ella en rodeo, recuperarla por medios indirectos e interpretarla por una serie de analogías

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 123»

«If everyone in a given society shared the same culture; there would be no need to use the term ‘popular culture’ at all.»abre el capítulo tercero por la negativa: si todos en una sociedad compartieran la misma cultura, no haría falta el término *cultura popular*; el troceo imprime punto y coma donde la sintaxis pide coma

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 133»

«This is, or was, the situation in many ‘tribal’ societies, as they used to be described by social anthropologists.»y sitúa esa situación en muchas sociedades llamadas *tribales* tal como las describían los antropólogos sociales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 133»

«A tribal society is small, isolated, and self-sufficient. Carvers, singers, storytellers, and their public form a face-to-face group sharing basic values and the myths and symbols in which these values are expressed.»resume el modelo: una sociedad tribal es pequeña, aislada y autosuficiente, y talladores, cantores, narradores y su público forman un grupo cara a cara que comparte valores básicos y los mitos y símbolos en que se expresan

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 133»

«The craftsman or singer hunts, fishes or tills the soil like other members of the community, and they too carve or sing, even if they do this less frequently and less well.»y su rasgo decisivo: el artesano o el cantor caza, pesca o labra como los demás miembros de la comunidad, y ellos también tallan o cantan, aunque con menos frecuencia y menos bien

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 133»

«Audience participation in performance is important. They answer riddles and they sing choruses. Even carving may be a semicommunal activity.»y la participación del público: responde acertijos y canta estribillos, y hasta el tallado puede ser actividad semicomunal; el impreso parte *semi-communal* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *semicommunal*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 133»

«This simplified description or ‘model’, has its relevance to early modern Europe, at least in the poorer and more remote regions, where noblemen and clergymen were thin on the ground.»y le reconoce su alcance: ese modelo simplificado vale para la Europa moderna temprana al menos en las regiones más pobres y remotas, donde escaseaban nobles y clérigos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 133»

«However, it is clear that this model does not apply to most parts of Europe in our period. In most places there was cultural as well as social stratification.»y le pone el límite: el modelo no vale para casi ninguna parte de Europa en el periodo, donde había estratificación cultural además de social

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 134»

«There was a minority who could read and write as well as a majority who could not, and some of the literate minority knew Latin, the language of the learned.»con el dato que la define: una minoría sabía leer y escribir frente a una mayoría que no, y parte de esa minoría sabía latín, la lengua de los doctos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 134»

«The point about the two-way traffic between the two traditions is an important one, and we shall return to it later.»y subraya lo que le importa del modelo: el tráfico en dos sentidos entre las dos tradiciones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 134»

«What should be emphasized now is that Redfield, like Herder, offers what might be called a ‘residual’ definition of popular culture, as the culture or tradition of the non-learned, the un-lettered, the non-elite.»y lo que le objeta: Redfield, como Herder, ofrece una definición *residual* de la cultura popular, como la del no docto, el iletrado, el no de élite

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 134»

«Since popular culture is a residual concept, it is important to see how that residue may be structured, and this chapter attempts to do so.»y declara la tarea del capítulo: si la cultura popular es un concepto residual, importa ver cómo se estructura ese residuo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 134»

«It includes the classical tradition, as it was handed down in schools and universities; the tradition of medieval scholastic philosophy and theology, far from dead in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and some intellectual movements that are likely to have affected only the educated minority, at least in the first generation or two – the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth century and the Enlightenment.»identifica la gran tradición en la Europa moderna temprana: la tradición clásica de escuelas y universidades, la filosofía y la teología escolásticas medievales, lejos de muertas en los siglos XVI y XVII, y los movimientos que solo afectaron a la minoría educada en las primeras generaciones —Renacimiento, Revolución científica, Ilustración; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 135»

«Subtract all this from the culture of early modern Europe, and what residue is left? Folksongs and folktales; devotional images and decorated marriage-chests; mystery plays and farces; broadsides and chapbooks; and, above all, festivals, the feasts of the saints and the great seasonal festivals such as Christmas, New Year, Carnival, May, and Midsummer.»y enumera el residuo, que es la materia del libro: canciones y cuentos populares, imágenes devocionales y arcones de boda decorados, misterios y farsas, pliegos y libros de cordel, y sobre todo las fiestas, las de los santos y las grandes estacionales —Navidad, Año Nuevo, carnaval, mayo y el solsticio de verano

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 135»

«Redfield's model is a useful point of departure but it is open to criticism. His definition of the little tradition as the tradition of the non-elite can be criticized, paradoxically enough, on the grounds that it is too narrow and also on the grounds that it is too wide.»y abre la objeción doble: la definición de Redfield de la pequeña tradición como la del no de élite puede objetarse por estrecha y, paradójicamente, también por ancha

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 135»

«The definition is too narrow because it omits upper-class participation in popular culture, which was an important fact of European life, most obvious at festivals.»da la primera objeción: es estrecha porque omite la participación de las clases altas en la cultura popular, hecho importante de la vida europea y más visible en las fiestas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 135»

«It was not only at such times of ritualized collective rejoicing that the upper classes or the educated took part in popular culture. In towns at least, rich and poor, nobles and commoners attended the same sermons.»y amplía el argumento fuera de la fiesta: al menos en las ciudades, ricos y pobres, nobles y plebeyos oían los mismos sermones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 136»

«It was not only the nobility who participated in popular culture; the clergy did so too, particularly in the sixteenth century.»y extiende la participación al clero, sobre todo en el siglo XVI

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 138»

«It was not at all uncommon, at least before the last sessions of the Council of Trent in the 1560s, for priests to be seen and heard dancing, singing, or wearing masks in church on festive occasions, while it was the junior clergy who organized the Feast of Fools, a major festival in some parts of Europe, as we shall see.»y el estado de cosas antes de Trento: no era nada raro ver y oír a los sacerdotes bailando, cantando o con máscara en la iglesia en días de fiesta, y era el clero menor quien organizaba la Fiesta de los Locos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 138»

«At this point, someone may object that I have painted too rosy a picture of the relations between the classes. Did not the ruling class, and the educated, despise that ‘many-headed monster’, the people?»se plantea la objeción él mismo: que ha pintado un cuadro demasiado rosa de las relaciones entre las clases, y que la clase dirigente y los educados despreciaban a ese *monstruo de muchas cabezas* que era el pueblo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 139»

«However, the point that needs to be made here is that the upper classes did not yet associate ballads, chapbooks, and festivals with the common people, precisely because they themselves still participated in these forms of culture.»y la respuesta que da a su propia objeción: las clases altas no asociaban todavía las baladas, los pliegos y las fiestas con la gente común, precisamente porque ellas mismas participaban aún de esas formas de cultura

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 139»

«Broadsides and chapbooks seem to have been read by rich and poor, educated and uneducated. It has been suggested that the seventeenth-century German broadsheet (which combined a simple»y los impresos baratos: pliegos y libros de cordel parecen haberlos leído ricos y pobres, y se ha sugerido lo mismo de la hoja alemana del XVII; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *visual presentation with Latin tags*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 137»

«visual presentation with Latin tags) also aimed to please»continuación: esa hoja combinaba presentación visual sencilla con lemas latinos y buscaba igualmente agradar a todos; el tramo se corta ante el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 138»

«argue that the nobility and clergy did not listen to folksongs or read chapbooks in the same way or for the same reasons as craftsmen and peasants. ‘Participation’ is an imprecise term: it is easier to see how nobles could take part in a festival than in a belief system.»recoge la segunda objeción posible a su tesis de la participación: que nobles y clérigos no oían canciones ni leían pliegos del mismo modo ni por las mismas razones que artesanos y campesinos, y concede que *participación* es término impreciso, más fácil de ver en una fiesta que en un sistema de creencias

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 139»

«When members of the elite read chapbooks, they might have been taking an interest in folklore, just like some intellectuals today, an interpretation that becomes more likely in the case of the eighteenth century.»y la lectura alternativa que admite: cuando los de la élite leían pliegos podían estar interesándose por el folclore, como algunos intelectuales de hoy, cosa más probable en el siglo XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 139»

«For the earlier part of the period, on the other hand, it is necessary to remember that many of the nobles and the clergy could not read and write, or could do so only with difficulty, just like the peasants.»y el dato que la acota para la primera parte del periodo: muchos nobles y clérigos no sabían leer y escribir, o lo hacían con dificultad, igual que los campesinos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 139»

«Most noblewomen were also outside, since it was rare for them to have much formal education. Perhaps one should see noblewomen as mediators between the group to which they belonged socially, the elite, and the group to which they belonged culturally, the non-elite; as we saw, several of the visböker were compiled by noblewomen.»y coloca a las nobles en el mismo sitio: rara vez tenían mucha educación formal, y propone verlas como mediadoras entre el grupo al que pertenecían socialmente, la élite, y aquel al que pertenecían culturalmente, la no élite; el troceo escribe aquí *visböker*, frente al *visböcker* de la plana 136

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 140»

«Educated noblemen maintained their contact with popular culture through their mothers, sisters, wives, and daughters, and they would in many cases have been brought up by peasant nurses who sang them ballads and told them folktales.»y el mecanismo que propone: los nobles educados mantenían el contacto con la cultura popular por sus madres, hermanas, esposas e hijas, y en muchos casos los habían criado nodrizas campesinas que les cantaban baladas y les contaban cuentos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 140»

«Redfield's model therefore needs to be modified, and it might be restated like this. There were two cultural traditions in early modern Europe, but they did not correspond symmetrically to the two main social groups, the elite and the common people.»y enmienda el modelo de Redfield: había dos tradiciones culturales en la Europa moderna temprana, y no se correspondían simétricamente con los dos grupos sociales principales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 140»

«The elite participated in the little tradition but the common people did not participate in the great tradition.»y enuncia la asimetría que es su tesis: la élite participaba de la pequeña tradición, y la gente común no participaba de la gran tradición

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 140»

«This asymmetry came about because the two traditions were transmitted in different ways. The great tradition was transmitted formally at grammar schools and at universities.»y su causa: las dos tradiciones se transmitían de modos distintos, y la grande se transmitía formalmente en las escuelas de gramática y las universidades

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 140»

«It was a closed tradition in the sense that people who had not attended these institutions were excluded. In a quite literal sense, they did not speak the language, in this case Latin.»y qué la cerraba: quien no había pasado por esas instituciones quedaba excluido, y en sentido literal no hablaba la lengua, que era el latín

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 140»

«The little tradition, on the other hand, was transmitted informally. It was open to all, like the church, the tavern and the marketplace, where so many of the performances occurred. In that sense we may speak of a ‘common culture’.»y la pequeña, al revés: se transmitía informalmente y estaba abierta a todos, como la iglesia, la taberna y el mercado, donde ocurrían tantas de las ejecuciones; en ese sentido cabe hablar de una *cultura común*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 140»

«The crucial cultural difference in early modern Europe (so I want to argue) was that between the majority, for whom popular culture was the only culture, and the minority, who had access to the great tradition but participated»y la diferencia cultural que declara decisiva: entre la mayoría, para quien la cultura popular era la única cultura, y la minoría con acceso a la gran tradición; el tramo se corta en el salto de renglón y sigue *in the little tradition as a second culture*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 140»

«the elite spoke or wrote Latin or a literary form of the vernacular, while remaining able to speak in dialect as a second or third language.»y en qué consistía: la élite hablaba o escribía latín o una forma literaria de la lengua vulgar, sin dejar de poder hablar en dialecto como segunda o tercera lengua

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 141»

«For the elite, but for them only, the two traditions had different psychological functions; the great tradition was serious, the little tradition was play.»y la asimetría psicológica: solo para la élite las dos tradiciones tenían funciones distintas, con la grande por cosa seria y la pequeña por juego

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 141»

«This situation did not remain static throughout the period. The upper classes gradually withdrew from participation in the little tradition in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries»y anuncia el movimiento que el libro va a seguir: las clases altas se retiraron gradualmente de la pequeña tradición a lo largo de los siglos XVII y XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 141»

«What needs to be discussed now is the claim that the binary model of elite and popular cultures fails to distinguish different cultures within the ‘people’. To do this is the principal aim of what follows.»y el fin del resto del capítulo: atender la objeción de que el modelo binario no distingue culturas distintas dentro del *pueblo*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 141»

«The style of life of some rural nobles and parish priests was not so different»y la consecuencia del analfabetismo nobiliario: el modo de vida de algunos nobles rurales y párrocos no era tan distinto; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 139»

«from that of the peasants around them, more or less outside the great tradition.»continuación: no era tan distinto del de los campesinos de alrededor, más o menos fuera de la gran tradición

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 140»

«The minority was, we might say, ‘amphibious’. It was bicultural as well as bilingual.»y el nombre que le da a la minoría: *anfibia*, bicultural además de bilingüe

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 140»

«Speaking of the ‘little tradition’ in the singular suggests that it was relatively homogeneous, which was far from being the case in early modern Europe.»abre el apartado de las variedades enmendando su propio singular: hablar de *la pequeña tradición* sugiere homogeneidad, lejos de ser el caso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 141»

«The subculture is a system of shared meanings but the individuals who participate in it also share the meanings of the culture at large. This point is also true of a ‘contraculture’, in which individuals define themselves against a dominant culture in which, whether they admit this or not, they continue to participate.»y lo afina: la subcultura es un sistema de significados compartidos y quienes participan de ella comparten también los significados de la cultura mayor, cosa que vale igual para una *contracultura*, donde el individuo se define contra una cultura dominante de la que sigue participando

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 142»

«Much of what we call ‘popular culture’, especially its festive forms, turns out to have been the subculture of the most visible of the people, the young adult males (let us call them the YAMs).»y da un hallazgo del capítulo: mucho de lo que llamamos cultura popular, sobre todo en sus formas festivas, resulta ser la subcultura de los más visibles del pueblo, los varones adultos jóvenes, a los que abrevia YAMs

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 142»

«These YAMs represented the whole people no better than the WASPs (White Anglo-Saxon Protestants) represent the United States.»y mide esa representatividad: los YAMs representaban al pueblo entero no mejor de lo que los WASP representan a Estados Unidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 142»

«For the discoverers of popular culture, the ‘people’ were the peasants. The peasants formed between 80 per cent and 90 per cent of the population of Europe.»y vuelve a los descubridores: para ellos el *pueblo* eran los campesinos, que formaban entre el ochenta y el noventa por ciento de la población de Europa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 142»

«It was their songs that Herder and his friends called ‘folksongs’, their dances which were called ‘folkdances’, and their stories which were known»y por ellos se nombró todo: sus canciones fueron las *folksongs* de Herder y sus amigos, sus danzas las *folkdances* y sus relatos los *folktales*; el tramo se corta en el salto de renglón del troceo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 142»

«It would of course be dangerous to apply this statement without more ado to the period before 1800 and to the whole of Europe. Kodály was writing of a peasant society so conscious of social distinctions that married men and bachelors, for example, sat not only in different parts of the church but also at separate tables in the inn.»y acota el uso de esa cita: sería peligroso aplicarla sin más al periodo anterior a 1800 y a toda Europa, porque Kodály escribía de una sociedad campesina tan consciente de las distinciones sociales que casados y solteros se sentaban en partes distintas de la iglesia y en mesas separadas en la posada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 142»

«However, there are reasons for thinking that his point was generally valid for early modern Europe.»y aun así la hace suya: hay razones para pensar que su observación valía en general para la Europa moderna temprana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 142»

«Culture grows out of a total way of life, and the peasants of early modern Europe did not have a uniform way of life.»y da su argumento: la cultura nace de un modo de vida total, y los campesinos de la Europa moderna temprana no tenían un modo de vida uniforme

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 142»

«They were not socially homogeneous. Some were freemen, others were serfs – in the whole vast area of Europe east of the river Elbe, the peasants were generally made into serfs in the course of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.»y la del estatuto: unos eran libres y otros siervos, y en toda la vasta zona al este del Elba los campesinos fueron convertidos en siervos a lo largo del siglo XVI y principios del XVII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 143»

«In many parts of Europe this distinction between the rich peasant, who owned his land and employed others to help him work it, and the farm labourer ‘with no land to live on but his hands’ was a sharp one. This aspect of the traditional ‘organic community’, so often idealized by urban intellectuals, must not be forgotten.»y la consecuencia que no quiere que se olvide: esa distinción entre el campesino rico que poseía su tierra y el jornalero sin más tierra de que vivir que sus manos era tajante, y es un aspecto de la *comunidad orgánica* tradicional tan idealizada por los intelectuales urbanos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 143»

«Where the majority of people spoke»abre el contraste lingüístico entre mayoría y élite; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *their regional dialect and nothing else*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 140»

«For this reason, it may be useful to employ the sociological term ‘subculture’, implying that the distinctive songs, stories, and rituals of the social groups discussed in the following pages are partly but not wholly autonomous, distinct from but not»propone el término sociológico *subcultura* para las canciones, relatos y ritos distintivos de cada grupo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *severed from the surrounding popular culture*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 141»

«Some lived in villages, as in England; some in»con la variedad del hábitat: unos vivían en aldeas, como en Inglaterra, y otros en pueblos, como en el sur de Italia; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *isolated homesteads, as in Norway*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 142»

«It is less easy to say whether there was cultural as well as social stratification within the peasantry. Here as elsewhere in this chapter, we are approaching systems of shared meanings through a small number of outward signs or indicators, and it is easy to read these signs amiss.»y declara el límite de su propia evidencia: es menos fácil decir si había estratificación cultural además de social dentro del campesinado, porque se llega a los sistemas de significados compartidos por un puñado de signos externos y es fácil leerlos mal

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 143»

«The richer peasants were more likely to be literate than their poorer colleagues because they could afford the time to learn to read and write, and they were more likely to own chapbooks.»y da los indicadores: los campesinos más ricos tenían más probabilidad de saber leer, porque podían permitirse el tiempo de aprender, y de poseer pliegos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 143»

«They were also more likely to possess painted plates and jugs, embroidered pillows and hangings, and elaborately carved oxyokes or marriage chests, obvious symbols of wealth and status in the village as well as embodiments of popular culture.»y los objetos: platos y jarras pintados, almohadas y colgaduras bordadas, yugos y arcones de boda tallados, símbolos evidentes de riqueza y estatus en la aldea además de encarnaciones de la cultura popular; el impreso parte *ox-yokes* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *oxyokes*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 143»

«It has been suggested, plausibly enough, that what we call ‘folk art’ or ‘peasant art’ is really the art created for a peasant aristocracy.»y recoge la sugerencia, que le parece plausible, de que lo que llamamos arte popular o campesino es en realidad el arte creado para una aristocracia campesina

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 143»

«To say that the poorer peasants were culturally deprived is not to say that they had an alternative culture; they may have aspired to that of the peasant aristocrats.»y pone el límite: decir que los campesinos más pobres estaban privados culturalmente no es decir que tuvieran una cultura alternativa, porque pueden haber aspirado a la de los aristócratas campesinos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 143»

«many traditional folksongs are appropriate only for one social group, like the Scandinavian drängvisor, or farm hands’ song, and the pigvisor, the laments of ill-treated maidservants.»con la prueba: muchas canciones tradicionales solo convienen a un grupo social, como los *drängvisor* escandinavos, canciones de mozos de labranza, y los *pigvisor*, lamentos de criadas maltratadas; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«If culture grows out of a total way of life, one might expect peasant culture to vary according to ecological differences as well as social ones.»y pasa de lo social a lo ecológico: si la cultura nace de un modo de vida total, cabe esperar que la campesina varíe según diferencias ecológicas además de sociales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«Differences in physical environment involve differences in material culture and encourage differences in attitudes as well.»con la razón: las diferencias de entorno físico traen diferencias de cultura material y alientan también diferencias de actitudes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«The most obvious illustration of this point is surely the contrast between the culture of the mountains and the culture of the plains.»y la ilustración más obvia: el contraste entre la cultura de las montañas y la de las llanuras

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«Dr Johnson's ideas, if not his moral judgements, have been elaborated and reinforced by a variety of scholars.»y toma distancia de los juicios sin soltar el argumento: las ideas de Johnson, no sus juicios morales, las han elaborado y reforzado diversos estudiosos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«Leaping dances seem to be associated with mountainous regions, in the Basque country, in Norway and in the highlands of Bavaria, Poland, and Scotland, probably because this was an old form of dance which did not survive in the plains.»y otro rasgo: las danzas de salto parecen asociadas a las regiones montañosas —el País Vasco, Noruega, las tierras altas de Baviera, Polonia y Escocia—, probablemente por ser forma antigua que no sobrevivió en las llanuras

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 145»

«The witch-hunts of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries seem to have been particularly intense in mountainous areas such as the Alps and the Pyrenees, not, as scholars used to think, because mountain air encourages fantasies, but, rather more plausibly, because of the hostility of the hunters (usually lowlanders) to highlanders and their lack of understanding of highland cultures.»y el rasgo que más importa aquí, con su explicación disputada: las cazas de brujas de los siglos XVI y XVII parecen haber sido especialmente intensas en zonas montañosas como los Alpes y los Pirineos, no —como se creía— porque el aire de montaña aliente fantasías, sino, a su juicio más plausiblemente, por la hostilidad de los cazadores, por lo común de tierras bajas, hacia los montañeses y su falta de comprensión de las culturas de altura

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 145»

«More surprising, at least at first glance, is the fact that at the end of the period some mountainous regions were areas of high literacy. Norway and Sweden offer obvious examples, while in France the present department of the Hautes-Alpes had a literacy rate of 45 per cent in the late seventeenth century, more than twice the national average.»y el dato que le sorprende: al final del periodo algunas regiones montañosas eran zonas de alta alfabetización, como Noruega y Suecia, y el actual departamento francés de los Altos Alpes tenía un cuarenta y cinco por ciento a fines del XVII, más del doble de la media nacional

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 145»

«Highland zones are the obvious refuge for bandits and other fugitives who ‘take to the hills’, and these zones remained the home»y la función de refugio: las zonas altas son refugio obvio de bandidos y otros fugitivos que se echan al monte; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *of traditional ‘heroic poetry’, extolling their exploits*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«Highland zones were usually pastoral zones but not all lowland zones were arable – the obvious exception at this time was the Great Hungarian Plain.»matiza el mapa: las zonas altas solían ser pastoriles, y no todas las bajas eran de labranza, con la Gran Llanura Húngara por excepción obvia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 145»

«Overlapping with the contrast between lowlanders and highlanders was another important division, between farmers and herdsmen – swineherds, goatherds, cowherds (in Spain the vaqueros, the original ‘cowboys’), and above all, shepherds.»y superpone otra división a la de altura: entre labradores y pastores —porquerizos, cabreros, vaqueros, los *vaqueros* españoles que fueron los primeros *cowboys*, y sobre todo pastores de ovejas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 145»

«Shepherd culture was so distinctive that it deserves to be described in some detail.34 Its distinctiveness was symbolized by special clothes, such as the smock.»declara la cultura de los pastores tan distintiva que merece descripción detallada, simbolizada en ropa especial como el blusón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 145»

«In Spain, for example, the flocks spent the summer in the highlands around Soria, Segovia, Cuenca, and León but wintered in the southern plains.»con el caso español: los rebaños pasaban el verano en las tierras altas de Soria, Segovia, Cuenca y León e invernaban en las llanuras del sur

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«Shepherds were also free. In Poland, where the peasants were mainly serfs, a serf shepherd was a rare exception.»y la contrapartida: los pastores eran libres, y en Polonia, con campesinado mayormente siervo, un pastor siervo era excepción rara

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 146»

«Shepherds lived far away from interference by clergy, nobles, and officials. No wonder their way of life was idealized in pastoral poetry.»y por qué: vivían lejos de la injerencia de clérigos, nobles y funcionarios, de ahí que la poesía pastoril idealizara su modo de vida

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 146»

«They had time on their hands which they could spend carving crooks, walking-sticks, and powder-horns.»y qué hacían con el tiempo: tallar cayados, bastones y cuernos de pólvora

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 146»

«They could make their own music, playing the bagpipe, made out of the skin of a sheep or goat and popular wherever herdsmen were numerous, from the Scottish Highlands to the Great Hungarian Plain, or they would play the flute, slowly and sadly when the sheep were lost, and gaily when they were found again.»y su música: la gaita hecha de piel de oveja o cabra, popular dondequiera abundaran los pastores, de las Tierras Altas escocesas a la Gran Llanura Húngara, o la flauta, tocada lenta y tristemente cuando se perdían las ovejas y alegremente cuando aparecían

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«Shepherds were often credited with magical powers; with the ability to heal animals and humans; and with knowledge of the stars, which they were well placed to observe (hence the title of a well-known book about astronomy and astrology, the Calendrier des Bergers).»y el rasgo que más importa aquí: a los pastores se les atribuían a menudo poderes mágicos, la capacidad de curar animales y humanos y el conocimiento de los astros, que estaban bien situados para observar, de donde el título de un libro conocido sobre astronomía y astrología, el *Calendrier des Bergers*

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«Neither their knowledge nor their ignorance corresponded with that of the farmers.»y la asimetría del saber: ni el conocimiento ni la ignorancia de los pastores se correspondían con los del labrador; el troceo imprime la frase en columna de una palabra por renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 146»

«To compensate for their lonely working life, shepherds developed an elaborate set of festivities, at least in central Europe. They had their own guilds and fraternities.»y su vida festiva: para compensar la soledad del trabajo desarrollaron un conjunto elaborado de festividades, al menos en Europa central, con gremios y cofradías propios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 146»

«They were often rejected by the rest of society, as men without fixed abode often are. Farmers often accused them of being lazy and dishonest.»y el rechazo: se los rechazaba como a los hombres sin domicilio fijo, y los labradores los acusaban de perezosos y deshonestos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 147»

«Many German guilds regarded the sons of shepherds as unehrlich, ‘without honour’, and so ineligible for membership.»y su consecuencia gremial: muchos gremios alemanes tenían a los hijos de pastores por *unehrlich*, sin honra, y por tanto inelegibles; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 147»

«They had their own saints like St Wendelin (supposedly a king's son turned shepherd), St Wolfgang, and St Bartholomew,»y sus santos propios: san Wendelín, supuestamente hijo de rey vuelto pastor, san Wolfgang y san Bartolomé; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la fiesta del 24 de agosto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 146»

«whose festival on 24 August marked the transition from summer to winter quarters.»continuación: la fiesta de san Bartolomé marcaba el paso de los cuarteles de verano a los de invierno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 147»

«Some important groups of country people were neither farmers nor herdsmen. To what extent their attitudes and values were distinctive is difficult to say.»pasa a los grupos rurales que no eran ni labradores ni pastores, y declara difícil decir hasta qué punto sus actitudes eran distintivas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 147»

«One such group was composed of village craftsmen, such as blacksmiths, carpenters, or weavers (full-time or part-time), whom we may imagine as culturally midway between other villagers who were not craftsmen and other craftsmen who were not villagers.»el primero: los artesanos de aldea —herreros, carpinteros, tejedores—, a quienes imagina culturalmente a medio camino entre los aldeanos que no eran artesanos y los artesanos que no eran aldeanos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 147»

«A second group of this kind was composed of woodlanders, in particular woodcutters and charcoal-burners, who might live in the woods for weeks at a time. They are an obscure group, cut off from village culture like the shepherds but apparently (unlike modern lumberjacks) without an alternative culture of their own.»el segundo: los del bosque, leñadores y carboneros, que podían vivir semanas en la espesura y son grupo oscuro, cortado de la cultura de aldea como los pastores y al parecer sin cultura alternativa propia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 147»

«Axes were sacred as well as utilitarian objects for the Russians as for the Serbs, symbols of protection. Trees had an important function in Russian rituals – firs at Christmas, birches in Trinity week.»y su carga simbólica: para rusos y serbios el hacha era objeto sagrado además de utilitario, símbolo de protección, y los árboles tenían función importante en los ritos rusos, abetos en Navidad y abedules en la semana de la Trinidad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 148»

«A third group comprises Cossacks, and others like them, such as the hajduks of Central Europe, who were not exactly peasants, or soldiers, or even robbers, but something of all three.»el tercer grupo: cosacos y semejantes, como los *hajduks* de Europa central, que no eran exactamente campesinos, ni soldados, ni siquiera bandidos, sino algo de los tres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 148»

«They were proud of their status and often despised their peasant neighbours. Their values were distinctively democratic and egalitarian – the Cossacks, for example, elected their leaders or atamans.»y sus valores: orgullosos de su estatus, despreciaban a menudo a sus vecinos campesinos, y eran democráticos e igualitarios, con cosacos que elegían a sus jefes o *atamanes*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 148»

«Cossack and other bandit heroes have often found their way into the popular culture of Central and Eastern Europe, though this need not mean that the bandits were always popular among the peasants in their own day.»y la reserva que pone: los héroes bandidos han entrado a menudo en la cultura popular de Europa central y oriental, lo que no significa que los bandidos fueran siempre populares entre los campesinos de su tiempo

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«A fourth group is composed of miners. No doubt the danger of their work, the precious metals they discovered, the difference between their work and ‘normal’ work and the concentration of miners in a few regions all helped create pride and self-awareness.»el cuarto grupo, los mineros: el peligro del trabajo, los metales preciosos que hallaban, la diferencia con el trabajo *normal* y su concentración en pocas regiones ayudaron a crear orgullo y conciencia de sí; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«The miners had their own patron saints, such as St Anne (because of the hidden treasure she carried within her), St Barbara (because she fled to the mountains), and the prophet Daniel (because of his association with the ages of gold and silver).»y sus santos con su razón: santa Ana por el tesoro escondido que llevaba dentro, santa Bárbara por haber huido a las montañas y el profeta Daniel por su asociación con las edades de oro y plata

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 149»

«Their clothes were distinctive, in particular their hoods. They had their own chapels, their own plays, and their own songs, the Bergreihen or Bergmannslieder, and collections of these songs were published in the sixteenth century.»y su cultura propia: ropa distintiva, en particular la capucha, capillas propias, piezas propias y canciones propias, los *Bergreihen* o *Bergmannslieder*, de los que se publicaron colecciones en el siglo XVI

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 149»

«Miners also had their own legends, about the spirits of the mines (the Berggeist, the Bergmönch, and the Bergmännlein or dwarf), who guarded the treasure and needed to be appeased by offerings.»y sus leyendas, que son lo que más importa aquí: sobre los espíritus de la mina —el *Berggeist*, el *Bergmönch* y el *Bergmännlein* o enano—, que guardaban el tesoro y había que aplacar con ofrendas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 149»

«Legends of this kind, dealing with the discovery of treasure by supernatural help, could be found not only in Germany but in mining areas all over Europe, from Cornwall to the Urals.»y su extensión: leyendas así, sobre el hallazgo de tesoros con ayuda sobrenatural, se encontraban no solo en Alemania sino en todas las zonas mineras de Europa, de Cornualles a los Urales

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«Sometimes (as in the case of the cagots of south-west France) they were treated»y su estatuto en algunos sitios: como los *cagots* del suroeste de Francia, se los trataba de cierto modo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *as outcasts, pursued as sorcerers or associated with leprosy*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 147»

«Rural popular culture, then, was far from monolithic. It may be contrasted all the same with the popular culture of the towns.»cierra el campo y abre la ciudad: la cultura popular rural distaba de ser monolítica, y aun así puede contrastarse con la de las ciudades

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 150»

«In towns, festivals could take place on a much grander scale.»con la primera diferencia: en las ciudades las fiestas podían darse a escala mucho mayor; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 150»

«Still more important, every day was a semi-festival, in the sense that professional entertainment was permanently available to anyone with the means and the leisure to attend.»y la segunda, que le parece más importante: cada día era una semifiesta, porque el entretenimiento profesional estaba permanentemente disponible para quien tuviera medios y ocio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 150»

«In large towns, at least, ballad-singers and clowns were performing every day, whereas villagers would see and hear them only once in a while.»con la comparación que la mide: en las ciudades grandes los cantores de baladas y los bufones actuaban a diario, mientras los aldeanos los veían de tarde en tarde

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 150»

«Towns housed ethnic minorities who often lived together and shared a culture from which outsiders were excluded. The Jews in their ghettoes are the most obvious example, but there were also the Moors in the towns of southern Spain, the Greeks and Slavs in Venice, and many smaller groups, especially in ports.»y la tercera diferencia: las ciudades albergaban minorías étnicas que vivían juntas y compartían una cultura de la que los de fuera quedaban excluidos —los judíos en sus guetos, los moros en las ciudades del sur de España, griegos y eslavos en Venecia y muchos grupos menores, sobre todo en los puertos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 150»

«Given the lack of precise boundaries in the domain of culture, it might be more exact to say that urban cultures formed part of a continuum between high and low, appropriating elements from both.»y la suya: a falta de fronteras precisas en el dominio de la cultura, sería más exacto decir que las culturas urbanas formaban parte de un continuo entre lo alto y lo bajo, apropiándose elementos de ambos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 151»

«Speaking of ‘three cultures’ encourages us to see them as distinct, whereas a ‘two-tier’ model allows us to place particular individuals or groups at different points on a spectrum ranging from high to low.»y la razón de su preferencia: hablar de *tres culturas* invita a verlas como distintas, mientras un modelo de dos niveles permite situar a individuos o grupos concretos en puntos distintos de un espectro de lo alto a lo bajo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 151»

«The guild system helped give craftsmen and shopkeepers a common culture, different from that of the peasants. Guilds had their own patron saints, their own traditions and their own rituals, and they organized the leisure as well as the working lives of their members.»y el papel del gremio: dio a artesanos y tenderos una cultura común distinta de la campesina, con santos patronos, tradiciones y ritos propios, y con la organización del ocio además del trabajo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 151»

«Guilds were particular about whom they admitted, and not only the sons of shepherds but the sons of beggars, hangmen, gravediggers, or minstrels might be excluded because they were not ‘honourable people’.»y el cierre gremial: los gremios eran particulares sobre a quién admitían, y no solo los hijos de pastores sino los de mendigos, verdugos, sepultureros o juglares podían quedar excluidos por no ser *gente honorable*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 152»

«Literacy helped to separate urban from rural culture. Townsmen had a much better chance of learning to read and write than»y la cuarta diferencia entre campo y ciudad: la alfabetización, porque el habitante de la ciudad tenía muchas más posibilidades de aprender a leer y escribir; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *peasants had, since they had more access to schoolmasters*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 150»

«The international genre of the occupational song (Ambachtslied, Yrkevisa) both expressed and encouraged a sense of difference between one kind of worker and everyone else.»abre las culturas de oficio: el género internacional de la canción de oficio expresaba y alentaba el sentido de diferencia entre un tipo de trabajador y todos los demás; el tramo cruza el salto de renglón del troceo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 152»

«Every craft had its own culture in the sense of its own skills, handed down from generation to generation, and some crafts, at least, seem to have had a culture of their own in a wider and a fuller sense.»y matiza: todo oficio tenía su cultura en el sentido de sus destrezas transmitidas de generación en generación, y algunos oficios al menos parecen haber tenido cultura propia en sentido más amplio y pleno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 152»

«The documentation for these cultures is a mixture of what members of the craft said about themselves and what others said about them. If it is not altogether reliable, this evidence is at least suggestive.»y declara la calidad de su evidencia: la documentación de esas culturas mezcla lo que los miembros del oficio decían de sí con lo que otros decían de ellos, y si no es del todo fiable al menos es sugestiva

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 152»

«To it might be added occupational costume, which encouraged a sense of collective identity. In England, for instance, carpenters tended to wear leather aprons and carry a ruler. A tailor, on the other hand, would be fashionably dressed, with a needle and thread stuck in his coat.»y añade el traje de oficio, que alentaba el sentido de identidad colectiva: en Inglaterra los carpinteros solían llevar mandil de cuero y regla, y el sastre iba a la moda con aguja e hilo clavados en la casaca

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 152»

«The culture of stonemasons is well known, thanks to the rise of the ‘speculative’ freemasons, who drew on these traditions when they began to found their own lodges in the eighteenth century.»y el caso que más importa aquí: la cultura de los canteros se conoce bien gracias al auge de los masones *especulativos*, que echaron mano de esas tradiciones al fundar sus propias logias en el siglo XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 152»

«Masons had their patron saints, notably the ‘Quatuor Coronati’ (four Roman stoneworkers who became early Christian martyrs).»y sus santos: los *Quatuor Coronati*, cuatro canteros romanos vueltos mártires cristianos tempranos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 152»

«They initiated new members with terrifying rituals, swore them to secrecy and taught them secret signs to know one another.»y sus ritos: iniciaban a los miembros nuevos con rituales aterradores, los juramentaban a guardar secreto y les enseñaban señas secretas para reconocerse

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 152»

«Masons also had a jargon of their own, recorded in the nineteenth century but probably existing long before that time.»y su jerga: los masones tenían jerga propia, registrada en el siglo XIX y probablemente existente mucho antes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 152»

«Weavers were another group with a separate or semi-separate culture. They included some relatively proud and prosperous workers in expensive materials such as silk. They were numerous, and indeed they dominated certain towns, such as Norwich, Lyons, and Segovia.»pasa a los tejedores: grupo con cultura separada o semiseparada, que incluía trabajadores prósperos de materiales caros como la seda y que dominaba ciudades como Norwich, Lyon y Segovia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 153»

«They were able to read while working, propping the book on the loom. In eighteenth-century Lyons, nearly three-quarters of the silk-workers were literate.»y el rasgo que lo explica: podían leer mientras trabajaban, apoyando el libro en el telar, y en el Lyon del XVIII casi tres cuartas partes de los sederos sabían leer

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 153»

«Even more telling evidence for the existence of a weaver culture comes from their work songs, sung to the rhythm of the loom.»y la evidencia que le parece más elocuente: las canciones de trabajo de los tejedores, cantadas al ritmo del telar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 154»

«Many of them were recorded in the nineteenth century, from Lancashire to Silesia, at a time when handloom-weaving was in decline. They are likely to date from the eighteenth century, if not before, and they suggest that weaver culture had an international stamp.»y su alcance: se registraron muchas en el siglo XIX, de Lancashire a Silesia, cuando el telar de mano declinaba, y probablemente datan del XVIII si no antes, lo que sugiere que la cultura tejedora tenía sello internacional

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 154»

«A good case might also be made for the existence of a shoemakerculture, since shoemakers were another self-conscious and literate group. Sixty-eight per cent of the shoemakers in eighteenth-century Lyons could sign their names, a figure that places them not far behind the weavers.»pasa a los zapateros: grupo igualmente consciente de sí y alfabetizado, con un sesenta y ocho por ciento de los de Lyon en el XVIII capaces de firmar, no lejos de los tejedores; el troceo parte *shoemaker-culture* en el salto de renglón y la extracción lo devuelve pegado, *shoemakerculture*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 154»

«In these stories, shoemakers become saints, while the sons of kings do not disdain to practise the ‘gentle’ (that is noble), craft.»y lo que esos relatos hacen: los zapateros se vuelven santos mientras los hijos de reyes no desdeñan practicar el oficio *gentil*, es decir noble

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 154»

«Members of the ‘gentle craft’, as shoemaking was known, were also credited with specific attitudes. The shoemaker-philosopher stereotype goes back at least as far as the writer Lucian in the»y el estereotipo que les tocaba: a los del *oficio gentil* se les atribuían actitudes específicas, y el estereotipo del zapatero filósofo se remonta al menos al escritor Luciano; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *second century AD*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 154»

«It is not difficult to find examples from early modern Europe of shoemakers who did not stick to their last. Jakob Boehme of Görlitz in Lusatia is no doubt the most famous heterodox shoemaker of the period, along with the Portuguese Gonçalo Anes Bandarra, whose prophecies were taken seriously for centuries, despite his arrest by the Inquisition and his abjuration of his errors.»y los ejemplos que le importan: Jakob Boehme de Görlitz en Lusacia es sin duda el zapatero heterodoxo más famoso del periodo, junto al portugués Gonçalo Anes Bandarra, cuyas profecías se tomaron en serio durante siglos pese a su arresto por la Inquisición y a su abjuración

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 155»

«The ideas of the last three individuals may be linked to their background as ‘new Christians’, the descendants of Jews, but the heterodoxy of other shoemakers cannot be explained in this»y la explicación que ofrece y acota: las ideas de esos tres pueden ligarse a su condición de *cristianos nuevos*, descendientes de judíos, y la heterodoxia de otros zapateros no se explica así; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 155»

«What have shoes to do with heresy and revolution? This sedentary occupation offered leisure for reflecting on life. It might be described as the urban equivalent of»y la explicación que propone, en forma de pregunta: qué tienen que ver los zapatos con la herejía y la revolución, y responde que ese oficio sedentario ofrecía ocio para reflexionar sobre la vida; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *herding sheep*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 155»

«One could go on through the roster of guilds in this way, and that would still not exhaust the complexities of artisan culture. The guilds were dominated by the masters of the crafts but the journeymen and apprentices also had their organizations and traditions.»y abre el nivel siguiente: se podría seguir así por la lista de gremios sin agotar las complejidades de la cultura artesana, porque los gremios los dominaban los maestros y los oficiales y aprendices tenían también organizaciones y tradiciones propias

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 156»

«From the cultural historian's point of view, it is more relevant to say that they were secret societies with initiation rites and myths about their founders, forming a ‘closed culture’ in parallel to popular culture.»y la suya propia: desde la historia cultural importa más decir que eran sociedades secretas con ritos de iniciación y mitos sobre sus fundadores, que formaban una *cultura cerrada* paralela a la popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 156»

«Several German journeymen's songs from this period have survived. They include examples of an international genre, which the Swedes call Veckodagsvisa, describing the work that was not done each day of the week.»y las canciones de los oficiales alemanes conservadas, entre ellas ejemplares de un género internacional que los suecos llaman *Veckodagsvisa*, que describe el trabajo que no se hacía cada día de la semana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 156»

«At last we reach the apprentices. There is evidence that they sometimes operated as a self-conscious group, if not as a formally organized one.»y el último escalón: hay evidencia de que los aprendices actuaban a veces como grupo consciente de sí, si no formalmente organizado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 157»

«In London they were said to be more prone to playgoing and to rioting – at the shout of ‘clubs’ – than older craftsmen were.»con el dicho londinense: se los tenía por más dados al teatro y al motín —al grito de *clubs*— que los artesanos mayores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 157»

«Given the literacy of French craftsmen and the popularity of chapbook romances of chivalry on the other side of the Channel; it is rather curious that equivalent stories seem to be lacking in France.»y la negativa que consigna como dato: dada la alfabetización de los artesanos franceses y la popularidad de las novelas de caballerías en pliego al otro lado del Canal, resulta curioso que parezcan faltar allí historias equivalentes; el troceo imprime punto y coma donde la sintaxis pide coma

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 157»

«In England, at any rate, we may speak of ‘apprentice culture’ as an early form of youth culture.»y la conclusión: en Inglaterra al menos cabe hablar de *cultura del aprendiz* como forma temprana de cultura juvenil

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 157»

«A number of the groups discussed earlier were frequently on the move. In Germany the migrations of the journeymen, which were compulsory and lasted three to four years, are particularly well»abre el apartado de los errantes: varios de los grupos ya discutidos estaban a menudo en movimiento, y en Alemania las migraciones de los oficiales, obligatorias y de tres a cuatro años, están especialmente bien documentadas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 157»

«Important for French journeymen was the tour de France, the convention that they should in fact ‘journey’ or work their way round the country along more or less fixed routes, knowing that they would find a welcome among colleagues of their craft wherever they found them.»y la costumbre francesa: el *tour de France*, la convención de recorrer el país trabajando por rutas más o menos fijas, sabiendo que hallarían acogida entre colegas de su oficio dondequiera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 158»

«This custom must surely have encouraged a national journeyman culture. With the journeymen we should perhaps include the masons, even the masters of their craft. Because the masons moved from job to job, their unit of organization was not the town guild but the ‘lodge’, the workshop on the building site.»y su efecto, con los albañiles incluidos: esa costumbre debió de alentar una cultura nacional de oficiales, y como los canteros se movían de obra en obra su unidad de organización no era el gremio urbano sino la *logia*, el taller a pie de obra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 158»

«Other itinerant groups included soldiers and sailors. In the first half of the period, the soldiers of early modern Europe were an international group of mercenaries who took to the roads in winter, when the campaigning season was at an end, and also between wars.»y otros errantes: soldados y marineros, y en la primera mitad del periodo los soldados eran un grupo internacional de mercenarios que se echaban a los caminos en invierno, cuando acababa la temporada de campaña, y entre guerras

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 158»

«After 1650, mercenary armies were gradually replaced by national armies, including conscripts as well as volunteers, and the soldiers were confined to barracks when they were not on campaign.»y el cambio: después de 1650 los ejércitos mercenarios fueron reemplazándose por ejércitos nacionales, con reclutas además de voluntarios, y los soldados quedaron confinados en cuarteles fuera de campaña; el tramo cruza el salto de renglón del troceo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 158»

«Distinctive in dress, hated, feared – and sometimes admired – by civilians, it is easy to see why popular images of soldiers proliferated in some parts of Europe and why soldiers sang their own songs.»y su huella cultural: distintos en el vestir, odiados, temidos y a veces admirados por los civiles, se entiende que las imágenes populares de soldados proliferaran en algunas partes de Europa y que los soldados cantaran sus propias canciones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 158»

«The wanderings of seventeenth-century Polish journeymen took them to Bohemia,»y el itinerario de los oficiales polacos del XVII, que empieza en Bohemia; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *Germany, and Hungary*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 157»

«It is scarcely surprising to find that soldiers bonded with one another and felt separate from the world of civilians (‘civvy street’, as professional soldiers called it in the Britain of the 1950s). Early modern soldiers had their own slang.»y su consecuencia: los soldados se unían entre sí y se sentían separados del mundo civil, y los de la época moderna temprana tenían jerga propia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 159»

«They had their own songs to sing on the march or in camp: songs of battle, songs of farewell, recruiting songs, (like the eighteenth-century verbunkos in the Habsburg Empire), songs of demobilization, songs expressing pride in the soldiers’ occupation and also songs expressing disillusionment with it, complaints that formed part of a culture of contestation.»y su repertorio: canciones de marcha y de campamento, de batalla, de despedida, de recluta —como los *verbunkos* del XVIII en el imperio de los Habsburgo—, de licenciamiento, de orgullo del oficio y también de desengaño, quejas que formaban parte de una cultura de contestación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 159»

«Like that of miners and sailors, soldiers’ culture was a culture of men without women (more or less).»y el rasgo que comparte con mineros y marineros: la del soldado era una cultura de hombres sin mujeres, más o menos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 159»

«The culture or subculture of sailors was even more distinctive than that of soldiers, no doubt because crews were even more isolated from ordinary life than regiments were, while many crews were composed of individuals from different countries.»pasa a los marineros, aún más distintivos que los soldados, porque las tripulaciones estaban más aisladas de la vida ordinaria que los regimientos y muchas se componían de individuos de países distintos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 159»

«(whether this dialogue was shouted or sung is not clear»y la reserva que añade: no está claro si ese diálogo se gritaba o se cantaba

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 160»

«In the ‘classic’ form of the shanty, the leader does not sing out orders but sings a song, and the chorus does not repeat the words of the leader but sings a refrain.»y define la forma *clásica* de la saloma: el guía no canta órdenes sino una canción, y el coro no repite sus palabras sino que canta un estribillo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 160»

«It should be added that the leader of the shanty was traditionally licensed to improvise as he wished and insult the officers with impunity.»y la licencia que traía el papel: el guía de la saloma podía tradicionalmente improvisar a su gusto e insultar impunemente a los oficiales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 161»

«This form of dialogue between leader and chorus may have been taken over from traditional African work songs, and if so, this would illustrate the exotic influences helping to make the sailor sub-culture a distinctive one.»y la hipótesis de origen, dicha como tal: esa forma de diálogo pudo tomarse de las canciones de trabajo africanas tradicionales, lo que ilustraría las influencias exóticas que hicieron distintiva la subcultura marinera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 161»

«Sailors stood out from landsmen in a variety of ways. In the first place by their dress – the sixteenth-century Gascon sailor could be recognized by his red cap, and the eighteenth-century English sailor by his pigtail, his check shirt, and (oddest of all at this time), his trousers.»y sus marcas externas: el marinero gascón del XVI se reconocía por su gorro rojo y el inglés del XVIII por la coleta, la camisa a cuadros y, lo más raro entonces, los pantalones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 161»

«Sailors were also recognizable by their speech, in which technical terms, slang and oaths had thickened to produce a private language.»y por el habla: términos técnicos, jerga y juramentos espesados hasta formar una lengua privada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 161»

«Terms like ‘marlinspike’, ‘yardarm’, or ‘the main-topgallant sail’ formed a system of shared meanings from which ‘land lubbeers’ were excluded, creating solidarity within the subculture.»y su función: palabras como *marlinspike*, *yardarm* o *main-top-gallant sail* formaban un sistema de significados compartidos del que quedaban excluidos los de tierra, con lo que se creaba solidaridad dentro de la subcultura; el troceo parte *main-top-gallant* en el salto de renglón y el troceo imprime *lubbeers* por *lubbers*; el impreso parte *top-gallant* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *topgallant*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 161»

«Soldiers were on the margins of ordinary society. Their job was a dangerous one. Recruits were uprooted from their traditional local culture while a regiment was a ‘total institution’, in the sense of»y la posición del soldado: en los márgenes de la sociedad ordinaria, con oficio peligroso, arrancado de su cultura local, con el regimiento por *institución total*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *making unlimited demands on its members, including sudden death*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 158»

«Sailors had their own rituals, including the christening of boats and the casting of libations into the sea at dangerous points in the voyage (Greek and Turkish sailors threw bread into the sea as they sailed past Lectum, near Troy).»y sus ritos: el bautizo de los barcos y las libaciones al mar en los puntos peligrosos de la travesía, con marineros griegos y turcos arrojando pan al mar al pasar frente a Lectum, cerca de Troya

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 161»

«There was a mock-baptism or mockshaving awaiting anyone crossing the equator for the first time, or passing Cape Kullen (in Danish waters) or Cape Raz (in Brittany).»y el rito de paso: un bautizo o rasurado burlesco esperaba a quien cruzara por primera vez el ecuador, o pasara el cabo Kullen en aguas danesas o el cabo Raz en Bretaña; el troceo parte *mock-shaving* en el salto de renglón y la extracción lo devuelve pegado, *mockshaving*, y el tramo cruza además el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 161»

«Sailors had their own folklore, with particular emphasis on mermaids (seen as sinister figures) and phantom ships, like the ‘Flying Dutchman’, a maritime version of the traditional ‘Wild Hunt’, in which ghosts were seen riding through the air.»y su folclore, que es lo que más importa aquí: con énfasis particular en las sirenas, vistas como figuras siniestras, y en los barcos fantasmas como el *Holandés Errante*, versión marítima de la *Cacería Salvaje* tradicional, en que se veía a los muertos cabalgando por el aire

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 161»

«Sailors had their own magic, such as whistling to make the wind blow; their own art, such as painted sea-chests or carved mangle-boards»y su magia propia: silbar para hacer soplar el viento; y su arte propio: arcones de mar pintados y tablas de mangle talladas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 161»

«They had their own rhythm of work and leisure, with long periods of boredom and mounting frustration on board (like shepherds and prisoners, they had the leisure for elaborate carving), alternating with short violent periods of relaxation on shore.»y su ritmo: largos periodos de aburrimiento y frustración creciente a bordo —como pastores y presos, tenían ocio para tallar con detalle— alternados con periodos cortos y violentos de asueto en tierra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 162»

«They had their own dances, especially the hornpipe, which is easy to dance alone and in a small space.»y sus danzas, sobre todo el *hornpipe*, fácil de bailar solo y en poco espacio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 162»

«If their readiness to brawl was not altogether distinctive, their rolling gait certainly was.»y su marca en el cuerpo: si la disposición a la riña no era del todo distintiva, el andar bamboleante sí lo era

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 162»

«Sailors were often literate, at least in eighteenth-century Marseilles (50 per cent, compared to 20 per cent of the male peasants).»y su alfabetización: a menudo sabían leer, al menos en la Marsella del XVIII, con un cincuenta por ciento frente al veinte por ciento de los campesinos varones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 162»

«They had their own almanacs, with information about full tides and the soundings in different harbours.»y sus almanaques, con información sobre pleamares y sondas de los distintos puertos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 162»

«They had their own inns in ports and their own fraternities, often dedicated to St Nicholas, as in Lübeck and Riga.»y sus posadas en los puertos y sus cofradías, a menudo dedicadas a san Nicolás, como en Lübeck y Riga

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 162»

«It is difficult to know whether to include or exclude from sailor culture that of the boatmen of major rivers like the Danube, the Volga, and the Vistula. They too lived a different life from people on land and developed a private language.»y una frontera que declara dudosa: si incluir o excluir de la cultura marinera la de los barqueros de los grandes ríos —Danubio, Volga, Vístula—, que vivían también distinto de la gente de tierra y desarrollaron lengua privada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 162»

«in bottles go back only to the mass-production of bottles in the mid»continuación: los barcos en botella no se remontan más allá de la producción en masa de botellas, a mediados del siglo XIX

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 162»

«The values of thieves and professional (including counterfeit) beggars were necessarily different from those of the normal world they exploited.»y por qué: los valores de ladrones y mendigos profesionales, falsos incluidos, eran por fuerza distintos de los del mundo normal que explotaban

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 163»

«The separation was clearly marked out by language. Beggars and thieves had their own argot or jargon, terms that referred to the private language of this social group before they came to signify any kind of slang.»y la marca de esa separación: la lengua, con su *argot* o *jerga*, términos que designaron primero la lengua privada de ese grupo social antes de significar cualquier germanía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 163»

«The priority was appropriate because the jargon of a criminal subculture is necessarily more self-conscious, designed to exclude outsiders, than that of other occupational groups.»y la razón de esa prioridad: la jerga de una subcultura criminal es por fuerza más consciente de sí, diseñada para excluir a los de fuera, que la de otros grupos de oficio; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 163»

«In Elizabethan London, a ‘cony’ was a victim, a ‘cony-catcher’ was a confidence trickster, a ‘prigger of prancers’ was a horse-thief, a ‘nip’ cut purses while a ‘foist’ picked pockets.»y la inglesa: en el Londres isabelino *cony* era la víctima, *cony-catcher* el timador, *prigger of prancers* el ladrón de caballos, *nip* el que cortaba bolsas y *foist* el que vaciaba faltriqueras

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 163»

«The idea that thieves had their own guilds of thieves, complete with apprentices and masters, was widespread.»y la extensión de la idea: que los ladrones tuvieran sus propios gremios, con aprendices y maestros, era creencia difundida

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 163»

«It is difficult to decide whether these ‘guilds’ really existed. If they did not, it would have been necessary to invent them, in order to satirize the straight world and illustrate the commonplace of ‘the world turned upside down’.»y su abstención: es difícil decidir si esos gremios existieron de veras, y si no existieron habría sido necesario inventarlos para satirizar al mundo derecho e ilustrar el lugar común del *mundo al revés*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 164»

«This exotic criminal world was a boon to the professional writers of early modern Europe, to whom we are beholden for most of what we know about it.»y de quién viene lo que sabemos: ese mundo criminal exótico fue una bendición para los escritores profesionales de la Europa moderna temprana, a quienes debemos casi todo lo que sabemos de él

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 164»

«It is not always easy to decide whether a given detail is the fruit of the fertile imagination of the criminal, or of the man who wrote about him; but if specific details can be doubted, the existence of a criminal culture cannot.»y dónde pone el límite de la duda: no siempre es fácil decidir si un detalle es fruto de la imaginación fértil del criminal o de la del que escribió sobre él, y si los detalles concretos pueden dudarse, la existencia de una cultura criminal no

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 164»

«Beggars and thieves might be described as a ‘counterculture’ rather than a subculture, in the sense that they not only differed from the world around them but rejected it.»abre el apartado de las culturas religiosas volviendo sobre el término: mendigos y ladrones podrían llamarse *contracultura* y no subcultura, porque no solo diferían del mundo de alrededor sino que lo rechazaban

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 164»

«The same point might be made of some Christian sects, notably the Anabaptists in Germany and the Netherlands; the Huguenots in France; the Quakers in England, a ‘peculiar people’ whose counterculture was particularly obvious, since it affected their speech and dress; and the Old Believers in Russia.»y extiende el término a algunas sectas cristianas: los anabaptistas en Alemania y los Países Bajos, los hugonotes en Francia, los cuáqueros en Inglaterra —*pueblo peculiar* cuya contracultura era particularmente visible porque afectaba al habla y al vestido— y los viejos creyentes en Rusia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 164»

«Looking at Europe as a whole from 1500 to 1800, the differences in religion are among the most striking of cultural differences.»y la jerarquía que traza: mirando Europa entera de 1500 a 1800, las diferencias de religión están entre las diferencias culturales más llamativas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 164»

«In any case, some Europeans of this period were not Christians. Jews were to be found in the towns of both southern Spain and eastern Europe, together with Muslims, in more or less the same areas, each group with its own values and its own rituals.»y lo que el mapa cristiano deja fuera: algunos europeos del periodo no eran cristianos, con judíos en las ciudades del sur de España y de Europa oriental junto con musulmanes, más o menos en las mismas zonas, cada grupo con sus valores y sus ritos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 165»

«Christian Europe was already, in 1500, divided into»con el mapa religioso: la Europa cristiana estaba ya dividida en 1500; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *Catholic and Orthodox*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 164»

«Catholic and Orthodox and it was soon to be divided still further, with the rise of the many varieties of Protestant.»continuación: dividida en católica y ortodoxa, y pronto se dividiría más con el auge de las muchas variedades de protestante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 165»

«The Jews of Spain and of eastern Europe had their own minstrels, their own folksongs and their own plays, such as the Esther plays recorded in the sixteenth century. They had their own Carnival, known as Purim, recorded, for example, in the judicial archives of sixteenth-century Rome.»abre las culturas religiosas por los judíos de España y Europa oriental: tenían juglares, canciones y piezas propias, como las de Ester registradas en el siglo XVI, y carnaval propio, el Purim, registrado en los archivos judiciales de la Roma del XVI

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 165»

«The Jews of Spain borrowed ballads from the culture surrounding them but adapted them for their own use by purging them of Christian references.»y el modo de la apropiación: los judíos de España tomaron baladas de la cultura circundante y las adaptaron a su uso purgándolas de referencias cristianas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 165»

«Many were ‘crypto-Jews’, conforming outwardly to Christianity but continuing to practice Judaism in secret.»y consigna a los *criptojudíos*, que se conformaban por fuera al cristianismo y seguían practicando el judaísmo en secreto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 165»

«The Muslims of Spain were forcibly converted after the capture of Granada by the Christians in 1492, but this did not wipe out their separate culture, which remained strong throughout the sixteenth century and even longer.»y el español: los musulmanes fueron convertidos por la fuerza tras la toma de Granada en 1492, sin que eso borrara su cultura separada, que siguió fuerte todo el siglo XVI y aun después

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 165»

«The Moriscos secretly practised their own religion, keeping Friday as a day of rest, fasting during Ramadan, and afterwards running through the streets throwing scented water and oranges like the Christians during Carnival.»y en qué consistía: los moriscos practicaban en secreto su religión, guardaban el viernes como día de descanso, ayunaban en Ramadán y después corrían por las calles arrojando agua perfumada y naranjas como los cristianos en carnaval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 165»

«They had their own holy men or fakirs and their own amulets, containing verses from the Koran.»y lo que más importa aquí: tenían santones o *fakires* propios y amuletos propios con versículos del Corán

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 165»

«After 1492 it was forbidden to speak, read, or write Arabic, but this did not prevent people from doing so, and when they spoke Spanish, it was Spanish of a distinctive kind.»y la prohibición y su fracaso: tras 1492 se prohibió hablar, leer o escribir árabe, sin que eso lo impidiera, y cuando hablaban español era un español de clase distinta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 165»

«In spite of the denunciations of the clergy, they went on performing the zambra, a traditional dance that has now been incorporated into the flamenco repertoire.»y su danza: pese a las denuncias del clero siguieron ejecutando la zambra, danza tradicional hoy incorporada al repertorio flamenco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 166»

«The moriscos shared the taste for ballads and romances of chivalry with their ‘Old Christian’ neighbours, but in their versions, as in Bosnia, it was the heroic Muslims who won.»y el mismo mecanismo que en Bosnia: los moriscos compartían con sus vecinos cristianos viejos la afición a las baladas y las caballerías, y en sus versiones ganaban los musulmanes heroicos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 166»

«Jews and Moriscos were of course ethnic as well as religious minorities, and their distinctive cultures cannot be analyzed in religious terms alone.»y la advertencia metodológica: judíos y moriscos eran minorías étnicas además de religiosas, y sus culturas distintivas no se analizan solo en términos religiosos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 166»

«The Roma, often described in this period as ‘Egyptians’, ‘Saracens’, or ‘Bohemians’, appeared in Europe early in the fifteenth century.»y presenta a la tercera minoría: los roma, llamados en el periodo *egipcios*, *sarracenos* o *bohemios*, aparecidos en Europa a principios del siglo XV

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 166»

«In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, they already practised the occupations for which they are known today. The men were tinkers, horse-traders, bear-leaders, and musicians, while the women danced and told fortunes by reading palms.»y sus oficios, que importan aquí: ya en los siglos XVI y XVII los hombres eran caldereros, tratantes de caballos, osarios y músicos, mientras las mujeres bailaban y decían la buenaventura leyendo las manos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 166»

«Respectable people frequently associated them with beggars and thieves. The Roma were also suspected of magic, of pacts with the devil, and of ignorance or rejection of true religion.»y la sospecha que pesaba sobre ellos: la gente respetable los asociaba a menudo con mendigos y ladrones, y se los sospechaba de magia, de pactos con el diablo y de ignorancia o rechazo de la religión verdadera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 166»

«However, the interest of the Roma in the performing arts made for some interaction between them and more sedentary people. Their musicians were popular in Hungary and elsewhere in Central Europe in the eighteenth century, and they have left indelible traces on the popular music of that region.»y el tráfico en sentido contrario: el interés de los roma por las artes del espectáculo produjo interacción con la gente sedentaria, y sus músicos fueron populares en Hungría y en Europa central en el XVIII, dejando huella indeleble en la música popular de la región

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 166»

«The most obvious variations in popular culture have been left almost till last – variations by gender and by region.»abre el apartado del género declarando que ha dejado para el final las variaciones más obvias, las de género y las de región

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 166»

«What about women? There is too little to say about their culture at this period, for lack of evidence.»y declara el hueco: hay demasiado poco que decir de la cultura de las mujeres en el periodo, por falta de evidencia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 167»

«There is a ‘problem of women’ for historians of popular culture as there is (or was until recently) for social anthropologists.»y lo empareja con la antropología social: hay un *problema de las mujeres* para el historiador de la cultura popular como lo hubo para el antropólogo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 167»

«Women's culture is to popular culture what popular culture is to culture as a whole, a dark continent, though not so dark as it used to be, thanks to the increasing exploitation of early modern judicial records, both lay and ecclesiastical (including, of course, the Inquisition).»y la fórmula con que lo mide: la cultura de las mujeres es a la cultura popular lo que la cultura popular a la cultura entera, un continente oscuro, aunque menos que antes gracias a la explotación creciente de los registros judiciales laicos y eclesiásticos, la Inquisición incluida

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 167»

«The culture of women was not the same as that of their husbands, fathers, sons, or brothers, for although much was shared, there was also much from which women were excluded.»y enuncia la diferencia: la cultura de las mujeres no era la de sus maridos, padres, hijos o hermanos, porque aunque mucho se compartía había mucho de lo que quedaban excluidas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 167»

«They were usually unable to join guilds, and often, though not always, fraternities. The world of the tavern was not for them either.»y da las exclusiones: por lo común no podían entrar en los gremios, y a menudo tampoco en las cofradías, y el mundo de la taberna tampoco era para ellas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 167»

«The occupational variations in culture between farmers and shepherds, miners and sailors, can have meant relatively little to their women.»y la consecuencia: las variaciones de cultura por oficio, entre labradores y pastores, mineros y marineros, pueden haber significado relativamente poco para sus mujeres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 167»

«They took many more baths than Christians, for religious reasons, and their»y otro rasgo morisco: se bañaban mucho más que los cristianos por razones religiosas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *women continued to wear the veil*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 165»

«Women had their own songs, especially in eastern Europe. A collection of folksongs from Galicia distinguishes between ‘women's songs’ (pieśni żenśkie), mainly love-lyrics, and ‘men's songs’ (pięśni męskie), mainly ballads.»y sus canciones: una colección de Galitzia distingue entre *pieśni żenśkie*, canciones de mujeres, sobre todo líricas amorosas, y *pięśni męskie*, canciones de hombres, sobre todo baladas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 167»

«Other female genres included the Swedish ‘maid's songs’ (pigvisor), and the genre poissard in Paris, associated with fishwives.»y otros géneros femeninos: los *pigvisor* suecos y el *genre poissard* parisino, asociado a las pescaderas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 167»

«Scottish women had their own work-songs, such as spinning songs, waulking songs (for shrinking cloth) and songs for grinding the grain.»y las canciones de trabajo escocesas: de hilar, de abatanar y de moler el grano

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 168»

«Women also had their own stories, which men, especially the clergy, often described contemptuously as ‘old wives’ tales’ (fabulae aniles).»y sus relatos, que los hombres, sobre todo el clero, describían a menudo con desprecio como *cuentos de viejas*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 168»

«Women were the producers or transmitters of a good deal of popular culture. Some individuals became famous, at least locally, including actresses,»y su papel como productoras o transmisoras: algunas se hicieron famosas, al menos localmente, empezando por las actrices; el troceo imprime la palabra sola en su renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 168»

«A number of women were condemned by the Church (Catholic or Orthodox) for what the clergy considered to be the misuse of holy bread, oil, or water.»y el otro lado del mismo oficio: varias mujeres fueron condenadas por la Iglesia, católica u ortodoxa, por lo que el clero tenía por mal uso del pan, el aceite o el agua benditos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 168»

«In rural Franche-Comté, women's courts issued mock decrees.»y el caso del Franco Condado rural, donde los tribunales de mujeres dictaban decretos burlescos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 169»

«The famous female ‘bread march’ to Versailles during the French Revolution belonged to a long tradition.»y la *marcha del pan* de las mujeres a Versalles durante la Revolución francesa, que pertenece a esa tradición larga

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 169»

«If anything is clear in this area, it is that women's culture was more conservative than that of their men and came to differ from it ever more sharply as time went by.»y lo único que da por claro en ese terreno: la cultura de las mujeres era más conservadora que la de sus hombres y fue diferenciándose de ella cada vez más nítidamente con el tiempo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 169»

«Women were much less literate than men. In Amsterdam in 1630, only 32 per cent of the brides could sign their names, compared to 57 per cent of the grooms, and in France as a whole in the late seventeenth century, only 14 per cent of the brides could sign, compared to 29 per cent of their new husbands.»con las cifras: en el Ámsterdam de 1630 solo el treinta y dos por ciento de las novias sabía firmar frente al cincuenta y siete de los novios, y en Francia a fines del XVII el catorce por ciento frente al veintinueve

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 169»

«Thus the written word was added to the list of cultural items which most women did not share.»y la consecuencia: la palabra escrita se sumó a la lista de bienes culturales que la mayoría de las mujeres no compartía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 169»

«In villages in France the women met in the evening at veillées (with or without male visitors) when they»y la *veillée* francesa: las mujeres se reunían de noche, con o sin visitas masculinas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *would spin, sing and tell stories while the older women might teach the younger ones the catechism*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 167»

«Women regularly participated in festivals such as Carnival, May Day or St Agatha's day, which was celebrated in some places, notably in France and Spain, as a ritualized inversion of the roles of»y su participación festiva: carnaval, primero de mayo o santa Águeda, celebrada en algunos lugares de Francia y España como inversión ritualizada de los papeles; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la explicación del martirio de la santa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 168»

«the sexes, presumably because, as the story went, the saint had been martyred by having her breasts cut off, thus making her more like a man.»continuación: según se contaba, la santa fue martirizada cortándole los pechos, con lo que quedó más parecida a un hombre

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 169»

«When they did read, women read distinctive kinds of book, or, to keep closer to the evidence, writers and printers in England and the Netherlands aimed some books at an audience of women.»y qué leían cuando leían: libros de clases distintivas, o, ciñéndose más a la evidencia, escritores e impresores de Inglaterra y los Países Bajos dirigieron algunos libros a un público de mujeres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 169»

«Religion, particularly ecstatic religion, afforded women another means of self-expression.»y enuncia la vía que más importa aquí: la religión, en particular la religión extática, dio a las mujeres otro medio de expresarse

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 170»

«Catholics had their holy women, unofficial ‘living saints’, although in the course of the Counter-Reformation they were reduced to silence if they did not integrate themselves into official organizations such as religious orders.»con el lado católico: hubo mujeres santas, *santas vivas* no oficiales, aunque en el curso de la Contrarreforma se las redujo al silencio si no se integraban en organizaciones oficiales como las órdenes religiosas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 170»

«Women played an important role as guardians of oral tradition. Mothers passed on songs, stories, and religious beliefs to the children.»y su papel como guardianas de la tradición oral: las madres transmitían canciones, relatos y creencias religiosas a los hijos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 170»

«Because they remained bicultural longer than upper-class men, noblewomen often acted as mediators between cultures. The survival of what became known as folksongs owed a good deal to them.»y su papel de mediadoras: por seguir siendo biculturales más tiempo que los hombres de clase alta, las nobles actuaron a menudo de mediadoras entre culturas, y la supervivencia de lo que se llamó canción popular les debe bastante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 170»

«Servants too lived on the border between the two cultures, a position that was not always a comfortable one, especially when their mistresses tried to reform them.»y añade a las sirvientas: vivían igualmente en la frontera entre las dos culturas, posición no siempre cómoda, sobre todo cuando sus amas trataban de reformarlas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 171»

«If all too little can be said about the place of gender in popular culture, the opposite is true of the region.»abre el apartado regional por contraste: si de la posición del género apenas cabe decir nada, con la región ocurre lo contrario

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 171»

«The evidence is everywhere, whether one looks at material or immaterial culture, at artefacts or performances.»y la razón: la evidencia está en todas partes, se mire la cultura material o la inmaterial, los artefactos o las ejecuciones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 171»

«Popular culture was perceived as local culture. According to a Catalan proverb, A cada terra el seu ús, ‘to each land its own customs’.»y la fórmula que la resume: la cultura popular se percibía como cultura local, y según el proverbio catalán, a cada tierra su uso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 171»

«It was the region, town, or village that commanded loyalty. They were often closed communities, reluctant to admit either new ways or new people (they often viewed outsiders via hostile stereotypes).»y dónde estaba la lealtad: en la región, la ciudad o la aldea, comunidades a menudo cerradas, reacias a admitir modos nuevos o gente nueva, a la que solían mirar con estereotipos hostiles

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 171»

«He might have been speaking of many parts of Europe.»y generaliza el testimonio: podría haber estado hablando de muchas partes de Europa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 171»

«Celtic mythology and the cult of springs had not yet died out in Scotland or Ireland, Wales or Brittany in this period, and a Celtic language was still spoken in Cornwall.»y da los estratos precristianos que sobreviven: la mitología celta y el culto de las fuentes no habían muerto aún en Escocia, Irlanda, Gales ni Bretaña en el periodo, y en Cornualles todavía se hablaba una lengua céltica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 171»

«The Celtic pattern of dispersed settlement distinguished sixteenth-century Wales from neighbouring England.»y su huella en el hábitat: el patrón celta de poblamiento disperso distinguía al Gales del XVI de la Inglaterra vecina

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 172»

«In similar fashion, Norse mythology survived in parts of Scandinavia. In the Scandinavian Alps and in Lapland the Norse god Thor was still venerated in the eighteenth century, and Thursday observed as a holy day.»y el estrato nórdico: en los Alpes escandinavos y en Laponia el dios Thor se veneraba aún en el siglo XVIII, con el jueves guardado como día santo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 172»

«In Lithuania (which became officially Christian only in the fourteenth century) and in Russia, pre-Christian cults were even more obvious. In 1547, it was said that Lithuanians still worshipped their traditional gods Perkūnas, Laukosargas, and Zemepatis.»y el báltico: en Lituania, cristiana oficialmente solo desde el siglo XIV, y en Rusia los cultos precristianos eran aún más visibles, y en 1547 se decía que los lituanos seguían adorando a sus dioses tradicionales Perkūnas, Laukosargas y Zemepatis

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 172»

«Forests, like mountains, are effective barriers to the spread of new customs and beliefs.»y la explicación que da: los bosques, como las montañas, son barreras eficaces a la difusión de costumbres y creencias nuevas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 172»

«Long-standing ethnic traditions like these contributed to regional variation but they were not the only reason for it. The region was a cultural unit for ecological reasons, because differences in the physical environment encouraged, if it did not impose, different ways of life.»y añade la causa ecológica a la étnica: la región era unidad cultural porque las diferencias del entorno físico alentaban, si no imponían, modos de vida distintos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 172»

«The English and Scottish border ballads reflect the way of life of a frontier community, with its stress on cattle and kin, raiding and feuding.»con el ejemplo: las baladas fronterizas inglesas y escocesas reflejan el modo de vida de una comunidad de frontera, con su acento en el ganado y el linaje, la razia y la venganza

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 172»

«When folktales migrated from one region to another, they might be modified to make them more relevant by introducing references to local occupations. In a Greek folktale about St Nicholas, he came to the aid of sailors in distress, but in the version current in Russia, he helped a peasant whose cart was stuck.»y el mecanismo de adaptación: los cuentos que migraban se modificaban para hacerlos pertinentes introduciendo oficios locales, y donde el san Nicolás de un cuento griego socorre a marineros en apuros, en la versión rusa ayuda a un campesino con el carro atascado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 172»

«These points are important but they do not tell the whole story. It is one of the central arguments of this book – indeed, its only justification – that the regional level is not the only level at which popular culture should be studied.»y declara la tesis que justifica el libro entero: esos puntos importan y no cuentan toda la historia, porque el nivel regional no es el único en que debe estudiarse la cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 173»

«The German Peasants’ War of 1525 failed essentially»y la consecuencia política de la lealtad local: la guerra de los campesinos de 1525 fracasó esencialmente; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *because the bands of peasants from different regions did not cooperate with one another*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 171»

«The Bretons were proud of their local saints, like Nonna and Corentin, many of whom were not known elsewhere and may have been»y su continuidad en el santoral: los bretones se enorgullecían de santos locales como Nonna y Corentin, muchos desconocidos fuera; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *derived from pre-Christian divinities*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 171»

«The concept ‘region’ is in fact less precise than it looks. Is it possible to enumerate the regions into which Europe is divided? If not, doubt is cast on the efficiency of the barriers.»y vuelve sobre el concepto mismo: *región* es menos preciso de lo que parece, y si no se pueden enumerar las regiones en que Europa se divide, queda en duda la eficacia de las barreras

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 173»

«The most obvious units to take are the provinces, like the old French provinces before the départements were introduced at the end of our period. Is Brittany, for instance, a region? Or is it two regions, Haute-Bretagne and Basse-Bretagne?»y lo prueba con Bretaña: las unidades más obvias son las provincias, y cabe preguntar si Bretaña es una región o dos, Alta y Baja

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 173»

«The division between the two was not just administrative, it was also cultural: Haute-Bretagne was Frenchspeaking in the seventeenth century, while Basse-Bretagne was Breton-speaking.»y da el criterio: la división entre ambas no era solo administrativa sino cultural, porque la Alta hablaba francés en el siglo XVII y la Baja bretón; el impreso parte *French-speaking* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *Frenchspeaking*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 173»

«Ecotypes can also be found closer to the ground. In Basse-Bretagne, it was possible to distinguish the dialect of Breton spoken in Cornouaille from that current in Morbihan or Finistère.»y baja un peldaño más: en la Baja Bretaña se distinguía el bretón de Cornouaille del corriente en Morbihan o Finisterre

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 173»

«Is Cornouaille a ‘region’? Or can it be dissolved into its constituent villages? Is there ever any reason to stop dividing till one reaches»y lleva la pregunta al absurdo: si Cornouaille es una región o puede disolverse en sus aldeas, y si hay alguna razón para dejar de dividir; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *families or even individuals*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 173»

«It would be the same story if we took other criteria, other regions. The popular art of eighteenth-century Norway and Sweden stands out distinctively from that of the rest of Europe.»y repite el ejercicio con otro criterio: el arte popular de la Noruega y la Suecia del XVIII destaca del resto de Europa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 174»

«Just as provinces can be broken down into smaller cultural units, so they can also be joined to make larger units, not only nations but also groups of nations, macro-regions.»y el movimiento inverso: así como las provincias se descomponen en unidades menores, también se unen en mayores, no solo naciones sino grupos de naciones, macrorregiones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 174»

«Language forms a barrier, it is true but it is a barrier which can easily be breached. Ballads followed the trade-routes from Scandinavia to Scotland, helped by the fact that the languages are not so very different in structure, so that some commonplaces could be taken over with very little change.»y matiza la barrera lingüística: las baladas siguieron las rutas comerciales de Escandinavia a Escocia, ayudadas por la semejanza estructural de las lenguas, que permitía tomar los lugares comunes casi sin cambio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 174»

«The Danish half-line ‘Op staar’ or ‘Op stod’ could be rendered ‘Up then started’ or ‘Up stood’; ‘Ind saa kom’ could turn into ‘In then came’»con las equivalencias: el hemistiquio danés *Op staar* u *Op stod* podía verterse *Up then started* o *Up stood*, e *Ind saa kom* volverse *In then came*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 174»

«‘den liden Smaadreng’ could be translated by ‘his little foot-page’. The same goes for some Norwegian ballad formulas: fager og fin corresponds to the Scots ‘fair and fine’, baka og bryggje to ‘bake and brew’.»y las noruegas: *den liden Smaadreng* por *his little foot-page*, *fager og fin* por *fair and fine*, *baka og bryggje* por *bake and brew*; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 174»

«When Adam delved and Eve span, Who was then the gentleman?»y cita el pareado: cuando Adán cavaba y Eva hilaba, ¿quién era entonces el caballero?

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 175»

«This couplet spread through the Germanic languages, which could all use the rhyme without alteration; it is recorded in German, Dutch, and Swedish, all in the late fifteenth century»y su difusión: el pareado se extendió por las lenguas germánicas, que podían usar la rima sin alterarla, y está registrado en alemán, neerlandés y sueco, todos a fines del siglo XV

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 175»

«That the real barriers are those separating language-groups rather than language is suggested by the international diffusion of the»y la tesis que saca: las barreras reales son las que separan grupos de lenguas y no lenguas, como sugiere la difusión internacional del pareado; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con John Ball y la revuelta de 1381

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 174»

«Stories could travel more easily, and apparent regional variation sometimes masks an underlying unity.»y pasa a los relatos: viajaban con más facilidad, y la variación regional aparente enmascara a veces una unidad de fondo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 175»

«What could be more local? However, a survey of Europe brings to light stories about the fools of Beira in Portugal; Fünsing in Bavaria; Mundinga in Swabia; Mols in Denmark; ‘Malleghem’ in Flanders; or, to come closer to home, Gotham in Nottinghamshire.»y lo que un barrido europeo revela: relatos sobre los tontos de Beira en Portugal, Fünsing en Baviera, Mundinga en Suabia, Mols en Dinamarca, Malleghem en Flandes o Gotham en Nottinghamshire

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 175»

«Local colour has been applied to a standardized outline.»y la fórmula que lo resume: se ha aplicado color local a un esquema estandarizado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 176»

«This example is not an isolated one. Many stories have been recorded at opposite ends of Europe. A famous example is the ballad that the Dutch call Heer Halewijn. It concerns a girl who goes with a man to the forest only to find that he plans to murder her. She manages to trick him and kill him with»y otro ejemplo: la balada que los neerlandeses llaman *Heer Halewijn*, sobre una muchacha que va con un hombre al bosque y descubre que él planea matarla, y consigue engañarlo y matarlo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *his own sword*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 176»

«This ballad is well-known in Germany and Scandinavia, and it turns up in Britain in the form of ‘Lady Isabel and the Elf-Knight’. It is also known outside the Germanic language-area, in Poland and in Hungary (where it is known as ‘Molnár Anna’).»y su difusión: conocida en Alemania y Escandinavia, aparece en Gran Bretaña como *Lady Isabel and the Elf-Knight* y también fuera del área germánica, en Polonia y en Hungría, donde se llama *Molnár Anna*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 176»

«Again, the story of the ‘rescued maiden’ who appeals in vain for help from each member of her family, but is finally rescued by her lover, is known in regions as far apart and as different in their cultural traditions as England, Finland, and Sicily.»y un tercer caso: el relato de la *doncella rescatada*, que pide en vano ayuda a cada miembro de su familia y acaba rescatada por su amante, se conoce en lugares tan distantes y distintos como Inglaterra, Finlandia y Sicilia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 176»

«It might be worth asking what proportion of its tales a given region shares with others, a question to which digital history may soon supply an answer.»y la pregunta que deja abierta con su herramienta: qué proporción de sus cuentos comparte una región dada con otras, cosa que la historia digital quizá responda pronto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 176»

«By the year 1500, Christianity had long been making European culture into more of a whole. The same festivals were celebrated all over Europe; the same major saints were venerated everywhere; similar kinds of religious drama were played.»y el factor unificador mayor: para 1500 el cristianismo llevaba mucho haciendo de la cultura europea más un todo, con las mismas fiestas celebradas en toda Europa, los mismos santos mayores venerados y dramas religiosos semejantes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 176»

«Even Muslims were affected by popular Christianity. In eighteenth-century Dalmatia, Muslims went to Christian priests to ask for a zapis, a piece of paper with holy names written on it, worn as a talisman in the hat or placed on the horns of cattle to protect them from harm.»y lo que más importa aquí: hasta los musulmanes quedaron afectados por el cristianismo popular, y en la Dalmacia del XVIII acudían a los sacerdotes cristianos a pedir un *zapis*, un papel con nombres sagrados escritos, llevado como talismán en el sombrero o puesto en los cuernos del ganado para protegerlo del daño

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 176»

«Tunes travelled from one end of Europe to the other – and beyond – even if they became detached from their original words on the way.»y la circulación de las tonadas: viajaban de un extremo de Europa al otro y más allá, aunque se desprendieran por el camino de sus palabras originales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 176»

«House-types recurred whenever the need for them recurred. The Apulian stone house or trullo was long thought to be unique but there are parallels to it in Spain and Ireland.»y la de los tipos de casa: recurrían dondequiera recurriera la necesidad, y el *trullo* de piedra de Apulia, que se creyó único, tiene paralelos en España e Irlanda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 176»

«Arab folktales (like those in The Book of Sindibad) and Indian folktales (like those in the Panchatantra) were circulating in Europe long before 1500.»con las pruebas: los cuentos árabes, como los del *Libro de Sindibad*, y los indios, como los del *Panchatantra*, circulaban en Europa mucho antes de 1500

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 177»

«The traditional Turkish popular theatre included one kind of play, orta oiunu, built round comic dialogues between a master and his clownish servant, for all the world like Pantalone and Pulcinella.»y el paralelo teatral: el teatro popular turco tradicional incluía el *orta oiunu*, construido en torno a diálogos cómicos entre un amo y su criado bufo, igual que Pantalone y Pulcinella

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 177»

«The Holi festival in India, in which roles are reversed, and the village leaders are drenched with water – or worse – and made to ride backwards on an ass, is, to put it mildly, ‘carnivalesque’.»y el festivo: la fiesta india del Holi, en que se invierten los papeles y se empapa a los jefes de la aldea con agua o cosa peor y se los hace montar al revés en un asno, es, por decirlo suavemente, *carnavalesca*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 177»

«Is this going too far? There have been all too few serious studies to help us decide. What the Indo-European area has in common culturally cannot be discovered without systematic comparison with other parts of the world, for example, with Japan.»y la reserva que la frena: pocos estudios serios ayudan a decidirlo, y lo que el área indoeuropea tiene en común culturalmente no puede descubrirse sin comparación sistemática con otras partes del mundo, por ejemplo Japón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 177»

«Even formal patterns»abre los patrones formales; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *like the geometrical decorations on marriage-chests can be found from one end of Europe to the other*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 176»

«It is not motifs, but specific combinations of motifs, that enable a specialist to say that a given painting comes from Rättvik and not from Leksand.»y la regla que propone: no son los motivos sino sus combinaciones específicas las que permiten al especialista decir que una pintura viene de Rättvik y no de Leksand

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 178»

«The main purpose of this book is to describe that common stock, the elements from which the local patterns were made.»y declara el propósito principal del libro: describir ese fondo común, los elementos con que se hicieron los patrones locales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 178»

«To put the point another way: there was great regional variation in the popular culture of early modern Europe, but this variation was structured and coexisted with other kinds of variation.»y lo dice de otro modo: hubo gran variación regional en la cultura popular de la Europa moderna temprana, y esa variación estaba estructurada y coexistía con otras clases de variación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 178»

«On the other hand, no one, so far as I know, has tried to describe the cultural geography of Europe as a whole.130 This is a task for a book, not for a paragraph; but the way in which such a book might be structured is extremely relevant to the argument of this chapter.»y la negativa que consigna: que él sepa, nadie ha intentado describir la geografía cultural de Europa como un todo, tarea de libro y no de párrafo, aunque el modo de estructurar ese libro es muy pertinente para el argumento del capítulo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 178»

«A cultural geography of Europe would have to be historical, concerned with change over the long term. It would also have to take into account a large number of cultural differences or oppositions that often overlap but rarely coincide with one another.»y cómo tendría que ser: histórica, ocupada del cambio a largo plazo, y atenta a un número grande de diferencias u oposiciones culturales que se superponen a menudo y rara vez coinciden

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 178»

«There is the contrast between hamlets and villages, for example. Hamlets are dominant along the Atlantic coast and among the South Slavs, villages elsewhere.»con la primera oposición: caseríos frente a aldeas, con los caseríos dominantes en la costa atlántica y entre los eslavos del sur

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 178»

«Living in villages rather than hamlets meant more access to news, which seems to have encouraged political consciousness, from the German Peasants’ War to the French Revolution.»y su efecto: vivir en aldeas y no en caseríos significaba más acceso a las noticias, lo que parece haber alentado la conciencia política, de la guerra de los campesinos alemana a la Revolución francesa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 178»

«However, types of village differ. The compact irregular type contrasts with the planned linear village, associated with the colonization of the waste land.»y su subdivisión: el tipo compacto irregular contrasta con la aldea lineal planificada, asociada a la colonización de tierras baldías

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 178»

«There is also a geography of literacy. In France in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the split between the literate north-east and the relatively illiterate south-west followed a diagonal line from Mont-St-Michel to the lake of Geneva.»y la tercera, la de la alfabetización: en la Francia de los siglos XVII y XVIII la división entre el nordeste letrado y el suroeste relativamente iletrado seguía una diagonal de Mont-Saint-Michel al lago de Ginebra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 179»

«In Europe in the eighteenth century, there was an area of high literacy in the north-west (Sweden, Britain), and an area of low literacy in the south and east. Literate Protestants offered a contrast with less literate Catholics and still less literate Orthodox Christians.»y a escala europea: alta alfabetización en el noroeste, Suecia y Gran Bretaña, y baja en el sur y el este, con protestantes letrados frente a católicos menos letrados y ortodoxos menos aún

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 179»

«This division overlapped with the contrast between the colder, darker north, where more cultural activities took place indoors, and the brighter, warmer south, where popular culture was associated with the open air, with the piazza or plaza.»y su superposición con otra: el norte más frío y oscuro, donde más actividades culturales ocurrían bajo techo, frente al sur más luminoso y cálido, donde la cultura popular se asociaba al aire libre, a la plaza; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 179»

«In the south, the spring festival of Carnival was more important. In the north, the summer festival of St John's Eve.»y su consecuencia festiva: en el sur pesaba más el carnaval de primavera y en el norte la fiesta veraniega de la noche de San Juan

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 179»

«Also important were linguistic and social divisions. The main groups of languages were and are Romance, Germanic, and Slavonic, complicated by smaller language-groups such as Celtic, Finno-Ugrian, and Basque.»y las divisiones lingüísticas: romance, germánica y eslava, complicadas por grupos menores como el celta, el fino-ugrio y el vasco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 179»

«A major contrast divided the peasants east of the Elbe, who were enserfed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, from the peasants to the west, who were relatively free.»y la social mayor: los campesinos al este del Elba, reducidos a servidumbre en los siglos XVI y XVII, frente a los del oeste, relativamente libres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 179»

«Other contrasts include highland and lowland zones, forests and clearings, coastal and inland regions, centres and peripheries.»y las restantes: zonas altas y bajas, bosques y claros, regiones costeras e interiores, centros y periferias

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 179»

«Students of the English and Scottish ballad know very well how it grew out of the conditions of life on the border. However, the border between England and Scotland was only one among several frontier regions that encouraged a worldview dominated by fighting.»y las fronteras: los estudiosos de la balada angloescocesa saben cómo nació de las condiciones de vida en la frontera, que no fue la única región fronteriza que alentó una visión del mundo dominada por la pelea

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 179»

«Nevertheless, to understand the culture of a particular community one would need not only to place it within one of these Europes, but also in relation to the axes of contrast which have just been described.»y la reserva que añade: para entender la cultura de una comunidad concreta habría que situarla no solo en una de esas Europas sino también en relación con los ejes de contraste descritos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 180»

«The culture of a Breton fishing-village, say, needs to be seen as part of not one whole but several: part of French culture, maritime culture, Celtic culture, Catholic culture, and so on.»con el ejemplo: la cultura de una aldea pesquera bretona ha de verse como parte de varios todos y no de uno, cultura francesa, marítima, celta y católica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 180»

«Relatively sharp cultural differentiation could be seen whenever a number of contrasts coincided. Huguenot weavers in Spitalfields in the eighteenth century were at once an ethnic, a religious and an occupational subculture, like Jewish shoemakers in Central Europe.»y dónde la diferenciación se agudiza: donde coinciden varios contrastes, como los tejedores hugonotes de Spitalfields en el XVIII, subcultura étnica, religiosa y de oficio a la vez, o los zapateros judíos de Europa central

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 180»

«Indeed, the Reformation may have appealed to some ethnic or occupational groups because it reinforced their sense of a collective identity.»y la hipótesis que propone: la Reforma pudo atraer a algunos grupos étnicos o de oficio porque reforzaba su sentido de identidad colectiva

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 180»

«It can hardly be an accident that in Transylvania, where three language-groups lived together for centuries, the Romanians remained Orthodox, the Hungarians turned Calvinist and the Germans adopted the doctrines of their fellow-countryman Luther.»con la prueba que aduce: difícilmente es accidente que en Transilvania, donde tres grupos lingüísticos convivieron siglos, los rumanos siguieran ortodoxos, los húngaros se hicieran calvinistas y los alemanes adoptaran las doctrinas de su compatriota Lutero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 180»

«The separation of subcultures from the rest of popular culture should not be»y su límite: la separación de las subculturas respecto del resto de la cultura popular no debe exagerarse; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *exaggerated*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 177»

«exaggerated. Catalan culture, or miners’ culture, offer a selection from the common stock rather than something entirely different.»continuación: la cultura catalana o la minera ofrecen una selección del fondo común y no algo enteramente distinto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 178»

«There is also a geography of vernacular architecture, shaped in part by the availability of building materials; areas where stone was»y la segunda geografía, la de la arquitectura vernácula, moldeada en parte por la disponibilidad de materiales; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la piedra mediterránea, la madera de Noruega y Rusia y el ladrillo neerlandés e inglés

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 178»

«The frontier between the Turks and the Habsburgs in Croatia and Hungary was a heroic world on a grander scale than»con la comparación: la frontera entre turcos y Habsburgo en Croacia y Hungría era un mundo heroico de escala mayor; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con las marcas anglo-escocesas y los cosacos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 179»

«How distinct is at once the most crucial and the most difficult question to answer. It is easy to be carried away by the impulse to subdivide.»y la pregunta que declara a la vez la más crucial y la más difícil: cuán distintas, porque es fácil dejarse llevar por el impulso de subdividir

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 181»

«We must not forget that apprentices turned into journeymen and even, sometimes, into masters; that masters, journeymen, and apprentices worked together in the shop, talking and singing as they worked; or that the different guilds of the town cooperated during major festivals.»y los contrapesos que recuerda: los aprendices se volvían oficiales y a veces maestros, maestros, oficiales y aprendices trabajaban juntos en el taller hablando y cantando, y los gremios de una ciudad cooperaban en las fiestas mayores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 181»

«The more picturesque diversities should not be exaggerated either. Miners had ‘their’ saints, songs, plays, dances and legends, but these were a selection from the common stock of popular culture.»y las diversidades pintorescas: tampoco deben exagerarse, porque los santos, canciones, piezas, danzas y leyendas *de* los mineros eran una selección del fondo común

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 181»

«A special devotion to St Anne, for example, is only meaningful within the context of a more general devotion to the saints. In any case, the miners did not have a monopoly of St Anne.»con el argumento: una devoción especial a santa Ana solo cobra sentido dentro de una devoción más general a los santos, y en todo caso los mineros no tenían el monopolio de santa Ana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 181»

«The idea of Christ as ‘the Lamb of God’ or ‘the good shepherd’ may have had a special meaning for shepherds, but this special meaning was dependent on the ordinary meaning of these ideas in the culture at large.»y el segundo: la idea de Cristo como *cordero de Dios* o *buen pastor* pudo tener sentido especial para los pastores, y ese sentido dependía del sentido ordinario de esas ideas en la cultura mayor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 181»

«Once again, we must beware of drawing the boundaries of the subculture too sharply. It was not only sailors who sang sea songs, and not only sea songs that sailors sang.»y la advertencia repetida: no hay que trazar demasiado nítidas las fronteras de la subcultura, porque no solo los marineros cantaban canciones de mar ni los marineros cantaban solo canciones de mar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 181»

«Fishermen lived in villages and saw their wives more often than sailors did but they still shared a good deal of maritime culture with them.»con el caso: los pescadores vivían en aldeas y veían a sus mujeres más que los marineros, y aun así compartían con ellos buena parte de la cultura marítima

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 181»

«They too christened new boats (in Brittany the boat was given a godfather and a godmother).»y el rito compartido: también ellos bautizaban los barcos nuevos, y en Bretaña se le daba al barco padrino y madrina

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 181»

«Fishermen and sailors had a common concern for storm and shipwreck and made vows to the same shrines if they were in danger, like Our Lady of Bonaria in Sardinia or Notre Dame de Bon Port near Antibes.»y los votos compartidos: pescadores y marineros compartían la inquietud por la tormenta y el naufragio y hacían votos a los mismos santuarios en peligro, como Nuestra Señora de Bonaria en Cerdeña o Notre Dame de Bon Port cerca de Antibes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 181»

«Their proverbs drew on the same experience. ‘Make hay while the sun shines’ has a salty flavour in Dutch – ‘One must sail while the wind is favourable’ (men moet zeilen, terwijl de wind dient).»y los proverbios: se nutren de la misma experiencia, y *haz heno mientras luce el sol* tiene sabor salado en neerlandés, *hay que navegar mientras el viento sirve*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 181»

«Meanwhile, it seems useful to speak of regional subcultures in»su propuesta de compromiso: conviene hablar de subculturas regionales; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *the same way as we have spoken of occupational subcultures*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 177»

«At this point it may be worth pausing to take stock. It has been»abre el balance del capítulo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 180»

«Given the existence of both great and little traditions, however various, in early modern Europe, it was natural that there would be interaction between them. The nature of this interaction has been much debated.»abre el apartado de las interacciones: dadas las dos tradiciones, era natural que hubiera interacción entre ellas, y la naturaleza de esa interacción se ha discutido mucho

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 182»

«Which theory is right? The debate has been complicated by differences in definition, but if we continue to use the terms ‘learned culture’ and ‘popular culture’ as they were defined earlier in the chapter, it can be stated with confidence that there was two-way traffic between them.»y su respuesta: el debate se ha complicado por diferencias de definición, y manteniendo los términos como los definió antes cabe afirmar con confianza que hubo tráfico en dos sentidos entre las dos culturas; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 182»

«Popular art offers a number of obvious examples of ‘sinking’. The English yeomen built houses in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries that imitated the style of the local nobility and gentry on a smaller scale.»y da los ejemplos del *hundimiento*: los *yeomen* ingleses construían a fines del XVI y principios del XVII casas que imitaban a escala menor el estilo de la nobleza local

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 182»

«In Central Europe in the eighteenth century, a peasant baroque can be found, flourishing about a century later than the original baroque style.»y el segundo: en la Europa central del XVIII se encuentra un barroco campesino que florece un siglo después del barroco original

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 182»

«Literature also descended the social scale: first Dante, then Ariosto, and then Tasso.»y el caso literario: la literatura descendió también por la escala social, primero Dante, luego Ariosto y luego Tasso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 183»

«In Florence between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries, Dante seems to have formed part of popular culture.»con el primero: en la Florencia de los siglos XIV a XVI Dante parece haber formado parte de la cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 183»

«which would lose most of its point if the parody of Dante's Inferno were not recognized.»y la lectura que saca: el madrigal perdería casi toda su gracia si no se reconociera la parodia del *Infierno* de Dante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 183»

«The custom is well-attested by Italians as well as foreigners.»y la sostiene con las fuentes: la costumbre está bien atestiguada por italianos además de por extranjeros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 183»

«In eighteenth-century Flanders, village plays show a love of acrostics, as if the literary baroque had reached the countryside at just the moment that it had been abandoned by the town.»y el flamenco, con su desfase: las piezas de aldea del XVIII muestran afición a los acrósticos, como si el barroco literario llegara al campo justo cuando la ciudad lo abandonaba

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 183»

«By 1500, however, the stories of Charlemagne and his paladins were being sung in the Italian marketplaces for everyone to hear them, and by 1800 the romances of chivalry had been abandoned to the peasants, especially in Sicily, where they inspired the famous puppet theatre.»y su descenso medido: para 1500 las historias de Carlomagno y sus paladines se cantaban en las plazas italianas para que las oyera todo el mundo, y para 1800 las caballerías se habían abandonado a los campesinos, sobre todo en Sicilia, donde inspiraron el teatro de títeres famoso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 184»

«argued that the popular culture of this period was far from homogeneous; that the cultures»continuación del balance: la cultura popular del periodo distaba de ser homogénea; el tramo cruza el salto de renglón y sigue *of shepherds and of miners, for instance, were distinct from that of farmers*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 181»

«The peasant art of Norway and Sweden in the same period borrowed motifs from the renaissance, baroque and rococo styles.»y el tercer ejemplo del hundimiento: el arte campesino de Noruega y Suecia tomó motivos del renacimiento, el barroco y el rococó; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el mobiliario y los grabados de iglesia por fuentes de inspiración

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 182»

«Another example in favour of the sinking theory is the gradual diffusion of the romances of chivalry.»y el último ejemplo a favor de la teoría del hundimiento: la difusión gradual de las novelas de caballerías; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la suposición de que se crearon para la nobleza

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 183»

«Religious ideas also descended the social scale; the ideas of Luther, Calvin, Zwingli, and those of their Catholic opponents as well.»y añade el descenso de las ideas religiosas: las de Lutero, Calvino y Zuinglio y también las de sus adversarios católicos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 184»

«All the same, the sinking theory is too crude, too mechanical, suggesting as it does that images, stories, or ideas are passively accepted by popular painters, singers, and their spectators and audiences.»y objeta la teoría del hundimiento: es demasiado cruda y mecánica, porque sugiere que imágenes, relatos o ideas los aceptan pasivamente los pintores y cantores populares y sus públicos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 184»

«In fact, they are generally modified or transformed, in a process that looks from above like misunderstanding or distortion but from below like adaptation to specific needs.»y lo que realmente ocurre: se modifican o transforman en un proceso que desde arriba parece malentendido o distorsión y desde abajo adaptación a necesidades específicas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 184»

«The minds of ordinary people are not like blank paper but stocked with ideas and images. New ideas are likely to be rejected if they seem to be incompatible with the old.»y la razón: las mentes de la gente común no son papel en blanco sino que están provistas de ideas e imágenes, y las ideas nuevas tienden a rechazarse si parecen incompatibles con las viejas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 184»

«This point is most obvious in the case of painting. Swedish peasant painters took over baroque details, but the composition of their works remained medieval.»con el caso más claro, la pintura: los pintores campesinos suecos adoptaron detalles barrocos y la composición de sus obras siguió siendo medieval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 185»

«Official texts and rituals may be imitated but the imitation often slides into parody (Chapter 5).»y añade el borde de esa apropiación: los textos y ritos oficiales pueden imitarse, y la imitación resbala a menudo en parodia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 185»

«The other major defect of the sinking theory is to ignore traffic in the opposite direction, up the social scale.»y el otro defecto mayor de la teoría: ignorar el tráfico en dirección contraria, escala social arriba

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 185»

«One obvious example is that of the dance. The nobility regularly took over lively danceforms from the peasantry, gradually made them more sedate, and so needed to borrow once more.»con el ejemplo obvio de la danza: la nobleza tomaba con regularidad formas vivas del campesinado, las volvía gradualmente más comedidas y necesitaba entonces tomar prestado de nuevo; el impreso parte *dance-forms* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *danceforms*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 185»

«An example from the end of our period is the social rise of the waltz, which was once a peasant dance but was taken up by the middle and upper classes.»y el ejemplo final: el ascenso social del vals, que fue danza campesina y lo adoptaron las clases media y alta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 185»

«Another example of ‘rising’ is that of the Renaissance court festival. Court festivals often took place at the same time as popular festivals, such as Carnival and the 12 days of Christmas.»y el segundo ejemplo de *ascenso*: la fiesta cortesana renacentista, que a menudo se celebraba a la vez que las fiestas populares, como el carnaval y los doce días de Navidad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 185»

«In some cases, early in the period, there seems to be little distinction between the two kinds of festival except in the status of the participants.»y su parecido inicial: al principio del periodo parece haber poca distinción entre las dos clases de fiesta salvo en el estatus de los participantes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 185»

«Informal ‘masking’ turned into the formal ‘masque’. Despite this elaboration, court festivals continued to bear the marks of their popular origins. The mock king or ‘Lord of Misrule’ still played a prominent part, masks were still worn, and mock battles were still fought.»y lo que persiste bajo la elaboración: el *masking* informal se volvió *masque* formal, y las fiestas de corte siguieron llevando las marcas de su origen popular, con el rey burlesco o *Lord of Misrule* en papel destacado, las máscaras y las batallas fingidas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 185»

«Traditional ways of perceiving and thinking form a kind of filter that will allow some novelties»y la imagen con que lo dice: los modos tradicionales de percibir y pensar forman una suerte de filtro; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *through, but not others*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 184»

«This kind of borrowing may take place for different reasons, and the borrowers may have very different attitudes to popular culture.»y advierte que el préstamo se hace por razones distintas y con actitudes muy distintas hacia la cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 186»

«On occasion, a particular theme might move backwards and forwards between the two traditions over the centuries. We know that Rabelais drew on»y el caso del vaivén: un tema podía moverse adelante y atrás entre las dos tradiciones a lo largo de los siglos, como el de Rabelais; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«Pastoral poetry drew on shepherds’ culture, but we also find genuine shepherds singing songs influenced by the conventions of learned pastoral.»y el quinto: la poesía pastoril tiró de la cultura de los pastores, y también se hallan pastores genuinos cantando canciones influidas por las convenciones de la pastoral docta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«One of the most striking instances of interaction between the learned and the popular traditions is the creation of the image of the witch.»y el caso que declara de los más llamativos: la creación de la imagen de la bruja como interacción entre tradición docta y tradición popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 188»

«More recent research suggests that both scholars were right – in part – since the image of the witch current in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries involved popular elements, like the belief that some people had the power to fly through the air or do their neighbours harm by supernatural means, but also learned elements, notably the idea of a pact with the devil.»y lo que la investigación reciente sugiere: que los dos tenían razón en parte, porque la imagen de la bruja corriente en los siglos XVI y XVII llevaba elementos populares —la creencia de que algunos podían volar por el aire o hacer daño a sus vecinos por medios sobrenaturales— y también elementos doctos, señaladamente la idea de un pacto con el diablo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 188»

«These interactions between learned and popular culture were made all the easier because, to add a final qualification to the Redfield model, a group of people stood between the great and the little traditions and acted as mediators.»y la cualificación final del modelo de Redfield: esas interacciones se facilitaban porque un grupo se situaba entre las dos tradiciones y actuaba de mediador

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 188»

«The literacy barrier did not coincide with the Latin barrier. Between learned culture and traditional oral culture came what might be called ‘chapbook culture’, the culture of the semi-literate, who had gone to school but not for long.»y dónde estaba: la barrera de la alfabetización no coincidía con la del latín, y entre la cultura docta y la oral tradicional venía lo que llama *cultura del pliego*, la de los semialfabetizados que fueron a la escuela pero no mucho tiempo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 188»

«That printed broadsides disseminated traditional ballads is well known. What needs more emphasis here is the fact that broadsides and chapbooks also drew on the great tradition.»y lo que quiere subrayar: se sabe bien que los pliegos impresos difundieron baladas tradicionales, y hace falta insistir en que también tiraron de la gran tradición

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 188»

«The existence of these booklets suggests that a public existed that was interested in the stories but could not afford the complete texts or could not understand them.»y lo que de ahí infiere: la existencia de esos cuadernillos sugiere un público interesado en las historias que no podía costear los textos completos o no podía entenderlos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 189»

«Another in-between group was composed of journeymen printers, who participated in artisan culture yet were familiar with the world of books. Like the noblewomen who collected songbooks, they were in a good position to mediate between the great and the little traditions.»y el otro grupo intermedio: los oficiales impresores, que participaban de la cultura artesana y conocían el mundo de los libros, y como las nobles que coleccionaban cancioneros estaban en buena posición para mediar entre las dos tradiciones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 189»

«R. Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago, IL, 1956), pp. 41–2. Cf. C. Wilcox, Robert Redfield and the Development of American Anthropology (Oxford, 2006), pp. 148–57.»la nota 3 da la fuente del modelo: *Peasant Society and Culture* de Robert Redfield, Chicago 1956, con el estudio de Clifford Wilcox sobre él

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 189»

«On France, N.Z. Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (London, 1975), pp. 99f., 111f.»la nota 5 remite el caso francés al *Society and Culture in Early Modern France* de Natalie Z. Davis

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 190»

«F. Lundgreen-Nielsen and H. Ruus (eds.) Svøbt i mår: Dansk Folkeviserkultur 1550–1700 (4 vols., Copenhagen, 1999– 2000), especially vol. 1. Cf. L. Kastilan's review in Lied und Populäre Kultur 47 (2002), pp. 288–94. On ‘matriarchives’, A. Walsham, Generations (Oxford, 2023), p. 499.»la nota 9 da la fuente de los cancioneros nobiliarios daneses y, para los *matriarchives*, el *Generations* de Alexandra Walsham

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 190»

«Every craftsman or peasant was involved in the transmission of popular culture, and so were their mothers, wives, and daughters. They passed it on every time they told a traditional story to someone else, while bringing up children necessarily involved transmitting the values of their culture or subculture.»abre el capítulo cuarto: todo artesano o campesino participaba de la transmisión de la cultura popular, y sus madres, esposas e hijas también, porque la pasaban cada vez que contaban un relato tradicional y porque criar hijos implicaba transmitir los valores de su cultura o subcultura

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«For a long time, religious beliefs were taught to children by their mothers, although there remains little evidence for this practice before the seventeenth century.»y una reserva de fuente: durante mucho tiempo las madres enseñaron a los hijos las creencias religiosas, aunque queda poca evidencia de esa práctica antes del siglo XVII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 208»

«Life in a pre-industrial society was organized on a hand-made, do-it-yourself basis to a degree that we can scarcely imagine now.»y el marco material: la vida en una sociedad preindustrial estaba organizada sobre una base artesanal y de hágalo usted mismo en un grado que hoy apenas cabe imaginar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 208»

«Shepherds made their own bagpipes as well as playing them. The men of the household made the furniture, and the women made the clothes; these were obvious winter occupations in the countryside.»con los ejemplos: los pastores hacían sus gaitas además de tocarlas, los hombres de la casa hacían los muebles y las mujeres la ropa, ocupaciones obvias de invierno en el campo

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«Anyone who fell ill or had an accident would be treated at home. Most entertainment was also organized on a do-it-yourself basis.»y lo extiende a la salud y al ocio: quien enfermaba o sufría un accidente se trataba en casa, y casi todo el entretenimiento se organizaba igual

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 208»

«Most, but not all. Neither the household nor the village was culturally autonomous. Within the village, some men and women told stories or sang better than others.»y el límite: casi todo y no todo, porque ni la casa ni la aldea eran culturalmente autónomas, y dentro de la aldea unos contaban o cantaban mejor que otros

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«The ‘cunning folk’ were mediators between the everyday world and the supernatural world and included ‘magicians, seers, fortune-tellers, healers’ as well as sorcerers and diviners.»y su definición: la *cunning folk* eran mediadores entre el mundo cotidiano y el sobrenatural e incluían magos, videntes, adivinos y sanadores, además de hechiceros y zahoríes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 209»

«Again, if villagers wanted a metal tool they would go to the local blacksmith or wait for a travelling pedlar to come to the village. Wandering minstrels or actors provided sporadic professional entertainment.»y las demás recurrencias fuera de la casa: el herrero local o el buhonero de paso para una herramienta de metal, los juglares y actores errantes para el entretenimiento profesional esporádico

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«It is with this minority of active ‘tradition-bearers’ or ‘carriers’, as folklorists call them, that this chapter is mainly concerned, describing the manner of people they were and the social settings in which they operated, and attempting to determine whether they were innovators or simply ‘keepers’ or ‘guardians’ of tradition.»y declara el objeto del capítulo: esa minoría de portadores activos, qué clase de gente eran, en qué escenarios sociales actuaban, y si eran innovadores o solo guardianes de la tradición

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 209»

«It is impossible to avoid the problem of definition. For example, what is a ‘popular’ artist?»y abre el apartado de los profesionales por la definición: qué es un artista *popular*

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«If the family or the cattle were sick and home-made remedies were of no avail, peasants»y lo que más importa aquí: si la familia o el ganado enfermaban y los remedios caseros no servían; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *would have recourse to a ‘cunning man’ or a ‘wise woman’, in other words a semi-professional healer*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 208»

«an artist who works mainly for a public of ordinary people. This will exclude Titian, say, or Rembrandt.»y responde: el artista popular es el que trabaja sobre todo para un público de gente común, con lo que quedan fuera Tiziano o Rembrandt; el troceo imprime la frase en columna de una palabra por renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 209»

«Unfortunately, in most cases less is known about the artists. In Norway and Sweden, on the other hand, something is known about hundreds of painters and carvers who worked in country districts in the eighteenth century, because they not infrequently signed and dated their works and also because local records reveal not only their dates of baptism, marriage, and burial but also something about their literacy, their knowledge of the catechism and even the amount of furniture in their homes»y el desnivel documental: de los artistas suele saberse menos, salvo en Noruega y Suecia, donde se conocen cientos de pintores y talladores rurales del siglo XVIII porque firmaban y fechaban sus obras y porque los registros locales dan sus bautismos, bodas y entierros y aun su alfabetización, su conocimiento del catecismo y los muebles de su casa

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«In addition, oral traditions about some of them have also survived. Some of these artists emerge as well-defined artistic personalities and as individuals enjoying a considerable local reputation.»y lo que eso permite: han sobrevivido además tradiciones orales sobre algunos, y varios emergen como personalidades artísticas definidas con reputación local considerable

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 210»

«Some of these artists were definitely professionals, although they might, like Corporal Reuter, have exercised another occupation earlier, and might also own a farm and derive an income from that.»y su condición: algunos eran profesionales sin duda, aunque pudieran haber ejercido otro oficio antes, como Reuter, y tener además una granja de la que sacaban renta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 210»

«They were often itinerant, working in the houses of their clients. Their training was informal. Painters might enlarge their repertoire by copying or adapting Dutch or German woodcuts or engravings, and they might pass their skills on to their children.»y su modo de trabajo: itinerantes a menudo, trabajando en casa de sus clientes, de formación informal, ampliando repertorio copiando o adaptando xilografías y grabados neerlandeses o alemanes y pasando la destreza a los hijos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 210»

«About makers of popular artefacts in other parts of Europe it is only possible to speak in more vague and general terms. In large towns there was a living to be made by specialist painters, like signpainters in London, who clustered in Harp Alley, or madonneri (painters of votive pictures to the Madonna), in Venice or Naples.»y el resto de Europa, donde solo cabe hablar en términos vagos: en las ciudades grandes vivían pintores especialistas, como los pintores de rótulos de Londres agrupados en Harp Alley o los *madonneri* de Venecia y Nápoles; el impreso parte *sign-painters* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *signpainters*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 211»

«Other artists tramped the countryside in search of work, from painting portraits to painting inn signs.»y los que recorrían el campo en busca de trabajo, del retrato al rótulo de posada

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«In some regions, where the clay was good for the purpose, as in the Italian Marches, whole villages of semi-professional potters might be found.»y las aldeas enteras de alfareros semiprofesionales donde la arcilla servía, como en las Marcas italianas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 211»

«Elsewhere the nearest thing to a professional artist might be the village blacksmith, for blacksmiths did not confine themselves to shoeing horses or repairing tools but made weathervanes and other decorative pieces of wrought iron as well.»y el herrero de aldea como lo más parecido a un artista profesional, porque no se limitaba a herrar y reparar sino que hacía veletas y otras piezas decorativas de hierro forjado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 211»

«In Alsace, south Germany and Austria blacksmiths made votive figures out of iron, and in Sweden, which was rich in the ore, they made monuments for graves from the same material.»y sus obras votivas: en Alsacia, el sur de Alemania y Austria hacían figuras votivas de hierro, y en Suecia, rica en el mineral, monumentos de tumba del mismo material

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 211»

«There is more to say about performers. These successors of the medieval minstrels were a motley and versatile group.»y pasa a los intérpretes, sucesores de los juglares medievales, a los que llama grupo variopinto y versátil

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 211»

«To use only terms which were current in England between 1500 and 1800, they included ballad singers, ‘bearwards’ [keepers of bears], buffoons, charlatans, clowns, comedians, fencers, fools, hocus-pocus men [conjurers], jugglers, merry-andrews, minstrels, mountebanks, players, puppet-masters, quacks, ropedancers, showmen, and tumblers.»y da su nomenclatura inglesa de 1500 a 1800: cantores de baladas, osarios, bufones, charlatanes, payasos, comediantes, esgrimidores, locos, hombres de *hocus-pocus*, malabaristas, juglares, saltimbanquis, actores, titiriteros, curanderos, danzantes de cuerda, feriantes y volteadores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 211»

«Even tooth-drawers, operating in the open and surrounded by spectators, may be viewed as a kind of performer. Individuals often played several of the roles listed above.»y añade a los sacamuelas, que operaban al aire libre rodeados de espectadores, con la advertencia de que un mismo individuo hacía a menudo varios de esos papeles

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 211»

«A buffoon, clown, or minstrel might sing or improvise verses, fence or dance on a rope, tumble or juggle with balls in the air.»y el repertorio de un bufón, payaso o juglar: cantar o improvisar versos, esgrimir, bailar en la cuerda, voltear o hacer juegos malabares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 212»

«These professional entertainers certainly put on a variety show. A ‘comedian’ was not confined to comic parts. A ‘player’ (German Spielmann, Slavic igrec) might play instruments, play a part, play the»y la variedad dentro de cada oficio: un *comedian* no se limitaba a papeles cómicos, y un *player* —el *Spielmann* alemán, el *igrec* eslavo— podía tocar instrumentos, hacer un papel o hacer el loco; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 211»

«The old Spanish term for minstrel, juglar – somewhat out of date by the sixteenth century – reminds us that the same person might tell stories or juggle with balls; and the Latin word from which it is derived, joculator, ‘joker’, also suggests that a minstrel was a general entertainer.»y la etimología con que lo sostiene: el viejo término español *juglar* recuerda que la misma persona podía contar historias o hacer malabares, y el latín *joculator*, bromista, del que deriva, sugiere que el juglar era un animador general

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 212»

«So impressive were the feats of some of these performers that ‘juggler’ came to mean ‘magician’, while the term ‘conjuror’, which had originally meant someone who conjured up spirits, came by the eighteenth century to refer to someone who practised legerdemain, eating fire or pulling long coloured ribbons out of his mouth.»y el deslizamiento semántico que más importa aquí: tan impresionantes eran las hazañas de algunos que *juggler* pasó a significar *mago*, mientras *conjuror*, que al principio designaba a quien conjuraba espíritus, pasó en el siglo XVIII a designar a quien practicaba juegos de manos, comía fuego o sacaba largas cintas de colores de la boca

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 212»

«Actors and actresses too were sometimes believed to be in league with the Devil, who was known as the great master of illusions.»y la sospecha que pesaba sobre los actores: a veces se los creía en liga con el diablo, conocido como el gran maestro de las ilusiones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 212»

«There were also showmen and women, entrepreneurs who showed performing bears or monkeys, puppets, relics, waxworks, or a ‘peepshow’, offering views of battles or exotic cities such as Constantinople or Peking.»y los feriantes y feriantas: empresarios que exhibían osos o monos amaestrados, títeres, reliquias, figuras de cera o un *peepshow* con vistas de batallas o de ciudades exóticas como Constantinopla o Pekín

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 212»

«A cluster of terms that are now remembered as pejorative, such as ‘charlatan’, ‘mountebank’, and ‘quacksalver’ (or just ‘quack’), were not necessarily insulting in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, while their meanings were more precise than they became later.»y una enmienda de vocabulario: un racimo de términos hoy peyorativos —*charlatan*, *mountebank*, *quacksalver*— no eran necesariamente insultos en los siglos XVI y XVII, y su sentido era más preciso que después; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 212»

«The combination of healer and entertainer is an extremely old one. Healing was, and still is in some parts of the world, a social drama, a public performance involving elaborate rituals and sometimes music as well»y la lectura que saca: la combinación de sanador y animador es antiquísima, porque curar era —y aún es en algunas partes del mundo— un drama social, una ejecución pública con rituales elaborados y a veces música

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 213»

«In Italy, the word ciarlatano (or ciurmatore) might mean a hawker of medicines or a street actor. The ciarlatani who performed on the piazza were distinguished from the higher status comedianti who acted in private houses.»y el matiz italiano: *ciarlatano* o *ciurmatore* podía significar vendedor de medicinas o actor callejero, y los *ciarlatani* de la plaza se distinguían de los *comedianti* de más rango que actuaban en casas particulares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 213»

«The ‘mountebank’ was the charlatan mounted on a bench or stage, surrounded by somewhat more elaborate properties.»y el del *mountebank*: el charlatán montado en un banco o tablado, rodeado de tramoya algo más elaborada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 213»

«There were also saltimbanchi, acrobats on benches, and cantimbanchi, singers on benches (known in German as Bänkelsänger).»y los parientes: *saltimbanchi*, acróbatas sobre bancos, y *cantimbanchi*, cantores sobre bancos, los *Bänkelsänger* alemanes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 213»

«These singers often furnished themselves with a set of illustrations to their ballads and a pointer to direct the attention of the audience.»y su técnica: esos cantores solían proveerse de una serie de ilustraciones de sus baladas y un puntero para dirigir la atención del público

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 213»

«They might also sell copies of the ballads to the audience after the performance. In other words, they were hawkers, ‘ballad-mongers’, as well as singers»y su comercio: podían vender copias de las baladas al público tras la actuación, de modo que eran vendedores de baladas además de cantores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 213»

«In German, these singers were also known as Gassensänger or Marktsänger because they sang in the streets or marketplaces, or as Avisensänger (newssingers), when they specialized in songs about current events.»y sus nombres alemanes: *Gassensänger* o *Marktsänger* por cantar en calles y mercados, o *Avisensänger*, cantores de noticias, cuando se especializaban en sucesos de actualidad; el impreso parte *news-singers* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *newssingers*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 213»

«They sometimes included women, as in the case of the fifty Liederweiber or ‘song-wives’ active in Vienna in 1797, while others were active in eighteenth-century London.»y las mujeres del oficio: las cincuenta *Liederweiber* activas en Viena en 1797 y otras en el Londres del XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 213»

«The skomorokhi of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries recited ballads (byliny), played the fool, wrestled, juggled, put performing bears through their repertoire of tricks, and presented puppet-shows in the street»y su repertorio: los *skomorokhi* de los siglos XVI y XVII recitaban *byliny*, hacían el loco, luchaban, hacían malabares, sacaban a los osos amaestrados su repertorio de trucos y presentaban títeres en la calle

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 214»

«The charlatans, for example (or opérateurs, as they were sometimes known in France), were itinerant sellers of pills or»y define a los charlatanes, u *opérateurs* en Francia: vendedores ambulantes de píldoras; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *other medicines, who might clown or use an amusing patter to attract the attention of potential customers*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 212»

«These associations of names, ideas and occupations were not confined to Western Europe. The Russian term skomorokh might be»y su alcance oriental: esas asociaciones no se limitaban a Europa occidental, y el término ruso *skomorokh* podía traducirse de varias maneras; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *translated variously as ‘minstrel’, ‘player’, ‘buffoon’, or ‘acrobat’*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 213»

«Rarely described at any length, these performers were often mentioned in passing, and from these many fragments some kind of general picture does emerge.»y declara la calidad de su evidencia: rara vez descritos con extensión, esos intérpretes se mencionaban de pasada, y de esos fragmentos emerge algún cuadro general

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 214»

«The men who worked such pitches as Piazza S. Marco in Venice, Piazza Navona in Rome, or the Pont-Neuf in Paris must have been among the aristocrats of their profession.»y los que ocupaban los mejores sitios: quienes trabajaban la plaza de San Marcos en Venecia, la Navona en Roma o el Pont-Neuf en París debieron de estar entre los aristócratas de su profesión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 214»

«Given the size of these cities, they will have had little need to move in order to make a living, unlike most of their colleagues.»y por qué: dado el tamaño de esas ciudades, necesitaban poco moverse para vivir, a diferencia de casi todos sus colegas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 214»

«Below this small and relatively respectable group came the mass of the profession, who spent their lives on the move.»y el grueso del oficio: bajo ese grupo pequeño y relativamente respetable venía la masa de la profesión, que pasaba la vida en movimiento

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 215»

«Since the population density of early modern Europe was low relative to that of the twentieth century, many more services had to be provided on an itinerant basis.»y su razón demográfica: como la densidad de población de la Europa moderna temprana era baja respecto de la del siglo XX, muchos más servicios tenían que prestarse de forma itinerante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 215»

«Entertainers, like tinkers and pedlars, travelled from place to place. It was easier to change their audience than their repertoire, and to change their audience they had to travel from town to town or from fair to fair, stopping at such villages as might be on the way.»y el cálculo del oficio: los animadores viajaban como caldereros y buhoneros, porque era más fácil cambiar de público que de repertorio, y para cambiar de público había que ir de ciudad en ciudad o de feria en feria

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 215»

«In Central Europe in particular, they were no respecters of political frontiers, and it is to individuals such as these – at least as much as to archaic Indo-European traditions – that European popular culture owed its unity.»y la tesis que saca: en Europa central no respetaban fronteras políticas, y la cultura popular europea debía su unidad a individuos así al menos tanto como a tradiciones indoeuropeas arcaicas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 215»

«They might stay from four to six days in the same place to perform a comedy, two autos (religious plays), and three or four comic interludes.»y su repertorio: podían quedarse de cuatro a seis días en el mismo sitio para dar una comedia, dos autos y tres o cuatro entremeses

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 216»

«Such wandering musicians often figure in the records of almsgiving by churches in sixteenth-century Languedoc. Some were priests, which tells us something about the lack of wealth and the low status of the parish clergy at this time.»y su rastro documental: esos músicos errantes figuran a menudo en los registros de limosnas de las iglesias del Languedoc del XVI, y algunos eran sacerdotes, lo que dice algo de la pobreza y el bajo estatus del clero parroquial

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 217»

«Some played the vielle, others the serpent (a wind instrument that looked like a snake).»y sus instrumentos: unos tocaban la *vielle* y otros el serpentón, instrumento de viento con forma de serpiente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 217»

«By the eighteenth century the hurdy-gurdy had been replaced by a fiddle, but some chanteurs-chansonniers or ballad-mongers still wandered about like journeymen on their tour de France, though others were fixed in Paris.»y el cambio del XVIII: la zanfona quedó reemplazada por el violín, y algunos *chanteurs-chansonniers* seguían vagando como oficiales en su *tour de France* mientras otros se fijaban en París

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 217»

«In Italy the cantastorie, or ‘singers of tales’, also wandered from place to place, singing in the piazza and accompanying themselves on some instrument, usually the viola.»y los italianos: los *cantastorie* vagaban también de sitio en sitio, cantando en la plaza y acompañándose de algún instrumento, por lo común la viola

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 217»

«Their epics were sometimes so long that the recital might have to be spread over several successive days.»y la escala de su repertorio: sus épicas eran a veces tan largas que el recital había de repartirse en varios días seguidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 217»

«In Serbia, such singers of tales were called guslari, because they accompanied themselves on the gusle, a kind of onestringed fiddle. In Russia they were known as kobzari because they played the kobza, another variety of lute.»y sus equivalentes del este: en Serbia se llamaban *guslari* por el *gusle*, una especie de violín de una cuerda, y en Rusia *kobzari* por la *kobza*, otra variedad de laúd; el impreso parte *one-stringed* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *onestringed*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 217»

«Their rivals were the kaleki, who specialized in songs about the saints.»y sus rivales: los *kaleki*, especializados en canciones sobre los santos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 217»

«In Wales and Ireland, it was the harp that was the favourite instrument of the nomadic entertainer, while in Spain, by the end of the period, it was the guitar.»y los instrumentos preferidos según la región: el arpa en Gales e Irlanda, y hacia el final del periodo la guitarra en España

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 217»

«Professional entertainers were in many ways a distinctive group. They wore unusual clothes, gay and parti-coloured.»y sus marcas: los animadores profesionales eran en muchos sentidos grupo distintivo, con ropa inusual, alegre y de dos colores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 217»

«Many were from Savoy, where the land was not fertile enough to support the whole population and many young men had to leave, especially for the winter months.»y otros de Saboya, donde la tierra no daba para sostener a toda la población y muchos jóvenes debían marcharse, sobre todo en invierno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 218»

«Where the Swiss became mercenaries, the Savoyards turned pedlars, fiddlers, fluteplayers, organ-grinders, fortune-tellers or showmen, with a peepshow strapped to their backs or a marmot on a leash.»y en qué se hacían: donde los suizos se volvían mercenarios, los saboyanos se hacían buhoneros, violinistas, flautistas, organilleros, adivinos o feriantes, con un *peepshow* a la espalda o una marmota atada; el impreso parte *flute-players* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *fluteplayers*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 218»

«Like other nomads, these travelling folk did not always enjoy a good reputation with more sedentary people. The sons of the German players were considered unehrlich, ‘lacking in honour’, and so, like the sons of hangmen and gravediggers, ineligible for membership in guilds.»y su reputación: como otros nómadas, no siempre gozaban de buena fama entre los sedentarios, y a los hijos de los actores alemanes se los tenía por *unehrlich*, faltos de honra, y como a los de verdugos y sepultureros se los excluía de los gremios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 218»

«The German players were not infrequently accused of witchcraft, and the skomorokhi, too, had the reputation of sorcerers, no doubt because of their conjuring tricks.»y la acusación que más importa aquí: a los actores alemanes se los acusaba no pocas veces de brujería, y los *skomorokhi* tenían igualmente fama de hechiceros, sin duda por sus juegos de manos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 218»

«The travelling entertainers were often regarded as beggars, and it must sometimes have been difficult to distinguish the professional singer who had fallen on evil days from the beggar who sang or played because he could not ask for charity without losing his selfrespect.»y la frontera borrosa con la mendicidad: a los animadores errantes se los tenía a menudo por mendigos, y debió de ser difícil distinguir al cantor profesional venido a menos del mendigo que cantaba o tocaba por no pedir caridad sin perder el respeto propio; el impreso parte *self-respect* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *selfrespect*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 218»

«In any case, the distinction can scarcely have meant much to the magistrates, sedentary members of the upper classes concerned with the virtues of order and hard work.»y a quién no le importaba la distinción: a los magistrados, miembros sedentarios de las clases altas ocupados de las virtudes del orden y el trabajo duro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 218»

«Such terms often reflect stereotypes rather than realities, but in this case, there is a good deal of supporting evidence. In eighteenth-century Palermo and Madrid, for instance, the blind ballad-singers had their own fraternity and their own privileges.»y la cautela con la evidencia: esos términos reflejan a menudo estereotipos y no realidades, y aquí hay bastante evidencia de apoyo, porque en el Palermo y el Madrid del XVIII los cantores ciegos tenían cofradía y privilegios propios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 219»

«The Russian kobzari and kaleki – whose name means ‘cripple’ – were often described as blind.»y el caso ruso: los *kobzari* y los *kaleki* —cuyo nombre significa *tullido*— se describían a menudo como ciegos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 219»

«The reader may well be wondering what percentage of the population of Europe was blind in those days – presumably it was considerably higher than now – or why blind men should have predominated in Homer's profession – perhaps because the lack of visual distractions helped them remember songs, or perhaps because a gifted man with all his faculties was unlikely to choose this dishonourable occupation.»y las dos explicaciones que ensaya sin decidirse: por qué predominaban los ciegos en el oficio de Homero, quizá porque la falta de distracciones visuales los ayudaba a recordar las canciones, o quizá porque un hombre dotado y con todas sus facultades difícilmente elegiría una ocupación tan deshonrosa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 219»

«Many of these vagabond-entertainers seem to have been blind. In»y un rasgo que consigna: muchos de esos animadores vagabundos parecen haber sido ciegos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el *ciego* español

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 218»

«There were also a number of holy women, known as ‘living saints’ and especially active in Italy in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, a time of war, famine, and plague. Some of these holy women, who were usually of humble origin and sometimes illiterate, prophesied, or were said to work miracles.»y las santas errantes: un número de mujeres santas llamadas *santas vivas*, especialmente activas en la Italia de fines del XV y principios del XVI, tiempo de guerra, hambre y peste, por lo común de origen humilde y a veces iletradas, que profetizaban o de las que se decía que hacían milagros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 220»

«Prominent among the itinerant preachers were the friars. St Francis had described his own order as ‘god's minstrels’ (joculatores Domini), and the parallel was in fact a close one in many respects.»y los frailes entre los predicadores itinerantes: san Francisco llamó a su orden *juglares de Dios*, y el paralelo, dice Burke, era en muchos aspectos estrecho

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 220»

«Like the minstrels, the friars wandered from town to town and often performed in the marketplace – for the churches were not big enough to hold everyone who came to listen to them.»y en qué: como los juglares, los frailes iban de ciudad en ciudad y actuaban a menudo en el mercado, porque las iglesias no eran bastante grandes para todos los que venían a oírlos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 220»

«Contemporaries estimated the numbers of some of the crowds at 20,000, and some people arrived the night before to be sure of a place.»con las cifras que daban los contemporáneos: multitudes de veinte mil, y gente que llegaba la noche antes para asegurarse un sitio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 220»

«Some Protestant preachers followed the example of the friars. Anabaptist lay preachers wandered sixteenth-century Germany, and Calvinist preachers wandered the Cévennes.»y el lado protestante: predicadores laicos anabaptistas recorrían la Alemania del XVI y predicadores calvinistas las Cévennes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 221»

«In England at this time there were many’ enthusiastic’ sectarian lay preachers to be found making their way from one market or barn to another, performing cures as well as preaching sermons and learning from the cunning folk as well as from the clergy.»y lo que más importa aquí: en la Inglaterra de entonces había muchos predicadores laicos sectarios *entusiastas* yendo de mercado en granero, haciendo curas además de sermones y aprendiendo de la *cunning folk* tanto como del clero; el troceo imprime el apóstrofo desplazado en *many’ enthusiastic’*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 221»

«Among this crowd of travelling performers, there were a few»y abre el grupo cuyo fin no era entretener; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *whose chief aim was not to entertain*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 219»

«The professional tradition-bearers described so far are only the tip of the iceberg. The rest are barely visible. There were also amateurs and semi-professionals, part-time specialists who had another occupation but might derive a supplementary income from their singing, playing or healing.»abre el apartado de los aficionados: los portadores profesionales descritos son solo la punta del iceberg, y había además aficionados y semiprofesionales con otro oficio que sacaban un ingreso suplementario de cantar, tocar o curar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 222»

«Generally speaking, though, amateurs performed rather than making things. They left traces in the surviving records only when they were organized into societies or attracted the attention of the upper classes or the authorities for some reason, either because they were outstanding performers, or because they were suspected of sedition, heresy, or witchcraft.»y la regla general y su sesgo documental: los aficionados actuaban más que hacían cosas, y solo dejaron rastro en los registros cuando se organizaban en sociedades o llamaban la atención de las clases altas o de las autoridades, por sobresalir o por ser sospechosos de sedición, herejía o brujería

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 222»

«In Western Europe, where cities were more important than elsewhere, plays and other festivities were often mounted by town craftsmen and organized by their guilds, by religious fraternities, or by clubs with fancy titles like the ‘Abbeys’ of Folly and Misrule.»y el caso de Europa occidental: las piezas y festividades las montaban a menudo los artesanos de la ciudad y las organizaban sus gremios, las cofradías religiosas o clubes de títulos caprichosos como las *abadías* de la locura y el desgobierno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 222»

«In the Netherlands, the so-called ‘chambers of rhetoric’ (rederijkkamers), in which merchants and artisans were involved, both wrote and performed plays.»y el neerlandés: las llamadas *cámaras de retórica*, en que participaban mercaderes y artesanos, escribían y representaban piezas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 223»

«In the sixteenth century, religious plays written and acted by members of these chambers contributed to the spread of the Reformation.»y su efecto religioso: en el siglo XVI las piezas religiosas escritas y actuadas por miembros de esas cámaras contribuyeron a la difusión de la Reforma

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 223»

«Rural amateur dramatics seem to have been exceptionally important – or at least, exceptionally well-documented – in Flanders, perhaps because the region was relatively urbanized, making it easier for villagers to imitate the ways of townsmen.»y el caso flamenco: el teatro aficionado rural parece haber sido excepcionalmente importante, o al menos excepcionalmente documentado, en Flandes, quizá porque la región estaba relativamente urbanizada y a los aldeanos les era más fácil imitar a los de la ciudad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 223»

«These organizations were at once expressions of civic patriotism, the cultural equivalent of feasts and shootingcompetitions of the citizen-militia, and an indication of how seriously the performing arts were taken at that time.»y lo que significaban: eran a la vez expresión de patriotismo cívico, equivalente cultural de los banquetes y concursos de tiro de la milicia ciudadana, e indicio de cuán en serio se tomaban entonces las artes escénicas; el impreso parte *shooting-competitions* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *shootingcompetitions*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 223»

«In German towns, too, groups of craftsmen, sometimes organized into fraternities or Bruderschaften, mounted plays and pageants, especially for Carnival.»y el alemán: grupos de artesanos, a veces organizados en *Bruderschaften*, montaban piezas y desfiles, sobre todo para el carnaval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 223»

«One wonders how he found the time to make any shoes.»y el comentario con que lo cierra: uno se pregunta cómo halló Sachs tiempo para hacer zapatos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 224»

«Alternatively, the various wards of the city might organize festivities, as they did in Siena, where the contrade organized the famous race, il palio, in this period, as they still do today.»y otra forma de organización: los barrios de la ciudad podían encargarse de las fiestas, como las *contrade* de Siena organizaban entonces el palio, como aún hoy

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 224»

«Poems as well as plays were composed and recited by craftsmen in the chambers of rhetoric and in their French equivalent, the puys. Regular poetry competitions took place, notably the jocs florals in Toulouse, and prizes were given.»y la poesía: los artesanos componían y recitaban poemas en las cámaras de retórica y en su equivalente francés, los *puys*, con certámenes regulares como los *jocs florals* de Tolosa y premios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 224»

«Sixteenth-century German Meistergesang was largely an art practised by craftsmen, notably tailors, weavers, and shoemakers. The complicated metres must have made the art as difficult to master as the elaborate goldsmith's work cultivated at the time in the same German cities.»y el *Meistergesang* alemán del XVI: arte practicado en gran parte por artesanos, sobre todo sastres, tejedores y zapateros, con metros tan complicados que debieron de hacerlo tan difícil de dominar como la orfebrería elaborada de esas mismas ciudades

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 224»

«At Montpellier and elsewhere, students were prominent in this kind of performance and even now, some 400 years after the event, some of their pieces may still remind the academic reader of the atmosphere of a rag or a student revue.»y los estudiantes: destacaban en Montpellier y otros sitios, y algunas de sus piezas, cuatro siglos después, aún pueden recordar al lector académico la atmósfera de una novatada o una revista estudiantil

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 224»

«In these cases (all of which come, significantly, from the first half of our period), we see the educated and the upper classes participating collectively in popular culture.»y lo que esos casos muestran, con el dato cronológico que subraya: todos vienen de la primera mitad del periodo, y en ellos se ve a los educados y a las clases altas participando colectivamente de la cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 224»

«It is likely that off the main routes, the semi-professionals were dominant in this period, recruited in the main from itinerant occupations, including tailor.»y su reparto geográfico: es probable que fuera de las rutas principales dominaran los semiprofesionales, reclutados sobre todo entre oficios itinerantes, el de sastre incluido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 225»

«A few members of this group who achieved fame or turned professional have left valuable details about their earlier lives. Some emerge into visibility at just the moment when they were ceasing to»y la paradoja de la evidencia: unos pocos de ese grupo que alcanzaron fama o se hicieron profesionales dejaron detalles valiosos de su vida anterior, y algunos se vuelven visibles justo cuando dejaban de ser poetas populares; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 225»

«More obscure are the part-time storytellers, musicians, preachers, and healers, who were not taken up by the great as the poets were.»y los más oscuros: los narradores, músicos, predicadores y sanadores a tiempo parcial, a quienes los grandes no acogieron como a los poetas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 226»

«Something is known about individual musicians only when the authorities tried to regulate them, as they did, for example, in Sweden and Switzerland.»y el sesgo de la documentación musical: de los músicos concretos solo se sabe algo cuando las autoridades trataron de regularlos, como en Suecia y en Suiza

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 227»

«These women were also familiar figures in Ireland (where they were known as ‘keeners’), in the Scottish Highlands and in Russia.»y su extensión: esas mujeres eran figura familiar también en Irlanda, donde se las llamaba *keeners*, en las Tierras Altas escocesas y en Rusia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 227»

«A greater worry to the authorities were lay preachers, prophets, healers, and diviners. A few achieved fame before their mouths were stopped.»y quiénes inquietaban más a las autoridades, que es lo que más importa aquí: los predicadores laicos, los profetas, los sanadores y los adivinos, de los que unos pocos alcanzaron fama antes de que les taparan la boca; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«Popular healers and diviners can be found in many parts of early modern Europe with different titles but similar techniques.»y la comparación que abre: sanadores y adivinos populares se hallan en muchas partes de la Europa moderna temprana, con títulos distintos y técnicas semejantes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«They treated their patients with herbs, or, as in Spain, with bread moistened in the healer's mouth; with their spittle, or with a variety of charms, prayers, and rituals in which candles and in Catholic countries holy oil and even consecrated wafers had their part.»y sus remedios: hierbas, pan humedecido en la boca del sanador como en España, saliva, o una variedad de ensalmos, oraciones y ritos en que entraban velas y, en los países católicos, óleo bendito y aun hostias consagradas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«Some specialized in particular ailments, such as snakebite in the case of the giravoli. Others were more general practitioners, treating both animals and men.»y su reparto: unos se especializaban en dolencias particulares, como la mordedura de serpiente entre los *giravoli*, y otros eran generalistas que trataban a animales y a hombres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«Some of them practiced ‘soothsaying’ or divination as well, finding lost money, discovering the faces of thieves in a bowl of water (the crystal ball is a more recent piece of equipment)»y lo que más importa aquí: algunos practicaban también la adivinación, hallando dinero perdido o descubriendo la cara de los ladrones en un cuenco de agua, con la observación de que la bola de cristal es un instrumento más reciente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«or revealing their identities by means of a sieve that was balanced on the points of a pair of shears and turned when the guilty person was named, like the Ouija board in later spiritualist séances.»y la otra técnica: revelar la identidad del culpable con una criba en equilibrio sobre las puntas de unas tijeras, que giraba al nombrarse al culpable, como el tablero de ouija en las sesiones espiritistas posteriores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«The wise woman was often a midwife, who might assist the woman in labour with spells as well as the official prayers»y el oficio de la *wise woman*: era a menudo partera y podía asistir a la parturienta con conjuros además de con las oraciones oficiales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«In Sweden the kloka included Lapps, whom the Swedes regarded as not completely human, and also clergymen, smiths, and musicians, three occupations traditionally associated with magical powers (a ballad collected in eighteenth-century Scotland, Child 44, represents the ‘coal-black smith’ as practising magic.»y el caso sueco: entre los *kloka* había lapones, a quienes los suecos tenían por no del todo humanos, y también clérigos, herreros y músicos, tres oficios tradicionalmente asociados a poderes mágicos, con una balada escocesa del XVIII que presenta al herrero negro como practicante de magia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 229»

«Some healers boasted that they had been born under a favourable constellation or with their heads covered by the ‘caul’ (a fragment of the amniotic membrane).»y las credenciales de nacimiento: algunos sanadores se jactaban de haber nacido bajo una constelación favorable o con la cabeza cubierta por el *caul*, un fragmento de la membrana amniótica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 229»

«How they learned their craft we rarely know. Presumably the knowledge was handed down in the family, perhaps supplemented by memories of an urban charlatan, who may be viewed as a cunning man on a somewhat grander scale.»y el hueco que declara: rara vez se sabe cómo aprendían el oficio, y presumiblemente el saber se transmitía en la familia, quizá completado con recuerdos de algún charlatán urbano, al que cabe ver como un *cunning man* a escala algo mayor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 229»

«In France, the cunning man was sometimes known as a conjureur or maige (magician), while wise women were commonly described as witches.»y los nombres que recibían en Francia: al *cunning man* se lo llamaba a veces *conjureur* o *maige*, mago, mientras a las mujeres sabias se las describía comúnmente como brujas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 229»

«This fearsome reputation is hardly surprising. Their clients had recourse to them only for whatever they could not heal by themselves, suggesting a supernatural origin.»y por qué esa fama temible no sorprende: los clientes recurrían a ellos solo para lo que no podían curar por sí mismos, lo que sugería un origen sobrenatural

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 229»

«In any case, how could the cunning folk acquire their familiarity with the supernatural, if not with the devil's aid?»y la pregunta que la sostenía: cómo iba a adquirir la *cunning folk* su familiaridad con lo sobrenatural si no era con ayuda del diablo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 229»

«Photographs of cunning folk taken in Finland and in Sweden in the early twentieth century, when the tradition still flourished, show them with wide, staring yet vacant eyes, frightening enough when encountered merely between the pages of a book.»y el testimonio visual que aduce: las fotografías de *cunning folk* tomadas en Finlandia y Suecia a principios del siglo XX, cuando la tradición aún florecía, los muestran con ojos muy abiertos, fijos y vacíos, bastante espantosos ya solo entre las páginas de un libro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 229»

«It is hardly surprising that an occupational hazard of this profession was to be accused of witchcraft and the evil eye.»y el riesgo que repite: no sorprende que un peligro del oficio fuera ser acusado de brujería y de mal de ojo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 229»

«Catharina cured people from trollskotter, ‘magic shots’, as ailments of unknown origin were called, and she cast out evil spirits.»y en qué consistía su práctica: curaba a la gente de los *trollskotter*, *tiros mágicos*, como se llamaba a las dolencias de origen desconocido, y expulsaba espíritus malignos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 230»

«She also sent out her own spirit to discover what was happening in other places. She asked her patients if they had enemies and told them to seek reconciliation.»y sus otras técnicas: enviaba su propio espíritu a averiguar qué pasaba en otros lugares, preguntaba a sus pacientes si tenían enemigos y les decía que buscaran reconciliarse

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 230»

«These details suggest that Catharina might be described in traditional terms as a shamaness and in modern terms as a cross between a medium and a psychiatrist.»y las dos lecturas que propone: esos detalles sugieren que Catharina podría describirse en términos tradicionales como chamana y en términos modernos como algo entre médium y psiquiatra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 230»

«In England they were known as ‘cunning men’ and ‘wise women’; in Sweden, similarly, as kloka gubbarna and visa käringarna; in Poland as mądry, ‘wise ones’; in Russia as znakhar’ or ved’ma (‘knowers’); in»y da la nomenclatura europea de sanadores y adivinos: *cunning men* y *wise women* en Inglaterra, *kloka gubbarna* y *visa käringarna* en Suecia, *mądry* —sabios— en Polonia y *znakhar'* o *ved'ma* —conocedores— en Rusia; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con España y Sicilia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«Spain, as saludadores, ‘healers’; in Sicily, as giravoli, ‘wanderers’; and so on.»continuación: *saludadores* en España y *giravoli*, errantes, en Sicilia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«while the cunning man might exercise all sorts of occupations. In northern»y el *cunning man*, que podía ejercer toda clase de ocupaciones; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«Italy in the sixteenth century, there are references to healers who were peasants, priests, shepherds, masons»continuación: en el norte de Italia del siglo XVI hay referencias a sanadores que eran campesinos, sacerdotes, pastores y albañiles; el troceo imprime la enumeración en columna de una palabra por renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 229»

«To understand any item of culture we need to place it in context, including its social setting – public or private, indoor or outdoor»abre el apartado de los escenarios: para entender cualquier ítem de cultura hay que situarlo en su contexto, incluido el escenario social, público o privado, bajo techo o al aire libre

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 230»

«for this physical space helps to structure the events which take place in it.»y por qué: ese espacio físico ayuda a estructurar los acontecimientos que ocurren en él; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 230»

«In so far as popular culture was transmitted at home, within doors, it virtually escapes the historian of this period.»y el hueco documental que eso abre: en la medida en que la cultura popular se transmitía en casa, puertas adentro, escapa prácticamente al historiador del periodo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 230»

«Only by projecting backwards the descriptions of ‘tale occasions’ given by modern folklorists and juxtaposing them to some fictional accounts of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries can we imagine the setting for traditional narratives: a storyteller seated in a chair – if there was one – by the fire on a winter evening, or a group of women congregating in the house of one of them to spin and to tell stories while they worked.»y el único modo de imaginarla: proyectar hacia atrás las descripciones de *ocasiones de cuento* que dan los folcloristas modernos y cotejarlas con relatos de ficción del XVI y el XVII, con un narrador sentado junto al fuego en una noche de invierno o un grupo de mujeres reunidas a hilar y contar historias mientras trabajaban

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 230»

«Fortunately, there is much more to say about public settings, three in particular: the church, the tavern and the marketplace.»y enumera los tres escenarios públicos de los que sí hay mucho que decir: la iglesia, la taberna y el mercado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«In this period as in the Middle Ages, the church was often used for secular purposes, in spite of objections from both Catholic and Protestant clergy.»y el primero: en el periodo como en la Edad Media la iglesia se usaba a menudo para fines seculares, pese a las objeciones del clero católico y protestante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«The churchyard was used for dancing and feasting by the Lord of Misrule and his merry men.»y en qué: el cementerio servía para bailar y banquetear al Lord of Misrule y sus alegres compañeros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«The church itself was the setting for the parish ‘wake’ (French veille, Italian veglia), which are documented mainly from attempts to suppress them.»y la iglesia misma era escenario de la *vela* parroquial, documentada sobre todo por los intentos de suprimirla

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«On the eve of the feast of their patron saint, the parishioners might spend the night in church, eating and drinking, singing and dancing.»y en qué consistía: en la víspera de la fiesta del santo patrono, los feligreses podían pasar la noche en la iglesia comiendo y bebiendo, cantando y bailando

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«The persistence of this custom tells us something about the lack of social facilities in the villages of the period but also about popular attitudes to the sacred: more intimate, more familiar than they were later to become.»y lo que Burke lee en su persistencia: dice algo de la falta de locales sociales en las aldeas del periodo y también de las actitudes populares hacia lo sagrado, más íntimas y familiares de lo que llegarían a ser después

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«The church was especially important as a cultural centre in regions where people lived in scattered homesteads, as in Norway, and might not otherwise meet.»y dónde pesaba más: la iglesia era centro cultural especialmente importante donde la gente vivía en caseríos dispersos, como en Noruega, y no se encontraría de otro modo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«Still more important a centre for popular culture in town and country was the inn, tavern, alehouse, or beer-cellar.62 For England between 1500 and 1800, the evidence is overwhelming.»y el segundo escenario, aún más importante en ciudad y campo: la posada, la taberna, la cervecería, con evidencia abrumadora para la Inglaterra de 1500 a 1800

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«Inns were places for watching cockfights or for playing cards or backgammon, throwing dice or bowling at nine-pins. Minstrels and harpers performed in taverns and there was dancing, sometimes with hobbyhorses.»y qué se hacía en ellas: ver peleas de gallos, jugar a las cartas, al chaquete, a los dados o a los bolos, oír a juglares y arpistas y bailar, a veces con caballitos de palo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«Broadside ballads were sometimes pasted on the walls of inns so that more people could join in the singing.»y otro uso de las paredes: las baladas de pliego se pegaban a veces en ellas para que más gente pudiera unirse al canto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«The host and the customers passed on rumours and gossip, criticized the authorities and, during the Reformation, disputed about the sacraments or the innovations in religion.»y qué se hablaba: el posadero y los clientes pasaban rumores y chismes, criticaban a las autoridades y, durante la Reforma, disputaban sobre los sacramentos o las innovaciones religiosas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«Even the godly might meet at inns to talk about religion, taking a private room to avoid interruption.»y hasta los piadosos: podían reunirse en la posada a hablar de religión, tomando un cuarto privado para no ser interrumpidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 232»

«English inns and taverns have been studied more carefully than their continental equivalents – apart from the Polish karczma – so that it remains difficult to say whether the English institution was of unique cultural importance or not.»y una reserva comparativa: las posadas inglesas se han estudiado con más cuidado que sus equivalentes continentales, salvo la *karczma* polaca, así que cuesta decir si la institución inglesa fue de importancia cultural única

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 232»

«Innkeepers might organize riots as well as festivals, notably in the German Peasants’ War of 1525.»y su otro papel: los posaderos podían organizar motines además de fiestas, señaladamente en la guerra de los campesinos alemana de 1525

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 232»

«Inns were associated with actors on the Continent as they were in England. References in German Carnival plays suggest that performances took place in this setting. We should imagine the troupe bursting in unexpectedly, asking for silence, and beginning»y el continente: las posadas se asociaban con los actores como en Inglaterra, y las referencias de las piezas carnavalescas alemanas sugieren que las funciones ocurrían allí, con la compañía irrumpiendo de improviso y pidiendo silencio; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *to perform*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 232»

«However, it is likely that the tavern was less important as a centre of entertainment in the south of Europe than in the north. In the Mediterranean countries, the real focus of popular culture was the piazza.»y la asimetría norte-sur: es probable que la taberna pesara menos como centro de entretenimiento en el sur de Europa, donde el foco real de la cultura popular era la plaza

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 233»

«What happened every day on the Pont-Neuf took place in many parts of Europe on market-days or during fairs. The economic importance of fairs in pre-industrial Europe is well-known; they were itinerant shopping-centres, the counterpart to the pedlar on a grander scale.»y el equivalente periódico: lo que pasaba a diario en el Pont-Neuf ocurría en muchas partes de Europa en los días de mercado o durante las ferias, que eran centros comerciales itinerantes, contrapartida del buhonero a escala mayor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 234»

«At fairs villagers would have a chance to buy chapbooks or pottery figures that they might never otherwise see.»y lo que traían al aldeano: la ocasión de comprar pliegos o figuras de barro que de otro modo no vería nunca

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 234»

«Together with the private house we may»y añade el granero a la casa particular; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *include the barn; the setting, as we have seen, for performances by wandering actors and preachers*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 230»

«It extended as far north as Lille, where singers»y su extensión al norte hasta Lille, donde actuaban los cantores; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *performed on the Petite Place*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 233»

«What needs more emphasis here is the non-economic aspect of the institution. Marketplaces and fairs were not only locations for sheep and horses to be traded and servants hired, but also for young people to meet away from family supervision, and for everyone to watch travelling entertainers or dance or hear the latest news.»subraya el aspecto no económico de mercados y ferias: no eran solo sitios para vender ovejas y caballos y contratar criados, sino también para que los jóvenes se encontraran lejos de la vigilancia familiar y para que todos vieran a los animadores errantes, bailaran u oyeran las últimas noticias

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 234»

«Other seventeenth-century evidence enables us to add horse-races and performances by tumblers, conjurers, preachers, puppets, and rope-dancers, perhaps the same puppets and rope-dancers who were to be seen at Bartholomew Fair a few days before.»y lo que otra evidencia del XVII permite añadir: carreras de caballos y funciones de volteadores, prestidigitadores, predicadores, títeres y danzantes de cuerda, quizá los mismos que se habían visto días antes en la feria de San Bartolomé

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 235»

«There is something odd in trying to generalize about individuality: it is obvious that some singers or storytellers or clowns or painters were more creative than others.»y lo que objeta a la pregunta misma: hay algo raro en tratar de generalizar sobre la individualidad, porque es obvio que unos cantores, narradores, payasos o pintores eran más creativos que otros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«In any case there is too little evidence about even the most famous tradition-bearers of the period 1500–1800 to support any clear-cut conclusion.»y el límite de la evidencia: hay demasiado poca sobre los portadores de tradición más famosos de 1500 a 1800 para sostener una conclusión tajante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«All that can be done at this point is to present some arguments against both extremes and to invite readers to make a choice from the middle bands of the spectrum.»y lo que declara poder hacer: presentar argumentos contra los dos extremos e invitar al lector a elegir en las bandas medias del espectro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«The extreme position that das Volk dichtet, that the people create collectively, is not difficult to refute.»y empieza por el primero: la posición extrema de que el pueblo crea colectivamente no es difícil de objetar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«We have seen that many individual performers and some craftsmen were known by name in this period and that some of them enjoyed a great reputation.»con el argumento: muchos intérpretes individuales y algunos artesanos se conocían por su nombre en el periodo y algunos gozaban de gran reputación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«That some performers were well aware of their gifts and liked to outdo their colleagues is known from the competitions which not infrequently took place between them.»y la segunda prueba: los certámenes que no pocas veces se celebraban entre ellos muestran que algunos intérpretes eran muy conscientes de sus dones y gustaban de superar a sus colegas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«In most cases they do not learn a song or story by heart but recreate it at every performance, a procedure that gives plenty of scope for innovation.»y el mecanismo: en la mayoría de los casos no aprenden de memoria la canción o el relato sino que los recrean en cada ejecución, procedimiento que deja amplio margen a la innovación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 237»

«The most important question to ask about these artisans and performers, professional and amateur, is also the most difficult to»abre la última sección con la pregunta que declara la más importante y la más difícil de responder; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *answer. How great was their individual contribution?*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 235»

«That this was also how performers worked in early modern Europe is suggested by the fact that the ballads recorded in this period, like those written down later, come in a number of variants.»y el indicio de que así trabajaban también en la Europa moderna temprana: las baladas registradas entonces, como las escritas después, vienen en varias variantes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 237»

«It is not uncommon to find both the words and music of popular songs attributed to individuals, at least in the second half of our period.»y la atribución a individuos: no es raro hallar atribuidas a personas la letra y la música de canciones populares, al menos en la segunda mitad del periodo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 237»

«This evidence is obviously damaging to the Grimm thesis, but it should not lead us to conclude that the individual ‘authorship’ of a variant of a traditional song or story was exactly the same as the authorship of a literary work of the period.»y el límite que pone a su propio argumento: esa evidencia daña la tesis de los Grimm y no debe llevar a concluir que la autoría individual de una variante de canción o relato tradicional fuera exactamente lo mismo que la de una obra literaria del periodo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«Performers were aware of their debt to tradition. Hence, perhaps, the impersonality of traditional songs and stories, the lack of reference to an individual narrator.»y la explicación que propone: los intérpretes eran conscientes de su deuda con la tradición, y de ahí quizá la impersonalidad de las canciones y relatos tradicionales, la falta de referencia a un narrador individual

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«The audience was also aware that the performer was following tradition, and so they did not pass on the names of performers with their songs or stories.»y el otro lado: el público era consciente igualmente de que el intérprete seguía la tradición, y por eso no transmitía los nombres de los intérpretes con sus canciones o relatos; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«Hence the apparent anonymity of folksongs and folktales.»y la consecuencia: de ahí el anonimato aparente de canciones y cuentos populares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«If an individual produces innovations or variations which the community likes, these variations will be imitated and so pass into the common stock of tradition.»y el mecanismo: si un individuo produce innovaciones que a la comunidad le gustan, se imitarán y pasarán al fondo común de la tradición

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«If the innovations do not meet with approval, they will perish with the innovator, or even before.»y el reverso: si no encuentran aprobación, perecerán con el innovador o aun antes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«It is in this sense (apart from their sometimes noisy encouragement during the performance) that the people participate in the creation and transformation of popular culture, just as they participate in the creation and transformation of their native language.»y en qué sentido participa el pueblo: en ese, aparte del aliento a veces ruidoso durante la función, igual que participa de la creación y transformación de su lengua materna

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 239»

«In short, traditional performers were no mere mouthpieces for tradition, but on the other hand their innovations were at the mercy of their public.»y el balance del capítulo: los intérpretes tradicionales no eran meras bocas de la tradición, y sus innovaciones quedaban a merced de su público

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 239»

«They were neither ‘performer’ nor ‘composer’ in the precise modern sense of those terms. They produced their own variations, but within a traditional framework.»y la fórmula que lo cierra: no eran ni *intérpretes* ni *compositores* en el sentido moderno preciso, sino que producían sus propias variaciones dentro de un marco tradicional

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 239»

«Successive audiences exercise what the Russian linguist and»y la *censura preventiva* que los públicos sucesivos ejercen; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el nombre de Roman Jakobson, que el troceo imprime *Jacobson*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«The approach adopted in this chapter will be morphological. Its purpose is to describe the principal genres of artefact and performance in European popular culture and the formal conventions of each.»abre el capítulo quinto declarando su método morfológico: describir los géneros principales de artefacto y ejecución de la cultura popular europea y las convenciones formales de cada uno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 249»

«The term ‘genre’ must not be understood in too precise a sense. The conventions of different forms of popular culture were less strict than those of French classical tragedy, say, or Renaissance literary epic.»y acota el término: *género* no ha de entenderse en sentido demasiado preciso, porque las convenciones de las formas populares eran menos estrictas que las de la tragedia clásica francesa o la épica literaria renacentista

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 249»

«Yet there were conventions, and to ignore them is to risk missing the meaning of many images, texts, and performances.»y por qué importan: había convenciones, y desatenderlas es arriesgarse a perder el significado de muchas imágenes, textos y ejecuciones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 249»

«What follows is concerned with the code rather than the messages, a cultural code that needs to be mastered before the meaning of individual messages can be deciphered.»y el objeto del capítulo: el código antes que los mensajes, un código cultural que hay que dominar antes de descifrar los mensajes concretos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 249»

«It offers a brief inventory of the stock or repertoire of the forms and conventions of popular culture that were most important between 1500 and 1800, leaving change to be discussed in Chapters 8 and 9.»y su forma: un inventario breve del fondo o repertorio de formas y convenciones más importantes entre 1500 y 1800, dejando el cambio para los capítulos octavo y noveno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 249»

«In any one region this repertoire was fairly limited. Its riches are apparent only when the inventory is extended to the whole of Europe, when the variety becomes so extensive as almost to hide the recurrence of a few basic types.»y la escala en que se aprecia: en una región dada el repertorio era bastante limitado, y sus riquezas solo aparecen al extender el inventario a toda Europa, cuando la variedad casi esconde la recurrencia de unos pocos tipos básicos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 249»

«Popular culture may be described as a stock of forms (schemata, motifs, themes, and formulae), whether these forms are peculiar to one genre or shared by two or more of them.»y define su objeto: la cultura popular puede describirse como un fondo de formas —esquemas, motivos, temas y fórmulas—, propias de un género o compartidas por dos o más

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 250»

«It is the thesis of this section that folksongs and folktales, popular plays, and popular prints all need to be seen as combinations of elementary forms, permutations of elements that were more or less ready-made.»y enuncia la tesis del apartado: canciones y cuentos populares, piezas y estampas hay que verlos como combinaciones de formas elementales, permutaciones de elementos más o menos hechos de antemano

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 250»

«This point may be illustrated most easily in the case of music, the medium which most nearly approaches to ‘pure’ form.»y dónde se ilustra mejor: en la música, el medio que más se acerca a la forma *pura*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 250»

«These types are never quite the»y la fórmula sobre los tipos recurrentes; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *same in any two regions, but they are not so very different either*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 249»

«In societies or subcultures where music is not written down, the singers, fiddlers, or pipers do not keep tunes note by note in their head: they improvise. On the other hand, they do not improvise quite freely: they play variations on a theme.»y cómo funciona: donde la música no se escribe, cantores, violinistas y gaiteros no guardan las tonadas nota por nota en la cabeza sino que improvisan, y no improvisan del todo libremente sino que hacen variaciones sobre un tema

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 250»

«They add ornaments or grace notes to the basic tune, ornamenting it with slides, turns, trills, and so on, or making slight changes in the rhythm or pitch.»y en qué consisten: añaden adornos o notas de gracia a la tonada básica, con arrastres, giros y trinos, o con cambios leves de ritmo o altura

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 250»

«Hence, folk music comes in a multitude of versions or ‘variants’. There is no ‘correct’ version, for the idea of a correct version is meaningless in a period before tunes are written down. In oral tradition, the tune exists only in its variants.»y la consecuencia: la música popular viene en multitud de versiones o variantes, sin versión *correcta*, porque la idea misma de versión correcta carece de sentido antes de que las tonadas se escriban, y en la tradición oral la tonada solo existe en sus variantes; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 250»

«The second paradox is that in oral tradition, different tunes are the same. More exactly, different tunes may contain the same phrase or motif, lasting for perhaps two or three bars.»y la segunda paradoja: en la tradición oral tonadas distintas son la misma, o más exactamente pueden contener la misma frase o motivo, de acaso dos o tres compases

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 251»

«Motifs may be said to ‘wander’ or ‘float’ from one tune to another. Indeed, folk tunes are fundamentally combinations of ‘prefabricated’ motifs.»y su modo de circular: cabe decir que los motivos *vagan* o *flotan* de una tonada a otra, y que las tonadas populares son fundamentalmente combinaciones de motivos prefabricados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 251»

«These tune-foundations or tune-skeletons are the framework for improvisation and ornamentation – but the ornaments too are stereotyped.»y el alcance de lo prefabricado: esos cimientos o esqueletos de tonada son el marco de la improvisación y el ornamento, y también los ornamentos son estereotipados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 251»

«To put tunes together out of prefabricated elements may seem a somewhat mechanical procedure, but the habit of constant variation counteracts it.»y la objeción que se hace y responde: armar tonadas con elementos prefabricados puede parecer procedimiento mecánico, y el hábito de la variación constante lo contrarresta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 251»

«When two tunes contain several of the same motifs, it becomes impossible to say whether they are the same tune or not. In a given region, the tunes in circulation will be transformations of one another, and it will be impossible to say exactly how many tunes there are.»y lo que de ahí se sigue: cuando dos tonadas contienen varios motivos iguales resulta imposible decir si son la misma, y en una región dada las tonadas en circulación serán transformaciones unas de otras, sin que quepa decir cuántas hay

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 251»

«These points are much easier to demonstrate for the folk music of the age of Sharp and Kodály than they are for that of early modern Europe, but the fragmentary evidence that survives points in this direction.»y el límite de su evidencia: esos puntos son mucho más fáciles de demostrar para la música popular de la edad de Sharp y Kodály que para la de la Europa moderna temprana, aunque la evidencia fragmentaria que sobrevive apunta en esa dirección

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 251»

«The 750-odd melodies in these collections (which contain over a hundred folk tunes between them) may be divided into groups of variants, and there is no difficulty in identifying recurrent motifs.»y lo que muestran: las más de setecientas cincuenta melodías de esas colecciones pueden dividirse en grupos de variantes, y no hay dificultad en identificar motivos recurrentes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 251»

«the Italian forlana (Friuli), the French gavotte (Gap in Dauphiné), the Norwegian halling (Hallingdal), the Polish krakowiak (Cracow), and the Scots strathspey.»con los ejemplos: la *forlana* italiana por Friuli, la *gavotte* francesa por Gap en el Delfinado, el *halling* noruego por Hallingdal, el *krakowiak* polaco por Cracovia y el *strathspey* escocés

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 252»

«However, these local forms are variations on a few basic types: slow dances or quick ones, with or without twists and leaps, dances of love and dances of war, and dances for one person, for couples, and for groups.»y su reducción a tipos: esas formas locales son variaciones de unos pocos tipos básicos, danzas lentas o rápidas, con o sin giros y saltos, de amor y de guerra, y para una persona, para pareja y para grupo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 252»

«Hence, this art form offers a vivid illustration of the dynamic equilibrium between unity and variety that underlies all forms of popular culture in the early modern period.»y por qué le sirve: esa forma de arte ilustra vivamente el equilibrio dinámico entre unidad y variedad que subyace a todas las formas de la cultura popular del periodo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 252»

«Dances for groups seem to have been dominant at this time, especially the round dance and the weapon dance.»y el tipo dominante: las danzas de grupo, sobre todo la danza en corro y la danza de armas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 252»

«The kolo (Bulgarian horo and Romanian hora) had many varieties and was well known in the Balkans. Round dances, whether or not they were always danced so wildly, were common in Western Europe too; the Catalans had their sardana, the French their branle, or, in the 1790s, their carmagnole, danced round the tree of liberty or the guillotine.»y su parentela: el *kolo* —*horo* búlgaro, *hora* rumano— tenía muchas variedades y era bien conocido en los Balcanes, y las danzas en corro eran comunes también en Europa occidental, con la *sardana* catalana, el *branle* francés o, en los años noventa del XVIII, la *carmagnole*, bailada en torno al árbol de la libertad o a la guillotina

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 252»

«The farandoulo of Provence in which the participants hold hands and dance in a line, as in the conga, may be seen as an adaptation of the round form to the long, narrow streets of a traditional town.»y una adaptación que lee como tal: la *farandoulo* provenzal, en que los participantes se dan la mano y bailan en fila, como en la conga, cabe verla como adaptación de la forma en corro a las calles largas y estrechas de una ciudad tradicional

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 252»

«The round dance was performed by both men and women, but a second recurrent type of choral dance was a dance for men only. This was the weapon dance; its central feature is a mimed combat.»y el segundo tipo coral: la danza de armas, solo para hombres, cuyo rasgo central es un combate mimado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 252»

«The music of the dominant minority in early modem Europe was written down»y el contraste que ordena el capítulo: la música de la minoría dominante se escribía; el troceo imprime *early modem* por *early modern*, y el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *and printed*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 250»

«The folk dances current in early modern Europe have so many names»pasa a la danza: las danzas populares corrientes en la Europa moderna temprana tienen tantos nombres; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *that to list them would make the reader dizzy*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 251»

«It ranged from the English Morris, danced with sticks or swords»y el rango de la danza de armas, del *morris* inglés bailado con palos o espadas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la *morisca* española y el *zbójnicki* polaco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 252»

«Solo dances, like the hornpipe, the jig, the Norwegian halling, and the Cossack hopak, were often opportunities for acrobatics. The Norwegian dancers somersaulted and kicked the rafters.»y las danzas solistas: el *hornpipe*, la giga, el *halling* noruego y el *hopak* cosaco eran a menudo ocasión de acrobacias, con danzantes noruegos que daban volteretas y pateaban las vigas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 253»

«Dances for couples were usually more sedate, at least in the opening figures. They often mimed courtship: the man approached the woman, who encouraged him but then withdrew; he pursued her; finally, she yielded.»y las de pareja: más comedidas por lo común, al menos en las figuras de apertura, y solían mimar el cortejo, con el hombre que se acerca, la mujer que lo anima y se retira, la persecución y al final la rendición

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 253»

«The furlana was a wild version of this type. So was the Bavarian Schuhplattler in which the man stamped, slapped his thighs, somersaulted, circled the girl, and even jumped over her to get her attention.»con las versiones salvajes de ese tipo: la *furlana* y el *Schuhplattler* bávaro, en que el hombre patea, se golpea los muslos, da volteretas, rodea a la muchacha y hasta salta por encima de ella para llamar su atención

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 253»

«In the fandango, the couples never touched. In the Provençal volto, also condemned by moralists, the couples embraced, whirled round, and, still entwined, leapt into the air.»y el contraste: en el fandango las parejas nunca se tocaban, y en el *volto* provenzal, también condenado por los moralistas, se abrazaban, giraban y saltaban al aire entrelazadas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 254»

«Other twisting dances included the German Dreher and the original version of the Walzer, or waltz, which began as a peasant dance but was taken up by the nobility and bourgeoisie at the end of the eighteenth century.»y las demás danzas de giro: el *Dreher* alemán y la versión original del *Walzer*, que empezó como danza campesina y adoptaron la nobleza y la burguesía a fines del XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 254»

«All these dances may be viewed as combinations of motifs or elementary forms – of pauses and movement, quick movements and slow movements, different types of step, and so on.»y vuelve a su tesis: todas esas danzas pueden verse como combinaciones de motivos o formas elementales —pausas y movimiento, movimientos rápidos y lentos, tipos distintos de paso—, y los propios danzantes checos clasificaban sus pasos en *obkročák*, paso circular, *skočná*, paso de brinco, *třasák*, paso tembloroso, y *vrták*, paso de taladro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 254»

«Like dances, folksongs came in a luxuriant variety of local forms with their own metres and rhyme schemes and their own names. Italian lyrical songs were known as strambotti in Lombardy, vilote in the Veneto, rispetti or stornelli in Tuscany, sunette in Apulia, and canzuni or ciuri in Sicily.»y pasa a las canciones: como las danzas, venían en variedad exuberante de formas locales con sus metros, rimas y nombres, con las líricas italianas llamadas *strambotti* en Lombardía, *vilote* en el Véneto, *rispetti* o *stornelli* en Toscana, *sunette* en Apulia y *canzuni* o *ciuri* en Sicilia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 254»

«Nevertheless, folksongs, like dances, can be divided into a comparatively few types.»y su reducción: con todo, las canciones populares, como las danzas, se dividen en tipos comparativamente pocos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 254»

«In the case of the lyric, one of the two basic paradoxes must be dropped. We cannot say that ‘the same lyric is different’ since variants are rare. On the other hand, formulae are common, so that ‘different lyrics are the same’.»y una enmienda a su propio esquema: en el caso de la lírica hay que soltar una de las dos paradojas, porque las variantes son raras, y en cambio abundan las fórmulas, de modo que líricas distintas sí son la misma

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 254»

«As in the case of ballads, formulae of this kind occur with great frequency, so that verses of four or six lines may contain virtually nothing but formulae. But these formulae are flexible, as in the case of ballads. We do not find the mechanical repetition of so fern im grönem walde but a set of similar phrases substituting for one another, such as»y su densidad y su flexibilidad: como en las baladas, esas fórmulas se dan con gran frecuencia, hasta el punto de que estrofas de cuatro o seis versos pueden no contener casi nada más, y no se repiten mecánicamente sino que se sustituyen entre sí en conjuntos de frases semejantes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 255»

«A few recurrent types of song may be described as separate genres or sub-genres in the sense of distinctive combinations of function, mood, and imagery. There is the praise song, for example, whether the praises are directed to the singer's beloved, their profession, their king, or to God and the saints, as in the case of the Italian laude or the Castilian alabanzas.»y los subgéneros que distingue: unos pocos tipos recurrentes pueden describirse como géneros aparte por su combinación de función, ánimo e imaginería, empezando por la canción de alabanza, dirigida a la amada, al oficio, al rey o a Dios y los santos, como las *laude* italianas o las *alabanzas* castellanas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 255»

«Satirical songs were an equally widespread and an equally stereotyped genre, whether directed against political leaders or the singer's neighbours.»y el segundo: las canciones satíricas, género igual de difundido y estereotipado, dirigido contra los dirigentes políticos o contra los vecinos del cantor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 255»

«Another stereotyped form is the lament (the French complainte, the German Klagen, etc.), whether it expresses the sorrows of the lover, the ill-married wife, the widow, the belated repentance of the criminal or the harsh fate of the weaver or the sailor»y el tercer género: el lamento, la *complainte* francesa o las *Klagen* alemanas, que expresa las penas del amante, de la mal casada, de la viuda, el arrepentimiento tardío del criminal o el duro destino del tejedor o el marinero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 256»

«Yet another recurrent form is the farewell, whether it is the lover's farewell to his mistress or the travelling journeyman's farewell to the town of his birth»y el cuarto: la despedida, sea la del amante a su amada o la del oficial viajero a la ciudad en que nació

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 256»

«A recurrent north-west European variety of ballad, to be found wherever Germanic languages were spoken, in Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, and Scandinavia, was the so-called ‘common measure’, the alternation of lines with four stresses which do not rhyme and lines with three stresses which do.»y una variedad recurrente del noroeste europeo: el llamado *common measure*, la alternancia de versos de cuatro acentos sin rima y versos de tres acentos con ella, hallable dondequiera se hablaran lenguas germánicas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 257»

«One of the most important popular forms was the narrative»y la forma que declara de las más importantes, la canción narrativa; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *song, which it is convenient to call either the ‘ballad’ or ‘epic’, according to length*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 256»

«In eastern Europe, wherever Slavic languages were spoken, heroic epic usually took a looser form in which there was no regular rhyme or assonance at all. A more-or-less ten-syllable line was the norm, with a caesura after four syllables»y la forma eslava: dondequiera se hablaran lenguas eslavas, la épica heroica tomaba por lo común una forma más laxa sin rima ni asonancia regular, con verso de unas diez sílabas y cesura tras la cuarta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 257»

«The narrative song was of no fixed length, and it is likely that some songs were so long that they had to be sung in instalments.»y su largo: la canción narrativa no tenía largo fijo, y es probable que algunas fueran tan largas que hubiera que cantarlas por entregas; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 258»

«The various sections of the English poem seem to correspond to separate performances, for several of them begin ‘lythe and listin, gentlemen’, in other words ‘pay attention’.»y el indicio interno: varias secciones del poema inglés parecen corresponder a funciones separadas, porque empiezan con *lythe and listin, gentlemen*, es decir, atención

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 259»

«while the second canto begins, ‘Io vi lasciasi nel fin de l’altro canto’ (I left you at the end of the other canto). The canto tends to end at a moment of suspense. The singers of tales would have had little to learn from modern writers of serials.»y su continuación: el segundo canto abre diciendo que los dejó al final del otro canto, y el canto tiende a acabar en suspenso, de modo que los cantores de relatos poco habrían tenido que aprender de los autores modernos de seriales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 259»

«In the case of the epic, for example, the length of the performance makes it particularly necessary to distinguish two kinds of wandering unit, the small-scale ‘formula’ and the larger-scale ‘theme’ or ‘motif’, a scene or episode which may, if properly ornamented or amplified, last for hundreds of lines.»y la distinción que el largo obliga a hacer: entre la *fórmula* de pequeña escala y el *tema* o *motivo* de escala mayor, una escena o episodio que, adornado o amplificado, puede durar cientos de versos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 259»

«No less than six dinners are described in the Gest, of which four take place in the greenwood with Robin as host and are described in much the same way.»y lo que eso produce: en el *Gest* se describen nada menos que seis cenas, cuatro de ellas en el bosque con Robin de anfitrión y descritas de modo muy parecido; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 259»

«Whole scenes or episodes may wander or float from one European ballad to another. Favourite motifs include the heroine sitting in her bower sewing, the female equivalent of the male drinking scene; the fight; the feast, a favourite of the Russian ballad-singers; the sending or receiving of a letter or other message that introduces a new development in the story; the motif of looking out from a high tower, which recurs in Spanish and Norwegian ballads and serves a similar function; and the motif of the return of the hero, sometimes in disguise and often unrecognizable, a motif that has been popular from Homer's time to our own.»y los motivos que flotan de una balada europea a otra: la heroína cosiendo en su aposento, equivalente femenino de la escena masculina de la bebida; la pelea; el banquete, favorito de los cantores rusos; el envío o recepción de una carta que introduce un giro; la mirada desde la torre alta, que reaparece en baladas españolas y noruegas; y el regreso del héroe, a veces disfrazado y a menudo irreconocible, motivo popular desde Homero hasta hoy

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 260»

«Larger-scale motifs are harder to define and so to count, but it is difficult to find a ballad in the Child collection without thematic analogies both within the collection and elsewhere.»y el límite del recuento: los motivos de escala mayor son más difíciles de definir y de contar, y cuesta hallar una balada de la colección Child sin analogías temáticas dentro de ella y fuera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 260»

«If the reader has received the impression that ballad-singers were not creative or that they had little to do, a second point about formulae and motifs may serve to cancel that impression out by stressing flexibility and transformations. One should not think so much in terms of phrases, lines, stanzas, or episodes migrating unchanged from one ballad to another – though this can happen – as of substitutions within a formal framework.»y la segunda cosa, para deshacer la impresión de que los cantores no fueran creativos: hay que pensar no tanto en frases, versos, estrofas o episodios que migran sin cambio —cosa que ocurre— como en sustituciones dentro de un marco formal

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 260»

«In some traditional Danish ballads, for example, we find a high proportion of formulaic half-lines»con el ejemplo danés: en algunas baladas tradicionales se halla una proporción alta de hemistiquios formulaicos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 260»

«We might, therefore, say that the completely formulaic lines, Det var Konning herr Erick Op stod unge herr Marsk Stig are really the ‘same’ line but only in the sense that I have owned the same knife for ten years, in odd years replacing the handle and in even years replacing the blade.»y el símil con que lo explica: los versos completamente formulaicos son realmente el *mismo* verso, pero solo en el sentido en que él ha tenido el mismo cuchillo durante diez años, cambiando el mango los años impares y la hoja los pares; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 261»

«The point that needs emphasis is the possibility of dropping almost infinitely various phrases into the same formulaic slot.»y lo que quiere subrayar: la posibilidad de meter frases casi infinitamente variadas en la misma casilla formulaica; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 261»

«There is scarcely a word in common between the couplets, and yet the existence of a formula that structures the material will be obvious.»y el caso que lo prueba: entre dos pareados de las baladas 39 y 243 de Child apenas hay una palabra en común, y aun así la existencia de una fórmula que estructura el material resulta obvia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 261»

«In Spain, the dominant form was a line of eight syllables with assonances between the even lines»y la forma española: verso de ocho sílabas con asonancia en los pares; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el romance de los vientos contrarios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 257»

«It might be possible to make a similar study of the Child ballads or even of the traditional ballads of Europe. At any rate, it is often difficult in the case of ballads, as in that of folk tunes, to say where one ends and another begins, what counts as theme and what as variation.»y lo que propone: podría hacerse un estudio semejante de las baladas de Child o aun de las tradicionales de Europa, porque a menudo cuesta decir, como con las tonadas, dónde acaba una y empieza otra, qué cuenta como tema y qué como variación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 262»

«To demonstrate variation in detail for all the different regions and genres is of course impossible in a book of this size. In its place, I will offer a case study of the traditional British ballad, referring to other regions and literary genres much more briefly.»y declara el recorte del apartado: demostrar la variación en detalle para todas las regiones y géneros es imposible en un libro de ese tamaño, y en su lugar ofrece un estudio de caso de la balada tradicional británica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 262»

«These variants must not be interpreted without more ado as examples of the creative originality of the ballad singers. Both openings are stereotyped.»y la reserva que pone: esas variantes no deben leerse sin más como ejemplos de la originalidad creativa de los cantores, porque las dos aperturas son estereotipadas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 263»

«For example, stock epithets abound, regularly associated with particular nouns, whether in one ballad or more generally. One thinks of ‘doughty Douglas’, Robin Hood's ‘merry men’, the ‘proud sheriff’ of Nottingham, and of the many heroes and heroines with ‘yellow hair’ or a ‘milk-white steed’.»con los epítetos de repertorio: abundan y van regularmente asociados a sustantivos concretos, como el *doughty Douglas*, los *merry men* de Robin Hood, el *proud sheriff* de Nottingham y los muchos héroes y heroínas de *yellow hair* o de *milk-white steed*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 264»

«It is the same in other countries. Swedish ballads are full of phrases like gular loekar, ‘golden hair’; fingrar små, ‘small fingers’; and gangare grå, ‘grey»y lo mismo fuera: las baladas suecas están llenas de frases como *gular loekar*, cabello dorado, *fingrar små*, dedos pequeños, y *gangare grå*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 264»

«The case of floating episodes or scenes is more complex still. If we»y el caso más complejo de los episodios flotantes, el del regreso del héroe; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *look at the motif of the return of the hero*.

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 261»

«Many of these ballads are known not only from the oral tradition of recent times but also from printed broadsides of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,»y la razón decisiva de su elección: muchas de esas baladas se conocen no solo por la tradición oral reciente sino por pliegos impresos de los siglos XVII y XVIII; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la combinación de fuentes que acerca a la cultura oral perdida

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 262»

«look at the motif of the return of the hero, we find that he may or»continuación: al mirar el motivo del regreso del héroe se ve que este puede ir disfrazado o no, y hallar a su amada esperándolo, a punto de casarse con otro, casada ya con varios hijos o desaparecida

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 261»

«In Russian ballads, hands are ‘white’, horses ‘good’, rivers ‘swift’, and so on. Encouraged by the rhyme, Hungarian ballads often include the phrase szegény legény, ‘poor lad’.»y los epítetos de otras tradiciones: en las baladas rusas las manos son *blancas*, los caballos *buenos* y los ríos *rápidos*, y en las húngaras, alentada por la rima, aparece a menudo *szegény legény*, pobre mozo; el troceo imprime la frase con salto de renglón a media cláusula

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 264»

«Favourite Danish formulae for the first half of the line are Ind kom, ‘in came’; Op stod, ‘up stood’; and Det var, ‘it was’.»y las danesas: *Ind kom*, entró; *Op stod*, se levantó; *Det var*, era

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 264»

«On a grander scale, there are formulae for opening a ballad, such as ‘It fell about the Martinmas’ (or Lammas, or Midsummer) which locates the story in time, and others which locate it in place.»y las de escala mayor: fórmulas para abrir una balada, como la de San Martín, la de Lammas o la del solsticio, que sitúan la historia en el tiempo, y otras que la sitúan en el espacio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 264»

«The Serbian vino pije formula is developed to tell us who is drinking wine, where, with whom, and why the drinking is interrupted.»y cómo se desarrolla la serbia: la fórmula del vino sirve para decir quién bebe, dónde, con quién y por qué se interrumpe la bebida

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 264»

«Similarly, there are recurrent closing formulae like the description of the plants or branches growing from two graves, concluding a number of ballads about ill-fated lovers»y las fórmulas de cierre: la descripción de las plantas o ramas que crecen de dos tumbas, que remata varias baladas de amantes malhadados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 265»

«As for the second paradox, ‘different tales are the same’, the formula is much less important in the prose tale than it is in popular verse. It is more or less confined to the beginning and end, to set phrases like ‘Once upon a time’ and its equivalents (Es war amol, Cc’era ‘na vota, etc.)»y la segunda paradoja aplicada al cuento: la fórmula pesa mucho menos en la prosa que en el verso popular y se ciñe más o menos al principio y al fin, a frases hechas como *érase una vez* y sus equivalentes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 266»

«Motifs, on the other hand, are particularly obvious here. It has long been noticed that folktales are unstable combinations of elements which lead a semi-independent existence, wandering or floating from one tale to another.»y los motivos: hace mucho que se advirtió que los cuentos populares son combinaciones inestables de elementos con existencia semiindependiente, que vagan o flotan de un cuento a otro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 266»

«Suppose that we focus on one folktale, like Cinderella. It can be broken down into five basic motifs, A, B, C, D, and E, as follows: A, the heroine is mishandled by her relatives; B, she receives supernatural help; C, she meets the hero; D, she passes a recognition test; and E, she marries the hero.»y descompone *Cenicienta* en cinco motivos básicos: la heroína maltratada por sus parientes, la ayuda sobrenatural, el encuentro con el héroe, la prueba de reconocimiento y la boda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 267»

«Each motif comes in a number of variants, for example, D1, only one girl can wear the slipper; D2, only one girl can wear the ring; and D3, only one girl can pluck the apple.»y sus variantes: solo una muchacha puede calzar el zapato, solo una puede llevar el anillo, solo una puede arrancar la manzana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 267»

«The Grimms’ version of the story might be written in shorthand A1, B1, C1, D1, and E. Once the story has been broken down into its elementary motifs in this way, its affinity with other stories in the Grimm collection become obvious; notably with no. 65, Allerleirauh (A2, C1, D2, and E); with no. 130, Einäuglein, Zweiäuglein und Dreiäuglein (A1, B1, B3, B4, D3, and E); and with no. 179, Die Gänsehirtin am Brunnen (A3, B1, C3, and E).»y el resultado del método: escrita la versión de los Grimm en taquigrafía, su afinidad con otros cuentos de la colección se vuelve obvia, señaladamente con el 65, el 130 y el 179

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 267»

«Once more we find that ‘different texts are the same’, or rather that they are transformations of one another, different permutations of the same basic elements.»y la conclusión: se halla de nuevo que textos distintos son el mismo, o más bien que son transformaciones unos de otros, permutaciones distintas de los mismos elementos básicos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 267»

«This stanza in its different variations surely represents a»y la lectura que saca de esa estrofa de las dos tumbas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *theme or ‘motif’ in the musical sense*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 265»

«Another kind of solo performance often contained stories but was organized on different lines – the sermon. Among the professional storytellers of early modern Europe may be numbered many preachers, who enlivened their sermons with exempla or stories with»y pasa al sermón: otra clase de ejecución solista que contenía a menudo relatos y se organizaba de otro modo, con predicadores que animaban sus sermones con *exempla*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *a moral*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 267»

«Indeed, the sermon deserves more study as a popular art form, ‘popular’ in the sense that it was often aimed at an audience of artisans and peasants, and sometimes composed and delivered by a ‘mechanic preacher’.»y lo que reclama: el sermón merece más estudio como forma de arte popular, *popular* en el sentido de dirigirse a menudo a un público de artesanos y campesinos y de componerlo y darlo a veces un *predicador mecánico*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 268»

«On the other side of the border with Wales, the tradition of hwyl has survived until our own day.»y su continuidad: al otro lado de la frontera con Gales, la tradición del *hwyl* ha sobrevivido hasta hoy

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 268»

«Motifs or themes were basic to the sermon. That they were employed self-consciously as a means of sermon construction is made clear by the existence of a number of handbooks for preachers that discuss the subject.»y la estructura del sermón: los motivos o temas le eran básicos, y que se emplearan conscientemente como medio de construcción lo prueban los manuales para predicadores que tratan del asunto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 268»

«They even use the word ‘theme’ in the sense of a text taken from the Bible and used to hold the sermon together.»y su vocabulario: usan la palabra *tema* en el sentido de un texto tomado de la Biblia que mantiene unido el sermón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 268»

«The preacher should begin with the presentation of the text, thematis propositio; next should come the greeting of the audience, salutatio populi; and the prayer for God's help, the divini auxilii imploratio (the last two introductory motifs were also employed by Italian singers of tales).»y sus pasos iniciales: la presentación del texto, el saludo al auditorio y la oración pidiendo la ayuda divina, los dos últimos empleados también por los *cantastorie* italianos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 268»

«A text such as this was supposed to allow the preacher a good Saturday night's sleep by providing him with something ready-made for Sunday morning.»y qué prometía: un texto así permitía al predicador dormir bien el sábado por la noche al darle algo hecho de antemano para el domingo por la mañana; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 269»

«Both stories and sermons need to be understood as semi-dramatic forms; the surviving texts often break into dialogue, while descriptions of performances emphasize the importance of gesture and facial expression in transmitting the message or simply holding the attention of the audience.»y el puente al teatro: relatos y sermones han de entenderse como formas semidramáticas, porque los textos que sobreviven rompen a menudo en diálogo y las descripciones de las funciones subrayan la importancia del gesto y la expresión del rostro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 269»

«Comic monologues by ‘clowns’ were a popular form. Twoperson performances often took the form of a dialogue between a clown and his stooge – a genre known in France as a rencontre – or that of a quarrel or debate, for example, between Carnival and Lent, water and wine, summer and winter, and so on, as in the French débat, the Italian contrasto, or the German Kampfgespräch.»y sus formas, con una palabra que el troceo fabrica al unir *Two-person* partido por el salto de renglón: los monólogos cómicos de payasos, y las funciones de dos personas en forma de diálogo entre un payaso y su compinche —la *rencontre* francesa— o de riña o debate, por ejemplo entre carnaval y cuaresma, agua y vino, verano e invierno; el impreso parte *Two-person* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *Twoperson*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 270»

«Three or more actors were involved in more elaborate comic forms (often known as ‘farces’) which revolved round a few stock types of husbands, wives, parents, servants, priests, doctors, and lawyers. The Italian commedia dell’arte was simply the most famous and the most elaborate of the numerous varieties of European farce.»y las formas de tres actores o más: las farsas, que giraban en torno a unos pocos tipos fijos —maridos, esposas, padres, criados, sacerdotes, médicos, abogados—, y la *commedia dell'arte* italiana era simplemente la más famosa y elaborada de las muchas variedades europeas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 270»

«In the case of religious plays, the threefold distinction between ‘mystery’ plays with subjects taken from the Bible, ‘miracle’ plays dealing with the lives of the saints, and the allegorical ‘morality’ plays was not a distinction drawn at the time (the Italian term for all three kinds of play was simply rappresentazioni sacre, ‘sacred shows’).»y una enmienda a la clasificación heredada: la distinción triple entre misterios, milagros y moralidades no se hacía entonces, y el término italiano para las tres era simplemente *rappresentazioni sacre*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 270»

«All the same, it might be argued that the distinction was implicit in the plays themselves, provided that one adds that allegorical plays might deal with theology as well as morality, as in the case of the Spanish autos sacramentales, plays about the Holy Sacrament or other religious themes.»y la concesión que hace: cabe argumentar que la distinción estaba implícita en las piezas mismas, con tal de añadir que las alegóricas podían tratar de teología además de moral, como los autos sacramentales españoles

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 270»

«The surviving texts are probably an even more unreliable guide to the nature of performance in the case of plays than in the case of ballads, folktales, or sermons, but at least they enable us to see the importance, once again, of variants, formulae, and motifs.»y la reserva de fuente: los textos conservados son guía probablemente aún menos fiable de la ejecución en las piezas que en las baladas, los cuentos o los sermones, y al menos permiten ver otra vez la importancia de variantes, fórmulas y motivos; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 270»

«The same play was different. In Britain, the mummers seem to have performed only three basic types of play – the combat, the wooing ceremony, and the sword dance – but more than 900 variants have been found.»y lo prueba: la misma pieza era distinta, y los *mummers* británicos parecen haber dado solo tres tipos básicos —el combate, la ceremonia del cortejo y la danza de espadas— de los que se han hallado más de novecientas variantes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 270»

«Then came the three main parts of the sermon, first the introductio thematis; then the divisio»y sus tres partes principales: la introducción del tema, la división del tema y la aplicación; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *thematis, dividing the text into parts*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 268»

«From the preacher gesticulating in»y el paso siguiente, demasiado corto para algunos moralistas: del predicador gesticulando en su púlpito a los *juegos* o *piezas* populares; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 269»

«Different plays are the same, since the drama has its own formulae and motifs. Verbal formulae abound, from the simple ‘Here comes I’ of the English mummers to the more elaborately stereotyped phrases of the commedia dell’arte, in which each character has his own repertoire of conceits, the rhetoric of his part.»y la segunda paradoja aplicada al teatro: piezas distintas son la misma, porque el drama tiene sus fórmulas y motivos, del simple *Here comes I* de los *mummers* ingleses a las frases estereotipadas de la *commedia dell'arte*, donde cada personaje tiene su repertorio de conceptos, la retórica de su papel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 271»

«Capitano, for example, had his bravure or boasts, which appear to have formed a formulaic system, marked by the constant use of hyperbole and by a few recurrent images. Capitano saw the world in military terms, and his favourite soup was made of iron filings sprinkled with gunpowder.»con el ejemplo: el Capitano tenía sus *bravure* o bravatas, que parecen haber formado un sistema formulaico marcado por la hipérbole constante y unas pocas imágenes recurrentes, porque veía el mundo en términos militares y su sopa favorita se hacía de limaduras de hierro espolvoreadas con pólvora

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 271»

«However, the basic units of these plays were not words but characters and actions. The English mummers built their plays round a few characters – St George, Turkish Knight, Fool, and Doctor.»y la unidad básica: no las palabras sino los personajes y las acciones, con los *mummers* ingleses construyendo sus piezas en torno a san Jorge, el Caballero Turco, el Loco y el Doctor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 271»

«The French farces of the sixteenth century had their stock husbands, wives, mothers-in-law, and servant girls. The Spanish nativity plays had their lazy shepherds and their quarrelling newlyweds.»y los tipos fijos de otras tradiciones: maridos, esposas, suegras y criadas en las farsas francesas del XVI, y pastores perezosos y recién casados reñidores en los nacimientos españoles

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 271»

«The more complex structures of the commedia dell’arte were organized round similar elements, notably the sententious Pantalone, the pedantic Gratiano, the boastful Capitano, and the foolish, sly, and agile Zanni.»y los de la *commedia dell'arte*: el sentencioso Pantalone, el pedante Gratiano, el fanfarrón Capitano y el bobo, astuto y ágil Zanni

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 271»

«Their stereotyped personalities, like their stereotyped dialects (Venetian for Pantalone, Bolognese for Gratiano, etc.) served to identify them, like the epithets in the traditional ballad.»y su función: las personalidades estereotipadas, como los dialectos estereotipados —veneciano para Pantalone, boloñés para Gratiano—, servían para identificarlos, como los epítetos en la balada tradicional

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 271»

«Actions too were stereotyped. The commedia dell’arte had its lazzi, formulaic pieces of ‘business’ which are listed in the literary sources, like the ‘lazzo of the smock’, in which Zanni escapes from a furious Capitano by leaving his smock behind.»y las acciones: la *commedia dell'arte* tenía sus *lazzi*, piezas formulaicas de juego escénico que las fuentes literarias enumeran, como el *lazzo* de la blusa, en que Zanni escapa de un Capitano furioso dejándole la blusa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 271»

«Any list of the genres of popular culture would be seriously incomplete if it omitted parody, notably the parody of religious forms.»y abre el apartado que más importa aquí: toda lista de los géneros de la cultura popular quedaría seriamente incompleta si omitiera la parodia, señaladamente la de las formas religiosas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 272»

«There were many early modern parodies of the Catechism, the Commandments, the Creed, the Litany, the Psalms, and, above all, the Our Father, from the medieval Paternostre du vin to the political parodies of the Reformation and the wars of religion.»y las parodias de las formas de oración: hubo muchas en la época moderna temprana del catecismo, los mandamientos, el credo, la letanía, los salmos y sobre todo el padrenuestro, del medieval *Paternostre du vin* a las parodias políticas de la Reforma y las guerras de religión; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 272»

«Most common of all, there were mock testaments – the cock's, the Pope's, the Devil's, Philip II's, Frederick the Great's, and many more.»y las más comunes de todas: los testamentos burlescos, el del gallo, el del papa, el del diablo, el de Felipe II, el de Federico el Grande y muchos más

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 273»

«The adjective ‘mock’ may be misleading. It does not occur in most contemporary descriptions, which refer only to ‘trials’, ‘testaments’, and so on.»y una enmienda de vocabulario: el adjetivo *burlesco* puede engañar, porque no aparece en la mayoría de las descripciones contemporáneas, que hablan solo de juicios o testamentos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 273»

«If we decide to use the term, we should at least be aware of its ambiguity. A mock battle may be no more and no less than a battle with blunt weapons, while a mock funeral may simply be the acting out of a funeral without a real corpse.»y su ambigüedad: una batalla burlesca puede no ser ni más ni menos que una batalla con armas romas, y un funeral burlesco la simple representación de un funeral sin cadáver real

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 273»

«The mock baptism of French journeymen at their initiation ceremonies was taken by the clergy to be deliberate blasphemy, but this was probably to misunderstand the intention of the participants.»y el caso que la mide: el clero tomó el bautizo burlesco de los oficiales franceses en sus iniciaciones por blasfemia deliberada, y eso era probablemente malentender la intención de los participantes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 273»

«As in the case of the parodies of the Our Father, the Litany, the Commandments, or the standard legal procedure for trials and testaments, what seems to have been intended was not a mockery of religious or legal forms but the appropriation of these forms for a new purpose.»y la lectura que propone: como en las parodias del padrenuestro, la letanía, los mandamientos o el procedimiento legal, lo que parece haberse buscado no era burlarse de las formas religiosas o jurídicas sino apropiárselas para un fin nuevo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 273»

«His term seems even more justified in the context of the mock trial or the parody of Our Father. It looks as if the creators of popular culture took over ready-made forms from the official culture of the church and the law because they had no equally appropriate forms of their own»y lo aplica: el término parece aún más justificado en el juicio burlesco o la parodia del padrenuestro, porque los creadores de la cultura popular parecen haber tomado formas hechas de la cultura oficial de la Iglesia y del derecho por no tener formas propias igual de apropiadas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 273»

«Ecclesiastical and legal forms also had the great advantage of familiarity. The audience already knew the structure of a trial or a litany, so they knew what was coming next, and could concentrate on the message.»y la segunda razón: las formas eclesiásticas y jurídicas tenían la gran ventaja de la familiaridad, porque el público conocía ya la estructura de un juicio o una letanía, sabía qué venía después y podía concentrarse en el mensaje

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 274»

«A new form might have distracted attention from the message and so made less of an impact.»y su contrapartida: una forma nueva habría distraído la atención del mensaje y causado menos impacto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 274»

«Taking over the forms of official culture did not necessarily involve taking over the meanings usually associated with them. The subversive possibilities of imitation did not go unappreciated.»y el límite de esa dependencia: apropiarse las formas de la cultura oficial no implicaba necesariamente apropiarse los significados que solían asociárseles, y las posibilidades subversivas de la imitación no pasaron inadvertidas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 274»

«In some cases, the forms themselves were mocked, the official world turned upside down. For instance, the causes grasses, the mock trials staged at Carnival by French lawyers’ clerks, were surely intended to make fun of the procedures of their seniors, procedures which were not infrequently criticized in the early modem period for their unintelligibility.»y los casos en que sí se burlaban de la forma misma, con el mundo oficial puesto del revés: las *causes grasses*, juicios burlescos que los escribientes de abogados franceses montaban en carnaval, buscaban seguramente reírse de los procedimientos de sus mayores, criticados no pocas veces en la época por ininteligibles; el troceo imprime *early modem* por *early modern*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 274»

«In some literary and pictorial versions of the battle between Carnival and Lent, the combatants wear saucepans for helmets and fight with spoons and forks. It is difficult not to see that knights were being ridiculed.»y el segundo caso: en algunas versiones literarias y pictóricas de la batalla entre carnaval y cuaresma los combatientes llevan cacerolas por yelmo y pelean con cucharas y tenedores, y cuesta no ver que se ridiculizaba a los caballeros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 274»

«The mock liturgy of the Feast of Fools is more difficult to interpret. It was seen by some contemporaries as blasphemous (Chapter 8). Indeed, the congregation may have experienced it not only as a festive reversal of the everyday but also a criticism of the unintelligibility of the liturgy to the laity. However, we do not know.»y el caso que declara más difícil de interpretar: la liturgia burlesca de la Fiesta de los Locos, que algunos contemporáneos tuvieron por blasfema y que la congregación pudo vivir no solo como inversión festiva de lo cotidiano sino como crítica de la ininteligibilidad de la liturgia para el laicado, aunque, dice, no lo sabemos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 274»

«There were also recurrent scenes of recognition, misunderstanding, beating, disguise, and so on. Popular plays from many parts of Europe also»y los motivos recurrentes: escenas de reconocimiento, malentendido, paliza y disfraz; el troceo imprime la enumeración en columna de una palabra por renglón y el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 271»

«Parodies of legal forms were almost as common as ecclesiastical parodies. There were mock proclamations, mock trials, such as the»y las parodias jurídicas, casi tan comunes como las eclesiásticas: proclamas y juicios burlescos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el juicio del carnaval y el de Sir John Barleycorn

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 272»

«Despite these qualifications, certain similarities between popular painting or carving or weaving and the traditional forms of words and actions that have just been described are difficult to miss.»y aun así las semejanzas: entre la pintura, la talla o el tejido populares y las formas tradicionales de palabras y acciones descritas antes, cuesta no verlas; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 275»

«In the visual arts, as in the performing arts, we find the variant. The traditional potter or carpenter or weaver does not produce two jugs, or chests, or bedspreads which are exactly the same.»y la primera paradoja aplicada: en las artes visuales, como en las escénicas, se halla la variante, porque el alfarero, el carpintero o el tejedor tradicionales no producen dos jarras, arcones o colchas exactamente iguales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 275»

«These items often present different combinations of schemata. Geometrical patterns, such as rosettes and stylized plants, animals, birds, or people form a visual repertory, which corresponds to the stock of formulae and motifs in oral tradition.»y en qué consiste: esos objetos presentan a menudo combinaciones distintas de esquemas, y los patrones geométricos —rosetas y plantas, animales, aves o personas estilizados— forman un repertorio visual que corresponde al fondo de fórmulas y motivos de la tradición oral

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 275»

«Saints are identified by their attributes as the heroes of epic are identified by their particular epithets. St Catherine has her wheel, St George his dragon, and St Martin his cloak, sword, and beggar.»y el paralelo del epíteto: los santos se identifican por sus atributos como los héroes épicos por sus epítetos, con la rueda de santa Catalina, el dragón de san Jorge y la capa, la espada y el mendigo de san Martín

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 275»

«Just as a story wandered from one hero to another, so the same woodcut might be used in different chapbooks to illustrate episodes in different stories, thus reducing the cost of production.»y el motivo que vaga: como un relato pasaba de un héroe a otro, la misma xilografía podía servir en pliegos distintos para ilustrar episodios de historias distintas, con lo que se abarataba la producción

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 275»

«This example presents the ‘stereotype’ or ‘cliché’ in something like the original sense of those well-worn metaphors.»y lo que el ejemplo devuelve: el *estereotipo* o *cliché* en algo parecido al sentido original de esas metáforas gastadas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 275»

«Other compositions were more or less free-floating. The image of a king sitting on his throne with a figure approaching him might be used to illustrate many different episodes.»y las composiciones flotantes: la imagen de un rey sentado en su trono con una figura que se le acerca podía ilustrar muchos episodios distintos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 275»

«The same picture might illustrate Belshazzar's feast, the marriage at Cana or the Last Supper. A battle scene might be represented in much the same way, whether the scene was supposed to illustrate the Old Testament or a romance of chivalry.49 The same procession motif might be used in a variety of different contexts.»y sus usos: la misma estampa podía ilustrar el festín de Baltasar, las bodas de Caná o la última cena, una escena de batalla podía representarse igual sirviera al Antiguo Testamento o a una novela de caballerías, y el mismo motivo de procesión valía para contextos diversos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 275»

«If ‘grammar’ is too grand a metaphor to describe what they have found, these scholars have at least come up with some interesting conclusions about the use of ready-made combinations of motifs, in other words ‘schemata’.»y el balance que hace: si *gramática* es metáfora demasiado grande para lo que han hallado, esos estudiosos han llegado al menos a conclusiones interesantes sobre el uso de combinaciones de motivos hechas de antemano, es decir esquemas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 276»

«In the visual arts, a popular schema was to bisect the picture vertically. In one variant, figures would be shown in parallel to the left and right, as if one was the mirror image of the other, as in the confrontation of Holger Danske and King Karvel, two warriors with their arms raised and drawn back to strike»y el esquema visual más popular: bisecar el cuadro verticalmente, con figuras en paralelo a izquierda y derecha como si una fuera el reflejo de la otra, como en el enfrentamiento de Holger Danske y el rey Karvel, dos guerreros con los brazos alzados y echados atrás para golpear

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 276»

«Alternatively, the figures are not presented in parallel but in contrast, a beautiful woman on one side of a print, say, and a skeleton on the other.»y su variante: las figuras no en paralelo sino en contraste, una mujer bella a un lado de la estampa y un esqueleto al otro; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 276»

«A variant on the schema was to show a balance or scale in which one object, of which the spectator was expected to approve, outweighed another; the Bible, for example, might be shown to outweigh the work of St Thomas Aquinas.»y otra variante: mostrar una balanza en que un objeto, que el espectador debía aprobar, pesa más que otro, como la Biblia pesando más que la obra de santo Tomás de Aquino

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 276»

«The time element may be introduced, so that the pair of images represent before and after or crime and»y la introducción del tiempo: el par de imágenes puede representar el antes y el después, o el crimen y el castigo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *punishment*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 276»

«This pictorial schema has its literary parallels, as one might have expected; after all, the antithesis is a figure of rhetoric.»y su paralelo literario: ese esquema pictórico lo tiene, como cabía esperar, porque la antítesis es figura de retórica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 277»

«At the level of the genre, there is the debate or contrasto (discussed above). At the level of the stanza, we find one quatrain balancing or opposing its predecessor, or the second half of the quatrain opposing the first half»y sus niveles: en el del género, el debate o *contrasto*; en el de la estrofa, un cuarteto que equilibra u opone al anterior, o la segunda mitad del cuarteto que se opone a la primera; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 277»

«Formulae and motifs might be regarded as the vocabulary of»abre el apartado del proceso de composición: fórmulas y motivos como vocabulario de los portadores de tradición; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *tradition bearers, whether they were singers, artisans, or players*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 275»

«The antithesis is, among other things, a device for handling repetition. Repetition can be found in all works of art, and without it, there would be no structure at all, but it is either particularly prevalent or particularly obvious in popular culture.»y qué resuelve la antítesis: es, entre otras cosas, un recurso para manejar la repetición, que se halla en toda obra de arte y sin la cual no habría estructura, y que en la cultura popular es o especialmente frecuente o especialmente visible

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 277»

«Again, there is much more redundancy within oral tradition than there is in works intended to be read. At the level of the line, pleonastic constructions are common: ‘a loud laugh laughed he’, ‘lythe and listen’, or llorando de los sus ojos, ‘crying with his eyes’.»y la redundancia de lo oral: hay mucha más en la tradición oral que en las obras hechas para leerse, con construcciones pleonásticas en el nivel del verso como *a loud laugh laughed he*, *lythe and listen* o *llorando de los sus ojos*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 277»

«This trinary pattern is a common one – stanzas often come in linked triads, and the central action of the ballad often develops in three steps.»y el patrón que revela: el ternario es común, porque las estrofas vienen a menudo en tríadas enlazadas y la acción central de la balada se desarrolla en tres pasos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 278»

«If these remarks on binary and trinary structures suggest what is likely to happen to a motif when it is used in a ballad of folktale, they do not explain how motifs come to be combined, the ‘laws of plot formation’, as Shklovsky called them. Are motifs combined according to rules, or simply by association of ideas in the mind of the storyteller?»y la pregunta que abre el apartado siguiente: esas observaciones sobre estructuras binarias y ternarias dicen qué suele pasarle a un motivo dentro de una balada o un cuento, y no explican cómo llegan a combinarse los motivos, si por reglas o por simple asociación de ideas en la mente del narrador

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 279»

«They are concerned with ‘transformational grammar’ in the sense of the rules for the transformation of tales into other tales, not only by the insertion of different heroes into the roles of A and B but also by changes in the sequence of motifs itself, which may be amplified, condensed, or inverted. The ‘love/separation/ happiness’ schema may be transformed into ‘love/separation/ unhappiness’, and so on.»y la gramática transformacional que persiguen: las reglas para transformar unos cuentos en otros, no solo metiendo héroes distintos en los papeles sino cambiando la secuencia misma de motivos, que puede ampliarse, condensarse o invertirse, de modo que amor, separación, felicidad se vuelva amor, separación, infelicidad; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 280»

«The Italian religious drama also contains recurrent sequences of motifs. Plays that deal with saintly women tend to adopt the schema of ‘innocence persecuted/innocence rewarded’.»y el drama religioso italiano: las piezas sobre mujeres santas tienden al esquema de la inocencia perseguida y la inocencia recompensada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 280»

«The French comic play is equally stereotyped. The action frequently centres on a married couple, the wife being shown as demanding, obstinate, or unfaithful, while a popular schema is the three-motif sequence deceit/discovery/punishment.»y la comedia francesa, igual de estereotipada: la acción gira a menudo en torno a un matrimonio, con la esposa exigente, obstinada o infiel, y un esquema popular de tres motivos, engaño, descubrimiento y castigo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 280»

«More intricate are the plots of the commedia dell’arte. Indeed, they are so intricate that they are likely to bewilder a modern reader. If they did not have this effect on the actors and audiences of the time, this was surely because these plays were built round familiar schemata.»y las tramas de la *commedia dell'arte*, tan intrincadas que desconciertan al lector moderno, y si no desconcertaban a actores y públicos de entonces fue seguramente porque se construían sobre esquemas familiares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 281»

«Indeed, if there is any form of popular art which cries out for structural analysis, it is this one.»y lo que reclama: si alguna forma de arte popular pide a gritos análisis estructural, es esa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 281»

«When there are exceptions to this law in folksongs and folktales, they sometimes signal an unusual twist to the story, a case of»y qué significan las excepciones a la ley del tres: señalan a veces un giro inusual del relato; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *‘incremental repetition’ that proceeds towards an unexpected climax*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 278»

«The essence of the plot is a sequence of four motifs which often recur in this genre: A loves B/an obstacle occurs/the obstacle is eliminated/A marries B.»y su esqueleto: una secuencia de cuatro motivos frecuentes en el género, A ama a B, aparece un obstáculo, el obstáculo se elimina, A se casa con B

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 281»

«All that is lacking to make this play stand for the commedia dell’arte as a whole is an example of the popular disguise motif, for in this, genre servants, necromancers, or madwomen are constantly turning out to be different from what they had appeared to be.»y lo único que le falta: un ejemplo del motivo popular del disfraz, porque en ese género criados, nigromantes o locas resultan constantemente ser distintos de lo que parecían

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 281»

«It may be too grandiose to speak of universal ‘laws’ governing the combination of motifs into ballads, plays, and folktales, but the examples discussed in the last few pages do suggest that there are patterns of combination rather than random associations of one element with another.»y el balance que hace: puede ser demasiado grandioso hablar de leyes universales que gobiernen la combinación de motivos, y los ejemplos discutidos sugieren que hay patrones de combinación y no asociaciones al azar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 282»

«The analyses of the structuralists, illuminating as they are, risk giving a false impression: the impression that ‘motifs’ combine with one another, whereas they are in fact combined in this way by men and women, by singers, storytellers, and actors.»y la corrección que hace a los estructuralistas: sus análisis, con todo lo iluminadores que son, arriesgan dar la impresión falsa de que los motivos se combinan entre sí, cuando de hecho los combinan hombres y mujeres, cantores, narradores y actores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 282»

«Yet thanks to the focus on the not quite free-floating motif or formula, it is easier to understand how actors and storytellers and singers create their works of art in an oral culture. They learn by listening to older people and trying to imitate them, and what they learn are not fixed texts, but rather a vocabulary of formulae and motifs and the rules for combining them, a kind of ‘poetic grammar’.»y lo que sí se gana con su enfoque: entender mejor cómo crean sus obras los actores, narradores y cantores en una cultura oral, porque aprenden escuchando a los mayores e imitándolos, y lo que aprenden no son textos fijos sino un vocabulario de fórmulas y motivos y las reglas para combinarlos, una suerte de *gramática poética*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 282»

«This grammar is best learned when one is young, so it is no wonder that ballad-singing runs in families. Singers also learn how to ‘amplify’ or ‘ornament’ the basic structure. By this means, they are able to improvise with relative ease, to the amazement of scholars from a literate culture.»y cuándo se aprende: mejor de joven, de ahí que el canto de baladas venga de familia, y los cantores aprenden además a amplificar u ornamentar la estructura básica, con lo que improvisan con relativa facilidad, para asombro de los estudiosos de una cultura letrada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 282»

«What of the singers of early modern Europe? There can be little doubt that many of them improvised, in some areas at least.»y traslada la pregunta al periodo: hay poca duda de que muchos de los cantores de la Europa moderna temprana improvisaran, al menos en algunas zonas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 283»

«The Committee thought that this feat was the result of a good memory, but facility in improvisation seems a more plausible explanation.»y el desacuerdo que consigna sin arbitrar: el comité tuvo la hazaña por fruto de una buena memoria, y a Burke le parece explicación más plausible la facilidad para improvisar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 283»

«An extemporized verse form called the pennyll was current in eighteenth-century Wales»y el caso galés: en el siglo XVIII corría una forma de verso improvisado llamada *pennyll*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 283»

«in three steps. The same»y su aparición en el cuento; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *pattern occurs in many folktales, as the first three stories from the Straparola collection will serve to illustrate*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 278»

«For another example of an intricate pattern of motifs we may»y otro ejemplo de patrón intrincado, de nuevo en la balada británica; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 281»

«the two participants. It is likely that this custom went back to the Middle Ages, and almost certain that it was practiced in the early modern period.»y la datación del *stevleik*: es probable que la costumbre se remonte a la Edad Media y casi seguro que se practicó en la época moderna temprana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 284»

«In Sicily in the seventeenth century, there were improvisation contests reminiscent of the Norwegian stevleik, or indeed of the haiku competitions of early modern Japan.»y los certámenes sicilianos del XVII, que recuerdan al *stevleik* noruego o a los certámenes de haiku del Japón moderno temprano

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 284»

«It is also in Italy that we find the best evidence for improvised drama in the commedia dell’arte, often known during this period as commedia all’improvviso.»y el teatro: también en Italia está la mejor evidencia del drama improvisado, con la *commedia dell'arte*, llamada a menudo en el periodo *commedia all'improvviso*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 284»

«Despite the help they had from formulae, motifs, and stock characters (not to mention the scenario, hung backstage for quick reference), it remains difficult to imagine how ten or twelve actors were able to coordinate their improvisations, although we know that they did in fact manage this feat successfully.»y lo que declara difícil de imaginar: cómo diez o doce actores lograban coordinar sus improvisaciones pese a la ayuda de fórmulas, motivos, tipos fijos y el escenario colgado tras bastidores para consulta rápida, aunque se sabe que lo lograban; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 284»

«Indeed, troupes still do this in parts of Asia today, not to mention jazz musicians.»y el cotejo: las compañías siguen haciéndolo hoy en partes de Asia, por no hablar de los músicos de jazz

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 284»

«In England, the best evidence of extempore performances relates to sermons, thanks, perhaps, to the strength of enthusiastic Protestantism.»y dónde está la mejor evidencia inglesa: en los sermones, gracias quizá a la fuerza del protestantismo entusiasta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 285»

«Seventeenth-century English dissenting preachers, who included laymen, spoke when the spirit moved them, and they were sometimes criticized for their ‘abrupt’ and ‘incoherent’ discourse, which suggests unskilled improvisation.»y su rastro: los predicadores disidentes ingleses del XVII, laicos incluidos, hablaban cuando el espíritu los movía y se los criticaba a veces por su discurso abrupto e incoherente, lo que sugiere improvisación sin destreza

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 285»

«If Román was typical of his profession and the singers, storytellers, preachers, and actors of early modern Europe regularly made up their performances as they went along, then we should interpret many of the traditional forms described earlier in this chapter as devices to help them on their way.»y lo que de ahí se seguiría: si Román era típico de su oficio y los cantores, narradores, predicadores y actores del periodo armaban sus funciones sobre la marcha, muchas de las formas tradicionales descritas habría que leerlas como recursos que los ayudaban a avanzar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 285»

«Repetition in an extemporized ballad would give the singer a breathing space, a relief from the strain of continuous creation and a chance to think of what was supposed to come next.»y qué daba la repetición al cantor: un respiro, alivio de la tensión de crear sin parar y ocasión de pensar qué venía después

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 286»

«In the British ballad, the second line of the four-line stanza, known as the ‘filler’, was the favourite place for such a rest on the highway, while the lazzi provided it in the commedia dell’arte.»y dónde estaba ese descanso: en la balada británica, el segundo verso del cuarteto, llamado *filler*, y en la *commedia dell'arte*, los *lazzi*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 286»

«Because phrases or motifs were linked, whether by free association or through schemata, the performer was left in no doubt as to what should come next.»y por qué no se perdía el hilo: como las frases y motivos estaban enlazados, por asociación libre o por esquemas, el intérprete no dudaba de qué venía después

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 286»

«It is also likely that singers, actors, and preachers of the period also had recourse to what was known as the ‘art of memory’, the association of words or motifs with a real or imaginary building and with figures within it, as bizarre as possible to make them more memorable.»y el recurso que más importa aquí: es probable que cantores, actores y predicadores del periodo echaran mano de lo que se llamaba el *arte de la memoria*, la asociación de palabras o motivos con un edificio real o imaginario y con figuras dentro de él, tan estrafalarias como fuera posible para hacerlas más memorables

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 286»

«It would be difficult to improvise without using these devices, but their use does not prove that a given performance was improvised. The devices help the listeners as well as the performer.»y el límite que pone a su propio argumento: sería difícil improvisar sin esos recursos, y su uso no prueba que una función dada fuera improvisada, porque ayudan al oyente tanto como al ejecutante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 286»

«Redundancy, for example, which looks so odd and clumsy on the printed page, may offer a welcome relief from concentration for people who have been listening for an hour or more, as well as assisting listeners on the edge of the crowd who hear the performer less clearly.»con el caso de la redundancia: que parece rara y torpe en la página impresa, ofrece un alivio bienvenido de la concentración a quien lleva una hora o más escuchando y ayuda a los del borde de la multitud que oyen peor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 286»

«Perhaps the ‘Law of Three’ holds because three is the maximum number of points an oral narrator can expect his audience to keep in mind.»y la explicación que propone para la ley del tres: quizá se sostiene porque tres es el máximo de puntos que un narrador oral puede esperar que su público retenga

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 287»

«Again, without the stock characters and sequences of action in the commedia dell’arte, the public would have been in danger of losing their way in some of the labyrinthine plots.»y lo mismo con la *commedia dell'arte*: sin los tipos fijos y las secuencias de acción, el público habría corrido peligro de perderse en algunas de sus tramas laberínticas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 287»

«They enjoyed the lazzi, as the audiences of variety shows still do, precisely because they knew in advance what was going to happen next.»y por qué gustaban los *lazzi*: como al público de las revistas de variedades todavía hoy, precisamente porque se sabía de antemano qué iba a pasar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 287»

«It is easier to understand how a solo performance of this kind could be contrived, like those»y lo que sí se entiende: cómo se armaba una función solista así; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con los saltimbanquis de San Marcos y el testimonio de Coryat

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 284»

«This question of prevalence is unlikely ever to receive a satisfactory answer for the early modern period. Indeed, the term ‘extemporization’ is more ambiguous than it looks, for the dichotomy between improvised and memorized is a false one.»y su abstención: la cuestión de cuán extendida estaba la improvisación difícilmente reciba respuesta satisfactoria para la época moderna temprana, y el propio término es más ambiguo de lo que parece, porque la dicotomía entre improvisado y memorizado es falsa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 287»

«Every lecturer knows that there is a whole spectrum of possible performances between the extremes of something learned by heart in advance and something created on the spot without forethought.»con el argumento: todo conferenciante sabe que hay un espectro entero de ejecuciones posibles entre los extremos de lo aprendido de memoria de antemano y lo creado en el acto sin premeditación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 287»

«Performers who did not use notes may still, by repeated practice, have produced something which was neither completely spontaneous nor learned exactly by heart, the degree of improvisation varying with the individual or the genre.»y el resultado intermedio: los intérpretes que no usaban notas pudieron producir, a fuerza de práctica repetida, algo ni del todo espontáneo ni aprendido exactamente de memoria, con un grado de improvisación que variaba según el individuo o el género

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 287»

«The existence of numerous variants shows that many performers did not learn the ballads word by word from one another, but performances of the same ballad by the same singer may not have varied in more than minor details»y su matiz: la existencia de variantes numerosas muestra que muchos intérpretes no aprendían las baladas palabra por palabra unos de otros, y las ejecuciones de una misma balada por un mismo cantor pueden no haber variado en más que detalles menores; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 288»

«By now it should be possible to return to the question of individual versus communal creation (Chapter 1), and to look at it from a slightly different angle.»y vuelve a la cuestión de la creación individual frente a la comunal, ahora desde un ángulo algo distinto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 288»

«The individual is creative in the sense that each artefact or performance is a new creation, a little different from its predecessors.»y en qué sentido es creativo el individuo: cada artefacto o ejecución es una creación nueva, un poco distinta de sus predecesoras

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 288»

«Individual artisans or performers develop their own style, their idiolect, by choosing some formulae and themes rather than others from the common stock.»y cómo: artesanos e intérpretes desarrollan su estilo propio, su idiolecto, escogiendo unas fórmulas y temas y no otros del fondo común

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 288»

«Variation takes place not only as a result of conscious individual creative acts but unconsciously as well.»y añade el lado inconsciente: la variación no ocurre solo por actos creativos individuales conscientes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 288»

«That is, people remember selectively and only pass on what interests them. Hence, a rumour or ballad gets progressively shorter, since all that is not memorable is lost.»y el mecanismo: la gente recuerda selectivamente y solo transmite lo que le interesa, de modo que un rumor o una balada se acortan progresivamente, porque se pierde todo lo que no es memorable

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 288»

«The ballad is gradually stripped down to its essentials – hence the laconic style, the abrupt transition from one episode to another, or the simple juxtaposition of two images without comment.»y su efecto de estilo: la balada queda reducida gradualmente a lo esencial, de ahí el estilo lacónico, la transición abrupta de un episodio a otro y la simple yuxtaposición de dos imágenes sin comentario

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 288»

«In this sense, the supporters of the theory of communal creation are partly right. To listen to a traditional song or story is to hear the voice of the tradition which speaks through the individual performer.»y en qué tienen razón en parte los partidarios de la creación comunal: escuchar una canción o un relato tradicional es oír la voz de la tradición que habla por el intérprete individual

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 289»

«At the same time, some ‘tradition bearers’ perform that tradition more skilfully than others and do so thanks to their personal creativity.»y el otro lado, que mantiene a la vez: algunos portadores de tradición la ejecutan con más destreza que otros, y lo hacen gracias a su creatividad personal

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 289»

«The point may be illustrated from European literature in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The formulaic element in the Petrarchan sonnet is obvious enough.»y lo ilustra: el elemento formulaico del soneto petrarquista es bastante obvio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 289»

«In the case of music, as late as the eighteenth century, singers and players were expected to improvise the ornamentation of tunes that had been written down and printed.»y el musical: hasta el siglo XVIII se esperaba de cantores e instrumentistas que improvisaran la ornamentación de tonadas ya escritas e impresas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 289»

«If there is no difference in kind between the forms of learned and popular culture, there may still be differences of degree, arising especially from the fact that so much of popular culture was, and is, oral culture.»y la respuesta que da a su propia objeción: si no hay diferencia de especie entre las formas de la cultura docta y la popular, puede haber diferencias de grado, nacidas sobre todo de que tanto de la cultura popular fuera y sea cultura oral; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 289»

«In the first place, in popular culture, the repertoire of elements from which an individual can draw is relatively limited.»y la primera de esas diferencias: en la cultura popular el repertorio de elementos del que un individuo puede echar mano es relativamente limitado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 289»

«In the second place, these elements are combined in stereotyped ways with relatively little attempt at modification – this is the principle of bricolage.»y la segunda: esos elementos se combinan de maneras estereotipadas con poco intento de modificarlos, que es el principio del *bricolaje*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 289»

«Writing for the eye and for a sophisticated audience, it is possible to forget about the law of two to a scene, to use formulae less frequently, to amplify descriptions much further, and to create more fully individualized characters.»y qué permite escribir para el ojo y para un público sofisticado: olvidar la ley de dos por escena, usar menos fórmulas, amplificar más las descripciones y crear personajes más individualizados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 290»

«This happens more and more in European literature from the invention of printing onwards, although what has been called ‘oral residue’ survived.»y cuándo ocurre: cada vez más en la literatura europea desde la invención de la imprenta, aunque sobrevivió lo que se ha llamado *residuo oral*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 290»

«The Serbo-Croat epic, for example, with its line of variable length and lack of»y el reparto por géneros: la épica serbocroata, con su verso de largo variable y sin rima; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *rhyme, lent itself to improvisation more than the British ballad*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 287»

«New stories could, of course, be introduced into the repertoire of traditional performers, but the use of formulae and stock motifs would rapidly assimilate them to the old.»y cómo entraba lo nuevo: podían introducirse historias nuevas en el repertorio de los intérpretes tradicionales, y el uso de fórmulas y motivos fijos las asimilaba rápidamente a las viejas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 290»

«The prophetic dream is a stock motif which had been applied, in an older ballad, to King Rodrigo, who had lost his realm to the Moors 800 years before.82 In this case, we see recent events becoming stylized and the new being perceived in terms of the old.»y el motivo que lo forma: el sueño profético es motivo fijo que un romance más antiguo había aplicado al rey Rodrigo, que perdió su reino ante los moros ochocientos años antes, de modo que se ve cómo lo reciente se estiliza y lo nuevo se percibe en términos de lo viejo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 290»

«It is for this reason, among others, that the emphasis in the Chapter 6 will fall on types rather than on individual heroes, villains, and fools.»y la consecuencia para el libro: por esa razón, entre otras, el capítulo sexto pondrá el acento en los tipos antes que en héroes, villanos y locos individuales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 290»

«this book concerns the fundamental attitudes and values of the artisans and peasants of early modern Europe and their families. To answer this question requires the presumptuous attempt to make explicit what was implicit in the different forms of popular culture.»abre el capítulo sexto recordando la pregunta central del libro: las actitudes y valores fundamentales de los artesanos y campesinos de la Europa moderna temprana y sus familias, cuya respuesta exige el intento presuntuoso de hacer explícito lo que estaba implícito en las formas de la cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 299»

«This chapter is concerned with popular heroes, villains and fools, assuming that they form a system that reveals the standards of the culture by respectively surpassing them, threatening them and falling short of them.»y el supuesto con que trabaja: héroes, villanos y locos populares forman un sistema que revela los estándares de la cultura al superarlos, amenazarlos y quedarse cortos respectivamente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 299»

«If this is the case, the investigation should help decide whether (or more exactly, to what extent) early modern popular culture was a ‘culture of contestation’ or conformity, deference or defiance.»y para qué sirve: si así es, la investigación debería ayudar a decidir hasta qué punto la cultura popular moderna temprana fue cultura de contestación o de conformidad, de deferencia o de desafío

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 299»

«It is of course misleading, as I suggested in Chapter 3, to treat the popular culture of this period as if it were monolithic. Nevertheless, the same heroes could be found in many different parts of Europe.»y la reserva que repite y matiza: es engañoso tratar la cultura popular del periodo como si fuera monolítica, y aun así los mismos héroes se hallaban en muchas partes de Europa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 299»

«The cult of the saints was universal in 1500, and some saints survived in Protestant areas long after the Reformation. St George, for example, remained the patron of England and the leading figure in the mummers’ plays.»y el primer caso: el culto de los santos era universal en 1500 y algunos sobrevivieron en zonas protestantes mucho después de la Reforma, como san Jorge, que siguió siendo patrón de Inglaterra y figura principal de las piezas de los *mummers*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 299»

«This chapter presents an essay in composite biography that describes some of the most loved, hated and mocked figures in the popular culture of the time. A final section, more speculative, will attempt to interpret the attitudes expressed in or through these figures.»y declara la forma del capítulo: un ensayo de biografía compuesta que describe algunas de las figuras más amadas, odiadas y burladas de la cultura popular de la época, con una sección final más especulativa que interpretará las actitudes expresadas en ellas o a través de ellas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 300»

«There are four main types of hero: the saint, the warrior, the ruler, and the outlaw.»y los cuatro tipos principales de héroe: el santo, el guerrero, el gobernante y el forajido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 300»

«In many cases, it is not difficult to see how latecomers to the tradition were modelled on earlier prototypes. St John the Baptist, for example, was the prototypical ascetic, living in the wilderness, eating locusts and wild honey, dressed in ‘raiment of camel's hair’»y los prototipos: no cuesta ver cómo los recién llegados a la tradición se modelaron sobre prototipos anteriores, como san Juan Bautista, asceta prototípico que vivía en el desierto comiendo langostas y miel silvestre, vestido de pelo de camello

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 300»

«Other ascetics such as St Antony Abbot or St Humphrey (who grew his hair and beard especially long) appear to have been modelled on him.»y quiénes se modelaron sobre él: otros ascetas como san Antonio Abad o san Onofre, que se dejó crecer el pelo y la barba especialmente largos; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 300»

«Prototypes might be modified to suit new needs. The medieval knight was transformed, as we shall see, into a general, a hussar and even a bandit.»y su plasticidad: los prototipos podían modificarse para necesidades nuevas, y el caballero medieval se transformó en general, en húsar y aun en bandido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 301»

«The image of the ruler calls for treatment at some length because it should reveal popular attitudes to political authority.»y por qué trata con extensión la imagen del gobernante: porque debería revelar las actitudes populares hacia la autoridad política

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 301»

«One common image was that of the conqueror. The ruler was often described with adjectives like ‘victorious’, ‘triumphant’, ‘glorious’, or ‘invincible’ and compared to Alexander the Great.»y la primera imagen común: la del conquistador, descrito con adjetivos como victorioso, triunfante, glorioso o invencible y comparado con Alejandro Magno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 301»

«He was usually represented on horseback, leading an army against the foe, especially the heathen»y su iconografía: por lo común a caballo, llevando un ejército contra el enemigo, sobre todo el pagano; el tramo se corta en el salto de renglón del troceo y sigue *or heretic foe*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 301»

«In the Lutheran parts of Germany, the cult»y los demás santos que sobreviven en zonas protestantes; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *of St Martin continued and even expanded*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 299»

«The second common image of the ruler presented him as a Solomon-figure, the judge seated on his throne, the father of his people, described with adjectives like ‘just’, ‘wise’, and ‘merciful’.»y la segunda imagen común: la del gobernante como figura salomónica, el juez sentado en su trono, padre de su pueblo, descrito con adjetivos como justo, sabio y misericordioso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 302»

«It was doubtless for this reason that the women who marched on Versailles in October 1789 sang ‘Vive Henri IV’, though the song changed its meaning as it was taken up by different groups in the course of the French Revolution.»y su uso en 1789: sin duda por eso cantaron *Vive Henri IV* las mujeres que marcharon sobre Versalles en octubre, aunque la canción cambió de sentido al adoptarla grupos distintos en el curso de la Revolución

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 303»

«A recurrent story about the ruler tells of his wandering about the land incognito. One might call this the ‘Harun al-Rashid’ topos after the stories about the Caliph of Baghdad told in the Arabian Nights.»y un relato recurrente sobre el gobernante: el de sus andanzas de incógnito por el país, que él llama el tópico de Harún al-Rashid por los cuentos del califa de Bagdad de *Las mil y una noches*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 303»

«The best known of all stories about the ruler as popular hero is the one that he is not really dead. He is only sleeping, usually in a cave, and he will return one day to conquer his enemies, to free his people from oppression, to restore justice and to bring about the golden age»y el relato más conocido de todos: que el gobernante no está realmente muerto sino dormido, por lo común en una cueva, y que volverá un día a vencer a sus enemigos, a liberar a su pueblo de la opresión, a restaurar la justicia y a traer la edad de oro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 304»

«The obvious prototype for this story is Christ, and the identification of the ruler with Christ and his Second Coming is surely a significant one.»y el prototipo que le ve: Cristo, y la identificación del gobernante con Cristo y su segunda venida le parece significativa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 304»

«The story was a widespread one in our period, as it had been earlier and would be later. It was attached to the Emperor Frederick in particular.»y su difusión: el relato estaba muy extendido en el periodo, como antes y después, y se adhirió en particular al emperador Federico

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 304»

«As the last example should make clear, the fact that some rulers were popular heroes did not mean that that artisans and peasants were blind to the faults of others.»y la lectura que saca: como deja claro ese último ejemplo, que algunos gobernantes fueran héroes populares no significa que artesanos y campesinos fueran ciegos a los defectos de otros; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 305»

«The hero-king was not infrequently contrasted with the actual king, Louis XII (say) with Louis XIII, against whom the Norman peasants were rebelling in 1639, or ‘King Olav's law’ with the law of the Danish kings who were ruling Norway during the early modern period.»y el mecanismo: el rey héroe se contrastaba no pocas veces con el rey real, Luis XII con Luis XIII, contra el que se rebelaban los campesinos normandos en 1639, o la *ley del rey Olaf* con la ley de los reyes daneses que gobernaban Noruega

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 305»

«In any case the image of the tyrant was familiar enough, given the obvious biblical prototypes. From the Old Testament there was Pharaoh, and from the New there was Herod, who was well-known in mystery plays in England, Poland, Russia and elsewhere.»y la contraparte: la imagen del tirano era bastante familiar, con los prototipos bíblicos obvios, el faraón del Antiguo Testamento y Herodes del Nuevo, bien conocido en los misterios de Inglaterra, Polonia, Rusia y otras partes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 305»

«The Russian variant of the story contrasted the ‘boyars’ tsar’ (the actual tsar who was oppressing the people),»y la variante rusa: contrastaba el *zar de los boyardos*, el zar real que oprimía al pueblo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el *zar verdadero*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 304»

«In Russia, the traditional Herod play was transformed, probably in the late seventeenth century, into that of ‘Tsar Maximilian’, a proud, cruel and pagan ruler who persecutes his Christian son until he is struck down by the vengeance of God.»y su transformación rusa: la pieza tradicional de Herodes se volvió, probablemente a fines del XVII, la del *Zar Maximiliano*, gobernante orgulloso, cruel y pagano que persigue a su hijo cristiano hasta que lo abate la venganza de Dios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 305»

«It was more common for hostility to be displaced and for criticism to be indirect. In the French chapbook romances of chivalry the heroes – Huon of Bordeaux, Ogier the Dane, the four sons of Aymon – were shown to be justified in rebelling against Charlemagne, but the emperor was not shown to be at fault.»y la forma normal de la crítica: era más común que la hostilidad se desplazara y la crítica fuera indirecta, como en las novelas de caballerías francesas, donde los héroes se muestran justificados al rebelarse contra Carlomagno sin que se presente al emperador como culpable

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 306»

«It was as if the king could do no wrong, although he might be ill advised, in the consecrated phrase, by ‘evil counsellors’.»y la fórmula que lo resume: era como si el rey no pudiera hacer mal, aunque pudiera estar mal aconsejado, en la frase consagrada, por *malos consejeros*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 307»

«Peasant risings in seventeenth-century France used slogans like ‘Long live the king, down with the officials’ (Vive le roi, fie aux élus).25 The rebels did not want to know that the taxes had been authorized by the king.»y el francés: las revueltas campesinas del XVII usaban consignas como viva el rey, abajo los recaudadores, y los rebeldes no querían saber que el rey había autorizado los impuestos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 307»

«We may conclude that kings inherited considerable reserves of popular goodwill; that they were presumed benevolent, even heroic, until they were proved to be otherwise; and that criticism was inhibited not only by the fear of punishment but also by a selfcensorship which may not even have been conscious.»y su conclusión: los reyes heredaban reservas considerables de buena voluntad popular, se los presumía benevolentes y aun heroicos hasta que se probara lo contrario, y la crítica la inhibía no solo el miedo al castigo sino una autocensura quizá ni siquiera consciente; el impreso parte *self-censorship* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *selfcensorship*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 307»

«On the other hand, these inhibitions could be broken down by certain events, in which case the stereotypes of Alexander and Solomon might be replaced by those of Herod and Pharaoh.»y su reverso: ciertos acontecimientos podían romper esas inhibiciones, y entonces los estereotipos de Alejandro y Salomón podían reemplazarse por los de Herodes y el faraón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 307»

«If a study of the ruler as popular hero helps illuminate popular political attitudes, other heroes, villains and fools should inform us about social attitudes, the attitudes of different social groups such as the clergy, the nobility, and the ‘third estate’, including artisans and peasants themselves.»y el giro del capítulo: si el gobernante ilumina las actitudes políticas, los demás héroes, villanos y locos deberían informar sobre las actitudes sociales, las de grupos como el clero, la nobleza y el tercer estado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 307»

«In prints and on plates one sometimes finds images of the three estates, the priest saying, ‘I pray for all’, the noble, ‘I fight for all’ and the peasant ‘I work for all’.»con la imagen que las condensa: en estampas y platos se hallan a veces los tres estados, el sacerdote que dice *rezo por todos*, el noble *peleo por todos* y el campesino *trabajo para todos*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 307»

«A second type of clerical hero is the good shepherd, a charitable man devoted to the material as well as the spiritual welfare of ordinary people. St Martin, Bishop of Tours, divided his cloak with a beggar (‘The Charity of St Martin’).»y el segundo tipo: el buen pastor, hombre caritativo dedicado al bienestar material y espiritual de la gente común, como san Martín de Tours partiendo su capa con un mendigo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 308»

«St Benedict helped a peasant who had dropped his axe in the river by making it float to the surface. St Nicholas, Bishop of Myra, one of the most popular saints of all, helped the sailors when the ship in which he was travelling was caught in a storm, and threw money into the house of a poor man at night so that his daughters would have the dowries they needed»y los demás: san Benito ayudando al campesino que dejó caer su hacha al río haciéndola flotar, y san Nicolás de Mira socorriendo a los marineros en la tormenta y echando dinero de noche en casa de un pobre para que sus hijas tuvieran dote; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 308»

«St Francis combined the qualities of the ascetic and the pastor, fasting and praying in the wilderness but also giving away his clothes, and pacifying both the man-eating wolf of Gubbio and the faction-fighting in Arezzo.»y san Francisco, que combinaba las cualidades del asceta y del pastor, ayunando y orando en el yermo y a la vez regalando sus ropas y pacificando al lobo comehombres de Gubbio y las banderías de Arezzo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 308»

«St Francis was of course modelled on the prototype of Christ, not only receiving the stigmata but (according to some versions of his legend) being born in a manger.»y su prototipo: san Francisco estaba modelado sobre Cristo, no solo por recibir los estigmas sino, según algunas versiones de su leyenda, por nacer en un pesebre

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 308»

«In other kinds of sources, however, a rather different image of the clergy can be found. Friar Tuck, the merry friar who enjoys fighting and loves his dinner, is only one of a number of sympathetic but unheroic priests.»y la imagen distinta que dan otras fuentes: fray Tuck, el fraile alegre que gusta de pelear y ama su cena, es solo uno de varios sacerdotes simpáticos y poco heroicos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 308»

«The weaknesses of the clergy did not always receive such a sympathetic portrayal in popular tradition. They were often presented as villains or fools, as ignorant, proud, greedy, lazy and as lusting after other men's wives.»y el retrato menos amable: las flaquezas del clero no siempre recibieron retrato tan simpático, y a los clérigos se los presentaba a menudo como villanos o locos, ignorantes, soberbios, codiciosos, perezosos y ansiosos de las mujeres ajenas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 308»

«This is of course an attack not only on the greed of the clergy, but also on the doctrine of purgatory.»y qué ataca: no solo la codicia del clero sino también la doctrina del purgatorio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 309»

«The motif of clerical covetousness is a recurrent one. Think, for example, of the rich and grasping abbot who is punished by Robin Hood (Child 117), or the story of the priest who won’t bury the dead unless he is paid in advance (Motif-Index Q.286.2), or the priest who refuses a small bribe because he will only sell his soul to the Devil for a large one»y el motivo recurrente de la codicia clerical: el abad rico y avaro al que castiga Robin Hood, el sacerdote que no entierra a los muertos si no se le paga por adelantado, el que rechaza un soborno pequeño porque solo venderá su alma al diablo por uno grande

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 309»

«Even more widespread was the image of the cleric as seducer. There are Russian statuettes in wood and earthenware of a monk carrying on his back a sheaf in which a girl is hidden.»y la imagen aún más difundida del clérigo seductor: hay estatuillas rusas de madera y barro de un monje que lleva a la espalda una gavilla con una muchacha escondida

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 309»

«Like the image of the mice burying the cat (Figure 10), the play surely implies a criticism of Peter the Great, who imprisoned and possibly executed his son Alexis and subordinated the Church to the State,»y la lectura que propone: como la estampa de los ratones que entierran al gato, la pieza implica seguramente una crítica de Pedro el Grande, que encarceló y quizá ejecutó a su hijo Alexis y subordinó la Iglesia al Estado; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con las alternativas del cisma y de Iván el Terrible

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 305»

«It was his son Charlot or his nephew Bertolais who was to blame. In similar fashion, Robin»y quién carga la culpa: su hijo Charlot o su sobrino Bertolais; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con Robin Hood

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 306»

«For a heroic image of men of religion, we need go no further than the legends of the saints. There is the ascetic, for example: the austerities of St Jerome and St Antony Abbot, who fasted, prayed»y abre el apartado del clérigo: para una imagen heroica basta con las leyendas de los santos, empezando por el asceta, san Jerónimo y san Antonio Abad; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 307»

«The noble seems to have had a better image than might have been expected. The knight was a popular hero. Although the medieval romances of chivalry offer a clear-cut example of literature produced by, for, and about the nobility»y abre el apartado del noble: su imagen parece haber sido mejor de lo que cabría esperar, y el caballero era héroe popular, aunque las novelas de caballerías medievales sean ejemplo claro de literatura producida por, para y sobre la nobleza

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 309»

«there can be little doubt of the popular appeal of these romances in our period.»y aun así: hay poca duda del atractivo popular de esas novelas en el periodo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 309»

«The popularity of the knight was such that a number of saints were represented in this form, not only St Martin, St Florian and St Maurice (who were all supposed to have served in the Roman army before their conversion), but St George, St James and even St Michael the archangel.»y su fuerza: la popularidad del caballero fue tal que varios santos se representaron en esa forma, no solo san Martín, san Florián y san Mauricio, que se suponía habían servido en el ejército romano antes de su conversión, sino san Jorge, Santiago y aun el arcángel san Miguel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 310»

«It is probable that these stories appealed to young adult males in particular, including the London apprentices.»y a quién atraían: probablemente a los varones adultos jóvenes en particular, los aprendices londinenses incluidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 310»

«The warrior-hero was presented in much the same way in one romance after the other. It goes without saying that he is both brave and strong»y su retrato fijo: el héroe guerrero se presentaba casi igual en una novela tras otra, y sobra decir que es valiente y fuerte

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 310»

«The warrior is also presented as proud. The epithet which the Spanish ballads of our period apply most frequently to the Cid is soberbio, meaning that he is sensitive to real or fancied insults and quick to avenge them.»y el tercer rasgo: el guerrero se presenta también como orgulloso, y el epíteto que los romances españoles aplican con más frecuencia al Cid es *soberbio*, sensible a las ofensas reales o imaginadas y pronto a vengarlas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 310»

«With the important exception of Pierre de Provence, the knight is usually portrayed as a rough diamond, his manners unpolished, making war rather than love.»y el retrato general con su excepción: salvo Pierre de Provence, al caballero se lo retrata por lo común como diamante en bruto, de maneras sin pulir, que hace la guerra antes que el amor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 311»

«The Cid and Guy of Warwick neglect their wives for feats of arms, while the theme of love is absent from Les quatre fils Aymon.»con las pruebas: el Cid y Guy of Warwick descuidan a sus mujeres por las hazañas de armas, y el tema del amor falta en *Les quatre fils Aymon*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 311»

«In popular tradition, the chanson de geste was more influential than the roman courtois.»y la conclusión que saca: en la tradición popular la *chanson de geste* pesó más que el *roman courtois*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 311»

«These points were made with»y dónde con más fuerza: en la literatura popular de la Reforma alemana; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *particular force*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 308»

«Generals and admirals were not the sole heirs to the glory of the knight. Something rubbed off on the common soldier too. By the eighteenth century, when he lived in barracks rather than being quartered on ordinary people, and no longer robbed and raped on the scale of the Thirty Years’ War, the soldier could be seen in a heroic light, at least by young men, not to mention young women.»y el heredero humilde de la gloria caballeresca: algo se le pegó al soldado raso, que hacia el XVIII, ya acuartelado y sin robar ni violar a la escala de la guerra de los Treinta Años, pudo verse en luz heroica, al menos por los jóvenes; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 311»

«Hussars, dragoons and guardsmen figured in broadsides and popular prints. They were painted on cupboards and made into pottery figures or candlesticks.»y su presencia material: húsares, dragones y guardias figuraban en pliegos y estampas populares y se pintaban en armarios o se hacían figuras de barro y candeleros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 312»

«Boastful soldiers were favourite fool-figures in the mystery plays of the Resurrection (where they guarded Christ's sepulchre); in Florentine pageants, where they took the form of German Landsknechts, and the commedia dell’arte, where the character ‘Capitano’ was supposed to be Spanish.»y los soldados fanfarrones como figuras favoritas de loco: en los misterios de la Resurrección, donde guardaban el sepulcro de Cristo; en los desfiles florentinos, donde tomaban forma de *Landsknechte* alemanes, y en la *commedia dell'arte*, donde el Capitano se suponía español

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 312»

«This image may have been inspired by the miles gloriosus of ancient Roman comedy, but it was also topical in that age of mercenary warfare.»y su doble origen: la imagen pudo inspirarse en el *miles gloriosus* de la comedia romana antigua y era además de actualidad en aquella edad de guerra mercenaria

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 312»

«What is missing from popular literature is the nobleman at home, the landlord. Like the king, the noble landlord seems to have benefited from the fact that he was remote from the everyday life of the peasant.»y lo que falta en la literatura popular: el noble en su casa, el terrateniente, que como el rey parece haberse beneficiado de estar lejos de la vida cotidiana del campesino

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 312»

«It is possible that the peasants’ potential hostility to their landlords, like their hostility to their rulers, was displaced on to another social group, the middle class, whether lawyers, officials, merchants or doctors.»y la hipótesis que abre el apartado del burgués: que la hostilidad potencial de los campesinos hacia sus terratenientes, como la que sentían hacia sus gobernantes, se desplazara a otro grupo social, la clase media, abogados, funcionarios, mercaderes o médicos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 313»

«In a famous popular print, current in France and Germany, the lawyer was presented as a fourth estate: ‘I eat all’ are the words put into his mouth.»con la estampa famosa que circulaba en Francia y Alemania: el abogado presentado como cuarto estado, con un *yo como todo* puesto en su boca

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 313»

«The mask of Dottore, in the commedia dell’arte, sometimes called Dottor Grazian (after a medieval canon lawyer who taught at the University of Bologna), presented the lawyer as an ignorant, pedantic, pretentious fool.»y la máscara del Dottore, a veces llamado Dottor Grazian por un canonista medieval que enseñó en Bolonia, que presentaba al abogado como ignorante, pedante y pretencioso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 313»

«A number of Russian proverbs are concerned with the corruption of judges. One goes ‘the court is straight, but the judge is crooked’ and another, ‘one cannot talk to the judge if one is empty-handed’.»y los proverbios rusos sobre la corrupción de los jueces: la corte es recta pero el juez es torcido, y no se puede hablar con el juez con las manos vacías

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 313»

«To understand this bitterness, one needs to remember how widespread litigation was in the early modern period. Artisans and peasants might well have had personal experience of lawyers.»y la explicación de esa amargura: hay que recordar cuán extendido estaba el pleito en la época moderna temprana, de modo que artesanos y campesinos bien pudieron tener experiencia personal de abogados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 314»

«Another hate-figure was the official, whether he advised the ruler or nobleman or carried out his orders. The unpopularity of the taxcollector in particular is well-documented from seventeenth-century France, where taxes were ‘farmed’ – in other words, the right of collecting them was sold at a discount to private entrepreneurs known as partisans, or traitants, or maltotiers, or gabeleurs (named after the notorious salt-tax, the gabelle»y la segunda figura odiada, el funcionario, con el recaudador de impuestos en cabeza: en la Francia del XVII los impuestos se *arrendaban*, y el derecho de cobrarlos se vendía con descuento a empresarios privados llamados *partisans*, *traitants*, *maltotiers* o *gabeleurs*, por la temida gabela; el impreso parte *tax-collector* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *taxcollector*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 314»

«Other kinds of businessmen were considered scarcely less villainous, particularly if they lent money at interest, hoarded grain, or held monopolies.»y los demás hombres de negocios, tenidos por poco menos villanos, sobre todo si prestaban a interés, acaparaban grano o tenían monopolios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 314»

«In times of scarcity or inflation, like the later sixteenth and later eighteenth centuries, it was the merchants who were blamed (particularly ‘the leeches of Genoa’ in Spain) for ‘engrossing’ or ‘forestalling’, in other words, creating an artificial scarcity for their»y a quién se culpaba en tiempos de escasez o inflación: a los mercaderes, en España señaladamente a *las sanguijuelas de Génova*, por acaparar o retener, es decir por crear escasez artificial; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *own profit*.

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 314»

«Compared to the lawyer and the merchant, the physician escaped relatively lightly. In folktales and in popular plays in England, Germany, and Italy he was portrayed as ignorant, pedantic, cunning, and greedy, but he seems to have been more of a fool than a villain, perhaps because most craftsmen and peasants did not have personal experience of doctors and their fees.»y el médico, que salió relativamente bien parado: en cuentos y piezas populares de Inglaterra, Alemania e Italia se lo retrataba ignorante, pedante, astuto y codicioso, aunque más como loco que como villano, quizá porque la mayoría de artesanos y campesinos no tenía experiencia personal de médicos ni de sus honorarios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 315»

«After a view of this rogues’ gallery the reader may well wonder where the middle-class heroes have gone. They are certainly rare enough. There is one example of the honest lawyer, usually portrayed as mediating between a rich man and a poor man – and he was canonized as Saint Yves.»y la negativa que consigna como dato: tras esa galería de bribones el lector puede preguntarse dónde están los héroes de clase media, y son ciertamente raros, con un solo ejemplo de abogado honesto, retratado por lo común mediando entre un rico y un pobre, y canonizado como san Ivo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 315»

«Dick's popularity in England and the lack of continental parallels to his career go a little way towards suggesting that England was an ‘achieving society’ before the Industrial Revolution.»y lo que de ahí sugiere con cautela: la popularidad de Dick en Inglaterra y la falta de paralelos continentales apuntan un poco a que Inglaterra fuera una *sociedad de logro* antes de la Revolución industrial

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 316»

«In Eastern Europe, where the peasants were reduced to serfs in»y el hueco documental del este europeo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *this period, literacy was low*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 312»

«How did artisans and peasants see themselves? The self-image of the weavers, the shoemakers and other crafts has been discussed in Chapter 2. It is much harder to discover the self-image of the peasant: Jacques Bonhomme, Karsthans, or Juan Labrador.»abre el apartado del pueblo con su pregunta: cómo se veían a sí mismos artesanos y campesinos, con la advertencia de que es mucho más difícil descubrir la autoimagen del campesino, el Jacques Bonhomme, el Karsthans o el Juan Labrador

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 316»

«It is obviously necessary to be suspicious of any printed text that purports to present it. All the same, a few texts seem worth discussing here, because they were frequently reprinted and because they present peasants as heroes.»y la cautela que impone: hay que desconfiar de todo texto impreso que diga presentarla, y aun así merece la pena discutir unos pocos, por reimprimirse a menudo y por presentar campesinos como héroes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 316»

«As a result of his hospitality to two travellers, Peter and Paul, Misère has a wish granted. His wish is that ‘anyone who climbs my pear-tree’ (his only property) ‘should be unable to come down until I wish it’.»y su relato: por su hospitalidad con dos viajeros, Pedro y Pablo, se le concede un deseo, y desea que quien suba a su peral —su única propiedad— no pueda bajar hasta que él lo quiera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 316»

«If the reader finds this picture too idyllic to be true, it may be worth emphasizing that its hero avoids landlords like the plague, that he owes his freedom from them to his living so ‘high up in the woods’, just as he owes his freedom from military service to the fact that he is lame.»y la lectura que lo salva del idilio: si el cuadro parece demasiado idílico para ser cierto, conviene subrayar que su héroe evita a los terratenientes como a la peste, que debe su libertad respecto de ellos a vivir tan alto en el bosque y su exención del servicio militar a ser cojo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 318»

«The unknown author of these lines – like Marcolf, Campriano and Misère – is not as simple as he looks. If they are not a self-portrait, they at least present an image to which the peasant might nod his assent.»y su conclusión: el autor desconocido de esos versos, como Marcolfo, Campriano y Misère, no es tan simple como parece, y si no son un autorretrato presentan al menos una imagen a la que el campesino podría asentir

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 318»

«The very word villano meant both ‘villain’ and ‘peasant’ (in English, too, ‘villain’ and ‘villein’ are connected).»y el dato de lengua: la palabra misma *villano* significaba a la vez villano y campesino, y en inglés *villain* y *villein* están emparentadas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 319»

«Women also had to know their place, as is clear not only from the popular (masculine) images of the woman as villain, such as the shrew, but even from the images of the heroine.»y abre el apartado de las mujeres: también ellas debían conocer su lugar, cosa clara no solo por las imágenes populares y masculinas de la mujer como villana, la fiera, sino aun por las imágenes de la heroína

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 319»

«Most popular heroines were presented as passive, admired not so much for what they did as for what they suffered.»y el rasgo común de las heroínas: pasivas, admiradas no tanto por lo que hacían como por lo que sufrían

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 319»

«For women, martyrdom was virtually the only road to sanctity, and there were many legends of virgin martyrs who are not easy to tell apart except in the manner of their deaths and tortures: St Agatha, whose breasts were cut off; St Catherine, who was supposed to be broken on a wheel; St Lucy, whose eyes were put out, and so on.»y su vía única: para las mujeres el martirio era prácticamente el único camino a la santidad, y hay muchas leyendas de vírgenes mártires difíciles de distinguir salvo por el modo de su muerte y su tormento, santa Águeda con los pechos cortados, santa Catalina rota en la rueda, santa Lucía con los ojos arrancados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 319»

«In short, Judith, usually represented slaying the tyrant Holofernes, seems to have been an exception among heroines.»y la excepción: Judit, representada por lo común matando al tirano Holofernes, parece haber sido una excepción entre las heroínas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 320»

«The villainous woman, on the other hand, is portrayed as intensely active, whether she is scolding, seducing, causing bad weather, stealing the milk from her neighbour's cattle or beating her husband.»y el contraste que importa aquí: la mujer villana se retrata intensamente activa, sea regañando, seduciendo, provocando mal tiempo, robando la leche del ganado de su vecina o pegando a su marido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 320»

«There were many anecdotes about the malice of women, some collected in chapbooks devoted entirely to that subject. These anecdotes tend to emphasize the danger of trusting women, offering examples such as Eve, Delilah and Potiphar's wife.»y su vehículo: hubo muchas anécdotas sobre la malicia de las mujeres, algunas reunidas en pliegos dedicados por entero al asunto, que tienden a subrayar el peligro de fiarse de ellas con ejemplos como Eva, Dalila y la mujer de Putifar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 320»

«Even better evidence of the strength of popular traditions of misogyny is the preponderance of women among the accused at witch-trials.»y la evidencia que declara mejor todavía de la fuerza de las tradiciones populares de misoginia: la preponderancia de mujeres entre los acusados en los procesos de brujería

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 320»

«No image of society can be complete if it does not include outsiders. One kind of outsider was often seen as a hero: the outlaw.»y abre el apartado de los de fuera: ninguna imagen de la sociedad es completa sin ellos, y una clase de forastero se veía a menudo como héroe, el forajido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 320»

«I use the deliberately neutral term ‘outlaw’ as a general description of various ways of life in opposition to the authorities. On the sea there was the English pirate, or the Dutch zeeroover. On the land there was the English highwayman, the Scots reiver or cattle robber, the German Strassenraüber, the Italian bandito (originally’ exile’, later ‘bandit’), and the Spanish bandolero.»y su nomenclatura europea: usa *forajido* como término neutro deliberado para modos de vida en oposición a las autoridades, con el pirata inglés y el *zeeroover* neerlandés en el mar, y en tierra el salteador inglés, el *reiver* escocés, el *Strassenräuber* alemán, el *bandito* italiano —primero *desterrado*— y el *bandolero* español

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 320»

«On the evidence of ballads, the outlaw seems to have been an even more important figure in the popular culture of eastern Europe than he was in the west: the Russian razboinik, the Czech loupežník, the Croat uskok, the Hungarian bétyár, and the south-east European haiduk.»y su peso en el este: a juzgar por las baladas, el forajido parece haber sido figura aún más importante en la cultura popular de Europa oriental que en la occidental, con el *razboinik* ruso, el *loupežník* checo, el *uskok* croata, el *bétyár* húngaro y el *haiduk* del sureste; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 320»

«Outlaws were more like rulers than saints in the sense that they tended to be popular only in their own region. Robin Hood's reputation was confined to England, Stenka Razin's to Russia.»y su alcance: los forajidos se parecían más a los gobernantes que a los santos en que solían ser populares solo en su propia región, con la fama de Robin Hood ceñida a Inglaterra y la de Stenka Razin a Rusia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 321»

«For some reason new outlaw-heroes seem to have been particularly numerous in the eighteenth century; perhaps the spread of broadsides and chapbooks immortalized names that might have been forgotten and fixed exploits which would otherwise have been transferred to their successors.»y una hipótesis sobre el siglo XVIII: los héroes forajidos nuevos parecen especialmente numerosos entonces, quizá porque la difusión de pliegos inmortalizó nombres que se habrían olvidado y fijó hazañas que de otro modo se habrían transferido a sus sucesores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 321»

«The landlord's image of the peasant tenant was a good deal less»y la imagen inversa: la del terrateniente sobre su arrendatario era bastante menos halagüeña; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *flattering*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 318»

«Cinderella and other folktale heroines are almost equally passive and so is the»y el resto de las heroínas: Cenicienta y otras del cuento son casi igual de pasivas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la Virgen María

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 319»

«Low population density and relatively weak central governments allowed outlaws to flourish longer in the east»y su explicación: la densidad baja de población y los gobiernos centrales débiles dejaron florecer más tiempo a los forajidos en el este; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el campesinado enserfado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 320»

«That outlaws were what we might call ‘mythogenic’ suggests that the stories satisfied repressed wishes, enabling ordinary people to take imaginative revenge on the authorities to whom they were usually obedient in real life.»y la lectura que propone: que los forajidos fueran, como dice, *mitógenos* sugiere que esas historias satisfacían deseos reprimidos y permitían a la gente común vengarse en la imaginación de las autoridades a las que en la vida real obedecía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 321»

«The central theme of the legends of the heroic outlaw is that he rights wrongs and helps ordinary people.»y el tema central de esas leyendas: el forajido endereza entuertos y ayuda a la gente común

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 321»

«If attitudes to the outlaw were sometimes ambiguous or ambivalent, the image of other outsiders was plain enough; they are wicked and fearsome without qualification. The most obvious examples are those of the Turk, the Jew, and the witch.»y el contraste que abre lo que sigue: si las actitudes hacia el forajido eran a veces ambiguas, la imagen de otros forasteros era clara, malvados y temibles sin matices, con el turco, el judío y la bruja por ejemplos más obvios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 323»

«The popular image of the Turk or any other Muslim was that of a blasphemer who denies God, rather than of individuals with a religion of their own.»y la imagen popular del turco o de cualquier musulmán: la de un blasfemo que niega a Dios antes que la de individuos con religión propia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 323»

«In addition, Turks were seen as bloodthirsty, cruel and treacherous. When Christian soldiers committed atrocities, they were described as behaving ‘like Turks’.»y sus atributos: sanguinarios, crueles y traicioneros, hasta el punto de que cuando los soldados cristianos cometían atrocidades se decía que se portaban *como turcos*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 323»

«Target practice in Elizabethan England was known as ‘shooting at the Turk’ because an image of a Turk was a favourite butt for arrows. Turks were scarcely considered human; they were commonly described as wolves or dogs.»y su uso material: en la Inglaterra isabelina el tiro al blanco se llamaba *disparar al turco* porque una figura de turco era blanco favorito de flechas, y a los turcos apenas se los tenía por humanos, sino que se los llamaba comúnmente lobos o perros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 323»

«In Andalusia and Dalmatia, on the other hand, where Muslims were not so much outsiders as neighbours, they were sometimes (though not always) portrayed in ballads as honourable foes.»y la excepción que consigna: en Andalucía y Dalmacia, donde los musulmanes eran menos forasteros que vecinos, a veces se los retrataba en las baladas como enemigos honorables

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 323»

«Even more fearsome, if possible, were traitors within the gates, outsiders who lived within the community, notably the Jews. Like Turks, they were not seen as human beings but as dogs or (ironically enough, given their diet), as pigs.»y los forasteros de dentro: aún más temibles, si cabe, los traidores dentro de las puertas, señaladamente los judíos, a quienes tampoco se veía como seres humanos sino como perros o, irónicamente dada su dieta, como cerdos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 323»

«Woodcuts showed a Jewish woman who had given birth to piglets or a sow suckling Jewish babies.»y sus imágenes: había xilografías de una judía que había parido lechones o de una cerda amamantando niños judíos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 323»

«Jews were regarded as sorcerers and blasphemers and often accused of desecrating the host or holy images.»y lo que más importa aquí: a los judíos se los tenía por hechiceros y blasfemos y se los acusaba a menudo de profanar la hostia o las imágenes sagradas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 323»

«Chapbook biographies of Judas relate that he killed his father and married his mother, as if what Freud regarded as repressed wishes were projected on to the greatest of human villains.»y la biografía de Judas en los pliegos: mató a su padre y se casó con su madre, como si lo que Freud tenía por deseos reprimidos se proyectara sobre el mayor de los villanos humanos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 324»

«Like Jews, witches were viewed as traitors within the gates, blaspheming against Christianity by insulting the cross and the host, doing harm to their neighbours, eating children and engaging in sex orgies with demons.»y la tercera figura, que es la que más importa aquí: como a los judíos, a las brujas se las veía como traidoras dentro de las puertas, que blasfemaban contra el cristianismo insultando la cruz y la hostia, dañaban a sus vecinos, comían niños y participaban en orgías sexuales con demonios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 324»

«Prosecutions for witchcraft increased sharply in many parts of Europe in the sixteenth century.»y el dato cronológico: los procesos por brujería aumentaron bruscamente en muchas partes de Europa en el siglo XVI

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 324»

«How far the hatred and fear of witches was spontaneous and how far it was necessary for the clergy to convert ordinary people to these attitudes remains a question that historians find difficult to answer.»y la pregunta que declara difícil de responder: hasta qué punto el odio y el miedo a las brujas fue espontáneo y hasta qué punto hizo falta que el clero convirtiera a la gente común a esas actitudes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 324»

«It is likely, though hard to prove, that the stereotype of the witch as an old woman with supernatural powers that she used to harm people was a popular belief that went back to the Middle Ages or before.»y lo que declara probable aunque difícil de probar: que el estereotipo de la bruja como vieja con poderes sobrenaturales que usaba para dañar era creencia popular que se remontaba a la Edad Media o antes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 324»

«On the other hand, the stereotype of the witch as heretic or blasphemer, in league with the Devil, was a learned belief to which ordinary people were converted only gradually.»y su contrapartida: el estereotipo de la bruja como hereje o blasfema, en liga con el diablo, era creencia docta a la que la gente común se convirtió solo gradualmente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 324»

«One argument for this view comes from comparative history. In Orthodox Europe there was no great witch-hunt in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; Russia, for example, was immune from it.»y el argumento comparativo que aduce: en la Europa ortodoxa no hubo gran caza de brujas en los siglos XVI y XVII, y Rusia fue inmune a ella

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 324»

«What was lacking in this story was the idea of a pact between the old woman and the devil.»y lo que faltaba en ese relato, que es el nudo del argumento: la idea de un pacto entre la vieja y el diablo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 325»

«Two more popular villains were created in the course of the Reformation: The Catholic stereotype of the wicked Protestant and the Protestant stereotype of the wicked ‘Papist’. The new images had much in common with the stereotypes of the Jew and the witch, from which elements were obviously taken.»y los dos villanos populares que creó la Reforma: el estereotipo católico del protestante malvado y el protestante del *papista* malvado, con mucho en común con los del judío y la bruja, de los que se tomaron elementos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 325»

«Hatred of outsiders was so common as to make one wonder whether most ordinary people of the period were not what psychologists sometimes call ‘authoritarian personalities’, combining submissiveness to authority with aggressiveness towards people outside their group.»y la pregunta que deja abierta: el odio a los de fuera era tan común que cabe preguntarse si la mayoría de la gente común del periodo no serían lo que los psicólogos llaman a veces *personalidades autoritarias*, que combinan sumisión a la autoridad con agresividad hacia quienes están fuera de su grupo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 325»

«In attempting to answer this question, it is important to avoid two opposite errors. Historians tend to be short-sighted, trying too hard to explain the legend of, say, Henri IV of France in terms of the actual characteristics of the king and of attitudes to his policies.»y los dos errores opuestos que quiere evitar: el historiador tiende a la miopía, a explicar la leyenda de Enrique IV por las características reales del rey y las actitudes ante su política

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 325»

«Folklorists, on the other hand, tend to be long-sighted. They stress the fact that the same stories are told of many different heroes, that a well-known stereotype ‘crystallizes’ around a particular individual, without asking why those individuals were selected.»y el error contrario, el de los folcloristas: son présbites, subrayan que los mismos relatos se cuentan de héroes distintos y que un estereotipo conocido *cristaliza* en torno a un individuo sin preguntar por qué se seleccionó a esos individuos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 326»

«What was it that made them mythogenic? Why did the process of crystallization occur around them and not others?»y las preguntas que él sí quiere hacer: qué los hizo mitógenos y por qué la cristalización ocurrió en torno a ellos y no a otros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 326»

«There may well be different answers to this question in different cases, but a plausible suggestion might be that certain individuals conform, or are seen as conforming in certain respects, to a herostereotype such as the just king or the noble outlaw.»y la respuesta que propone: puede haber respuestas distintas en casos distintos, y una sugerencia plausible es que ciertos individuos se ajustan, o se ven ajustándose en ciertos aspectos, a un estereotipo de héroe como el rey justo o el forajido noble; el impreso parte *hero-stereotype* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *herostereotype*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 326»

«This conformity strikes the imagination of singers or storytellers or painters, so that tales and images of this individual begin to circulate. In the course of circulation, their lives and deeds are assimilated to the stereotype in other respects as well as the original ones.»y el mecanismo: esa conformidad impresiona a cantores, narradores o pintores, empiezan a circular relatos e imágenes de ese individuo, y en el curso de la circulación su vida y sus hechos se asimilan al estereotipo también en otros aspectos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 326»

«It is easier to adapt verbal or pictorial formulae to a new hero than to create new formulae. In any case, the traditional image corresponds to the expectations of the audience.»y las dos razones: es más fácil adaptar fórmulas verbales o pictóricas a un héroe nuevo que crear fórmulas nuevas, y en todo caso la imagen tradicional corresponde a las expectativas del público

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 326»

«This theory is too ambitious for precise demonstration, but a few pieces of evidence that support it may be worth noting. If a king has the same name as a ruler-hero, this will help to launch him in popular tradition.»y la reserva con que la ofrece: la teoría es demasiado ambiciosa para demostrarse con precisión, y algunas piezas de evidencia la apoyan, como que un rey con el mismo nombre que un rey héroe se lance mejor en la tradición popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 326»

«If the story of the ruler who is not dead but sleeping attached itself to Sebastian, this may be because he was not seen to die and did not die in Portugal.»y las dos adherencias que explica así: si el relato del gobernante dormido se adhirió a Sebastián, pudo ser porque no se lo vio morir ni murió en Portugal

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 327»

«Finally, disasters that took place after their deaths helped to make some rulers into heroes, encouraging people to look back to the good old days under their rule.»y el tercer factor: los desastres posteriores a su muerte ayudaron a hacer héroes a algunos gobernantes, animando a mirar atrás a los buenos tiempos de su reinado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 327»

«The process of crystallization is not confined to rulers but seems to work for other kinds of popular hero or villain. British outlaws were assimilated to Robin Hood.»y la extensión del proceso: la cristalización no se ciñe a los gobernantes y parece funcionar con otras clases de héroe o villano popular, con los forajidos británicos asimilados a Robin Hood

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 327»

«One of the most remarkable cases of assimilation to a stereotype is that of Faust. His story, as told in puppet-plays and chapbooks in the early modern period, is a combination of several traditional themes: that of the man who»y el caso que declara de los más notables, y el que más importa aquí: el de Fausto, cuya historia, tal como la cuentan los títeres y los pliegos de la época moderna temprana, combina varios temas tradicionales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 328»

«makes a pact with the Devil, like Theophilus; that of the magician with a dangerously close relationship to the forces of evil, like Friar Bacon; and that of the trickster, like Till Eulenspiegel.»y sus tres componentes: el del hombre que pacta con el diablo, como Teófilo; el del mago de relación peligrosamente estrecha con las fuerzas del mal, como fray Bacon, y el del embaucador, como Till Eulenspiegel; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 328»

«Yet in Russian folklore there was a villain-figure with strong resemblances to a witch: Baba Yaga, a hideous old woman with an iron nose who flew through the air in a»y la figura que compara: en el folclore ruso había una villana con fuertes parecidos a una bruja, Baba Yagá, vieja horrible de nariz de hierro que volaba por el aire; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *mortar and ate children*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 324»

«Most of the individuals described in the last few pages really existed, raising the question of why some kings, bishops, or outlaws»y abre la sección interpretativa: casi todos los individuos descritos existieron realmente, lo que plantea por qué unos reyes, obispos o forajidos se volvieron héroes y no otros; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 325»

«The trouble with this approach is that stories wander from one hero»y lo que falla en ese enfoque: los relatos vagan de un rey héroe a otro; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *king to another*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 325»

«The fundamental questions are why these stereotypes existed in early modern Europe, why heroes were presented in these particular ways, and what this tells us about popular attitudes.»y las preguntas de fondo: por qué existían esos estereotipos en la Europa moderna temprana, por qué se presentaba a los héroes de esos modos particulares y qué dice eso de las actitudes populares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 328»

«The first point concerns the marvellous, present almost everywhere. It dominates the lives of the saints from birth to death.»y el primer apunte, que es el que más importa aquí: lo maravilloso, presente casi en todas partes, domina las vidas de los santos del nacimiento a la muerte

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 329»

«St George was born with a red cross marked on his right hand. As a baby, St Nicholas refused the breast on Fridays, which were days of abstinence, while St John the Baptist prophesied while he was still in the womb.»con los ejemplos: san Jorge nació con una cruz roja marcada en la mano derecha, san Nicolás rechazaba el pecho de niño los viernes, días de abstinencia, y san Juan Bautista profetizó todavía en el vientre

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 329»

«Accounts of martyrdoms are punctuated with supernatural interventions. When St Agatha's breasts were cut off, they grew again. St Lucy became immobile, and a thousand men could not shift her.»y los martirios: las relaciones están punteadas de intervenciones sobrenaturales, con los pechos de santa Águeda que vuelven a crecer y santa Lucía que se vuelve inmóvil y a la que mil hombres no pueden mover

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 329»

«Saints might have been expected to work miracles, but knights, kings and outlaws also did so on occasion. Knights perform superhuman feats of arms.»y lo que extiende el prodigio: de los santos cabía esperar milagros, y caballeros, reyes y forajidos los hacían también en ocasiones, con los caballeros ejecutando proezas sobrehumanas de armas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 329»

«In France and England, the royal magic was institutionalized and took the form of touching for the ‘king's evil’ (that is, for scrofula), a practice that reached its height not, as one might have expected, in the Middle Ages, but in the seventeenth century.»y la magia regia institucionalizada: en Francia e Inglaterra tomó la forma de tocar para el *mal del rey*, la escrófula, práctica que alcanzó su punto más alto no en la Edad Media, como cabría esperar, sino en el siglo XVII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 329»

«Where Louis XII touched 500-odd people in a year, Louis XIII touched more than 3,000 and Louis XIV, on one occasion, 2,400 in a single day.»con las cifras: donde Luis XII tocaba a unas quinientas personas al año, Luis XIII tocó a más de tres mil y Luis XIV, en una ocasión, a dos mil cuatrocientas en un solo día

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 329»

«Superhuman powers were also a recurrent feature of outlaw biography. Robin Hood's archery was phenomenal: ‘always he sliced the wand’.»y los forajidos: los poderes sobrehumanos eran rasgo recurrente de su biografía, con la arquería fenomenal de Robin Hood, que siempre partía la vara

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 329»

«Villains, too, were believed to have supernatural powers, because they were helped by the Devil. Turks and Jews were regularly associated with the Devil in verses and in prints.»y los villanos: también se les creían poderes sobrenaturales porque los ayudaba el diablo, y a turcos y judíos se los asociaba regularmente con él en versos y estampas; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«Witches and magicians (such as Faust) were supposed to have made a pact with the Devil.»y el pacto: se suponía que brujas y magos, como Fausto, lo habían hecho con el diablo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«Protestants said that the Pope had made a Devil's pact, and Catholics said that Luther had done so.»y su uso confesional: los protestantes decían que el papa había hecho pacto con el diablo y los católicos que lo había hecho Lutero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«Whatever was outside the experience of ordinary people demanded an explanation in terms of the marvellous. To be learned was abnormal, so a learned man must be a magician.»y la regla que propone: lo que caía fuera de la experiencia de la gente común exigía explicación en términos de lo maravilloso, y como ser docto era anormal, el hombre docto tenía que ser mago

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«He must (like Friar Bacon and others) have a brazen head in his study which answered his questions, in a medieval anticipation of Alexa»y el instrumento que se le atribuía: como a fray Bacon y a otros, una cabeza de bronce en su estudio que respondía a sus preguntas, anticipación medieval de Alexa; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«The case of the magic purse is a reminder that objects such as swords and rings as well as people might possess supernatural powers.»y lo que ese caso recuerda: objetos como espadas y anillos, no solo personas, podían tener poderes sobrenaturales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«Images of saints might be as potent as the saints themselves and might, like a person, be subject to persuasion, and even threats.»y las imágenes: las de los santos podían ser tan potentes como los santos mismos y, como una persona, estar sujetas a persuasión y aun a amenazas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«This ‘concrete thought’, as it is sometimes called, is also revealed in the use of personifications. In eighteenth-century Serbia, the plague was seen as an old woman who could be kept out of the village if the right rituals were performed.»y el nombre que le da: ese *pensamiento concreto*, como a veces se lo llama, se revela también en las personificaciones, como la peste vista en la Serbia del XVIII como una vieja a la que se podía mantener fuera de la aldea si se hacían los ritos debidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«Carnival was often represented as a fat man and Lent, as a thin old woman. In this context, the threats of the Breton peasants to shoot the gabelle ‘like a mad dog’ (above, Chapter 2), do not seem all that implausible.»y las demás: el carnaval representado a menudo como un hombre gordo y la cuaresma como una vieja flaca, con lo que las amenazas de los campesinos bretones de disparar a la gabela como a un perro rabioso no parecen tan inverosímiles

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«Personification is part of the language of images in general, as a glance at any newspaper, hoarding or screen will reveal, but the example of the Bretons suggests that it may have been taken a little more seriously in the seventeenth century than we take it now.»y lo que de ahí infiere: la personificación es parte del lenguaje de las imágenes en general, y el ejemplo de los bretones sugiere que en el XVII puede haberse tomado algo más en serio que hoy

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 331»

«If they did not quite believe that the gabelle was a person, they may not have quite disbelieved it.»y la fórmula con que lo acota: si no creían del todo que la gabela fuera una persona, puede que no lo descreyeran del todo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 331»

«People were made the scapegoats for processes. It was not the system but the individual who was attacked, not the crown but the king or his councillors.»y la consecuencia: se hacía de las personas chivos expiatorios de los procesos, y se atacaba no al sistema sino al individuo, no a la corona sino al rey o a sus consejeros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 331»

«It is for this reason, among others, that popular attitudes in this period may be described as generally ‘conservative’, or better, as ‘traditional’.»y el rótulo que propone: por esa razón, entre otras, las actitudes populares del periodo pueden llamarse generalmente conservadoras o, mejor, tradicionales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 331»

«To return to the question with which this chapter began, early modern popular culture offers many examples of both contestation and conformity but was generally closer to the latter.»y la respuesta a la pregunta con que abrió el capítulo: la cultura popular moderna temprana ofrece muchos ejemplos de contestación y de conformidad, y estaba en general más cerca de la segunda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 331»

«The fact that craftsmen and peasants accepted saints, rulers and knights as their heroes suggests that they identified with the values of church, king and nobility, or at least, that they had to structure their world through models provided by the dominant group.»y su argumento: que artesanos y campesinos aceptaran a santos, gobernantes y caballeros por héroes sugiere que se identificaban con los valores de la Iglesia, el rey y la nobleza, o al menos que tenían que estructurar su mundo con modelos provistos por el grupo dominante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 331»

«This formula is echoed in a number of proverbs of the form ‘don’t abandon old customs for new ones’, or as the Catalans say, No et deixis els costums vells pels novells.»y su eco proverbial: no abandones las costumbres viejas por las nuevas, como dicen los catalanes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 331»

«They will serve as a useful shorthand description of the attitudes of ordinary people in this period, provided that they is not misunderstood.»y la cautela con que la adopta: esa fórmula sirve de descripción abreviada útil de las actitudes de la gente común del periodo, con tal de que no se malentienda; el troceo imprime *provided that they is not*, con el pronombre en plural y el verbo en singular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 331»

«This formula does not mean that craftsmen and peasants were satisfied with the social order exactly as it was. They did not see society in terms of harmony but in terms of conflict.»y lo que no significa: que artesanos y campesinos estuvieran satisfechos con el orden social tal como estaba, porque no veían la sociedad en términos de armonía sino de conflicto; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 331»

«Craftsmen and peasants were well aware, as the remarks already quoted about judges and lawyers suggest, of the difficulty of obtaining redress for the wrongs they suffered by means of the law.»y lo que sabían: artesanos y campesinos eran muy conscientes, como sugieren las observaciones ya citadas sobre jueces y abogados, de lo difícil que era obtener reparación legal de los agravios sufridos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 332»

«What did they think should or could be done about these wrongs? Juxtaposing the evidence from texts – songs, tales, proverbs – with the evidence from actions – the many riots and rebellions of the period – it is possible to discover various responses, and it may be useful to distinguish five points on a broad spectrum of attitudes: fatalist, moralist, traditionalist, radical, and millenarian.»y el espectro que propone: cotejando la evidencia de los textos con la de los actos, distingue cinco puntos en un espectro amplio de actitudes ante esos agravios: fatalista, moralista, tradicionalista, radical y milenarista

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 332»

«The fatalist response, invisible in action, is expressed in the weary wisdom of the proverbs. Things cannot be different.»y la primera: la respuesta fatalista, invisible en la acción, se expresa en la sabiduría cansada de los proverbios, que las cosas no pueden ser de otro modo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 332»

«So many proverbs begin, in their various languages, with ‘one has to…’ (il faut, man müss, bisogna …) ‘God is very high, and the Tsar is a long way off’, say the Russians, or ‘To live is either to beat or to be beaten’. ‘Poor folks fare poorly’, say the Dutch; or ‘God gives, God takes away’.»con los proverbios que la dicen: tantos empiezan por *hay que*; Dios está muy alto y el zar muy lejos, dicen los rusos, o vivir es apalear o ser apaleado; los pobres viven pobremente, dicen los neerlandeses, o Dios da y Dios quita

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 332»

«All one can do in this life is to suffer, to endure. However, others thought that ‘God helps those who help themselves’ (a proverb current in the early modern period, just as it is today).»y su límite: todo lo que cabe hacer en esta vida es sufrir y aguantar, aunque otros pensaban que Dios ayuda a quien se ayuda, proverbio corriente entonces como hoy

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 332»

«The fatalist response shades into the moralist response, which is to see the world's troubles and injustices as a symptom of what is wrong with human nature, not of what is wrong with the social order.»y la segunda: la respuesta moralista, que ve los males e injusticias del mundo como síntoma de lo que está mal en la naturaleza humana y no en el orden social

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 332»

«Whether or not such good bandits really existed, they occupied an important place in the popular imagination.»y su reserva: existieran o no de veras esos buenos bandidos, ocupaban un lugar importante en la imaginación popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 333»

«The moralist response shades into the traditionalist, which is to resist change in the name of the ‘old order’ (das alte Recht, stara pravda, gammel skik, etc.). The emphasis is sometimes placed on wicked individuals who break with tradition, and sometimes on new customs (as we would say, new ‘trends’).»y la tercera: la respuesta tradicionalista, que resiste el cambio en nombre del *viejo orden*, con el acento puesto unas veces en los individuos malvados que rompen con la tradición y otras en las costumbres nuevas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 333»

«This is not a mindless conservatism but a bitter awareness that change is usually at ordinary people's expense, coupled on occasion with the need to legitimate riot or rebellion.»y su lectura: no es conservadurismo irreflexivo sino conciencia amarga de que el cambio suele ir a costa de la gente común, unida a veces a la necesidad de legitimar el motín o la rebelión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 333»

«The traditionalist response shades into a more radical one. In 1675 some of the rebellious Breton peasants demanded ordonnances nouvelles.»y la cuarta: la respuesta radical, con los campesinos bretones que en 1675 exigieron *ordenanzas nuevas*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 333»

«Not all the demands of the German peasants in 1525 were traditional ones, supported by appeals to old customs. Some demanded the abolition of serfdom, because ‘God created everyone free’ or because Christ has redeemed all mankind.»y su versión alemana: no todas las demandas de 1525 eran tradicionales ni se apoyaban en viejas costumbres, porque algunos pedían la abolición de la servidumbre porque Dios creó a todos libres o porque Cristo redimió a todo el género humano

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 333»

«If this is a return to the past, it is not to the recent past but to a primitive golden age. When Adam delved and Eve span/who was then the gentleman?»y la naturaleza de ese retorno: si es vuelta al pasado, no al reciente sino a una edad de oro primitiva, la del pareado de Adán cavando y Eva hilando

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 333»

«The millennium was to come about miraculously, by divine intervention, independently of human effort, like the white man's cargo in modern cargo cults, the fortune of Fortunatus or the image, well known in the sixteenth century, of the land of Cockaigne, where roast pigs with knives in their backs were ready for the taking.»y cómo había de llegar ese milenio: milagrosamente, por intervención divina e independientemente del esfuerzo humano, como el cargamento del hombre blanco en los cultos cargo modernos, la fortuna de Fortunato o la imagen bien conocida en el XVI del país de Jauja, donde los cerdos asados esperaban con el cuchillo clavado en el lomo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 334»

«We have returned to a fatalist response, though this one is optimistic, unlike that of the poor of eighteenth-century Paris or more generally in what has been described as the ‘culture of poverty’.»y el círculo que cierra: se ha vuelto a una respuesta fatalista, aunque esta optimista, a diferencia de la de los pobres del París del XVIII o, más en general, de lo que se ha llamado la *cultura de la pobreza*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 334»

«They often referred to the exploitation, or, as they put it more concretely, the ‘skinning’ or the ‘devouring’ of the poor by the rich.»y cómo lo decían: hablaban de la explotación o, más concretamente, del *desuello* o la *devoración* de los pobres por los ricos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 332»

«This is not a passive attitude; it allows action against villains wherever this is possible. It is the attitude expressed in the figure»y su carácter: no es actitud pasiva, porque permite actuar contra los villanos cuando se puede; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el *bandido social* de Hobsbawm

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 332»

«Class consciousness or ‘horizontal solidarity’ was largely lacking. The ‘vertical solidarity’ of master and man, patron and client, landlord and tenant often worked against these horizontal ties.»y por qué: faltaba en gran medida la conciencia de clase o *solidaridad horizontal*, y la *solidaridad vertical* de amo y criado, patrón y cliente, terrateniente y arrendatario trabajaba a menudo contra esos lazos horizontales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 334»

«In towns, loyalty to the craft (masters and journeymen) against other crafts and other towns worked against class consciousness. In the countryside, loyalty to the village worked against it.»y sus formas: en las ciudades, la lealtad al oficio, maestros y oficiales juntos, contra otros oficios y otras ciudades, y en el campo la lealtad a la aldea

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 334»

«It was difficult to persuade peasants to cooperate with outsiders, including other peasants.»y su consecuencia: costaba persuadir a los campesinos de cooperar con los de fuera, otros campesinos incluidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 334»

«This attitude of distrust towards everyone outside a small circle of relatives and friends went with a view of the world (not uncommon in traditional societies) as a place of ‘limited good’ where no one can prosper save at someone else's expense»y la visión del mundo que lo acompaña: la desconfianza hacia todo el que quedara fuera de un círculo pequeño de parientes y amigos iba con una idea del mundo, no rara en las sociedades tradicionales, como lugar de *bien limitado* donde nadie puede prosperar salvo a costa de otro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 334»

«The result was that envy (the ‘evil eye’) and also the fear of envy were widespread.»y su resultado, que es el que más importa aquí: la envidia —el *mal de ojo*— y también el miedo a la envidia estaban muy extendidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«So was the belief that witches had the power to make their own cows give more milk by taking milk by supernatural means from the cows of their neighbours.»y la creencia que va con ella: que las brujas tenían poder de hacer que sus propias vacas dieran más leche quitándosela por medios sobrenaturales a las de sus vecinos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«There were spells for protecting farm animals by directing the evil on to the animals of others.»y su contramedida: había conjuros para proteger a los animales de la granja dirigiendo el mal a los de otros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«Such examples suggest that many people believed that the system could not change but only the relative places of individuals within it.»y lo que sugiere: que mucha gente creía que el sistema no podía cambiar y sí los lugares relativos de los individuos dentro de él

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«This belief was expressed most spectacularly in the popular image of the world turned upside down»y dónde se expresó de modo más espectacular: en la imagen popular del mundo al revés; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«This belief may be viewed as a kind of imaginative poverty, an incapacity to conceive of alternative social worlds, which is surely the result of narrow horizons, limited social experience.»y la lectura que propone: esa creencia puede verse como una suerte de pobreza imaginativa, incapacidad de concebir mundos sociales alternativos, resultado seguramente de horizontes estrechos y experiencia social limitada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«There is a Russian proverb, ‘too much luck is dangerous’.»y el proverbio ruso que lo dice: demasiada suerte es peligrosa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«Perhaps people were unwilling rather than unable to imagine alternative ways of life. They were afraid.»y la enmienda que se hace a sí mismo: quizá la gente no era incapaz sino que no quería imaginar modos de vida alternativos, porque tenía miedo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«They had good reason to be afraid, given the mortality rate and the dangers of war, famine and plague.99 An underlying insecurity often surfaces in proverbs. Outside the family, the house and the village, the world was viewed as hostile.»y las razones del miedo: la tasa de mortalidad y los peligros de la guerra, el hambre y la peste, con una inseguridad de fondo que aflora a menudo en los proverbios, porque fuera de la familia, la casa y la aldea el mundo se veía hostil

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«Many rituals and symbols of popular culture seem to have been protections against danger. This was the function of many saints, notably ‘the fourteen helpers in need’ (Die Vierzehn Nothelfer), which spread outwards from Germany in the fifteenth century. St George protected people from war, St Sebastian from the plague, St Margaret from the dangers of childbirth, and so on.»y la función que les atribuye: muchos ritos y símbolos de la cultura popular parecen haber sido protecciones contra el peligro, función de muchos santos, señaladamente los *catorce auxiliadores*, que se difundieron desde Alemania en el siglo XV, con san Jorge protegiendo de la guerra, san Sebastián de la peste y santa Margarita de los peligros del parto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 336»

«Other popular heroes were seen in a similar light; warriors or soldiers painted on cupboards may have acted as guardians.»y lo extiende: otros héroes populares se veían bajo la misma luz, y los guerreros o soldados pintados en los armarios pueden haber servido de guardianes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 336»

«Insecurity encouraged following traditional ways, for ‘the certain is worth more than the uncertain’. At any rate, it is safer.»y su efecto general: la inseguridad alentaba seguir los caminos tradicionales, porque lo cierto vale más que lo incierto, o al menos es más seguro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 336»

«It was dangerous to abandon the well-trodden paths of tradition, and yet the existing social order with its injustices and privations engendered frustrations on a massive scale.»y la tensión que cierra el capítulo: era peligroso abandonar los caminos trillados de la tradición, y a la vez el orden social existente, con sus injusticias y privaciones, engendraba frustraciones a escala masiva

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 336»

«It might be suggested that people needed hate-figures like witches, Turks and Jews. They needed to displace on to outsiders the hostilities created by tensions inside the community. They needed regular occasions on which to express those hostilities, to relieve those tensions.»y la sugerencia con que lo cierra: cabe sugerir que la gente necesitaba figuras de odio como brujas, turcos y judíos, necesitaba desplazar sobre los de fuera las hostilidades creadas por tensiones internas a la comunidad y necesitaba ocasiones regulares en que expresarlas y aliviarlas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 336»

«complained of poverty, injustice, unemployment, taxation, tithes, rent and labour services.»y de qué se quejaban: pobreza, injusticia, desempleo, impuestos, diezmos, renta y prestaciones personales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 332»

«(in a society that is not»y la concesión que hace en paréntesis; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *enjoying economic growth there is, of course, something in this idea*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 334»

«‘There are three things you cannot trust: the king, the weather and the sea’. ‘Friends and mules»y los proverbios de la inseguridad: hay tres cosas de las que no cabe fiarse, el rey, el tiempo y el mar; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con los amigos y las mulas que fallan cuando se los necesita

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«In the last chapter an attempt was made to approach popular attitudes and values by way of popular heroes. One danger of this approach was that the heroes had to be taken out of their setting.»abre el capítulo séptimo: en el anterior se intentó acercarse a las actitudes y valores populares por los héroes, con el peligro de sacarlos de su escenario

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 367»

«In traditional European popular culture, the most important kind of setting was that of festivals. They included family festivals, such as weddings; community festivals, such as the feast of the patron saint of a town or parish (Fête Patronale, Kirchenweihtag, etc.); annual festivals involving most Europeans, especially Easter, May Day, Midsummer, the Twelve Days of Christmas, New Year, and the Epiphany; and of course, Carnival.»y cuál era ese escenario: en la cultura popular europea tradicional, el más importante era el de las fiestas, familiares como las bodas, comunitarias como la del santo patrono, anuales como la Pascua, el primero de mayo, el solsticio de verano, los doce días de Navidad, el Año Nuevo y la Epifanía, y por supuesto el carnaval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 367»

«These were special occasions when people stopped work and ate, drank, and spent whatever they had.»y qué eran: ocasiones especiales en que la gente dejaba el trabajo y comía, bebía y gastaba cuanto tenía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 367»

«Dalmatia may have been an extreme case, but it illustrates all the more clearly the place of the festival in traditional society. It was opposed to the everyday, a time of waste precisely because the everyday was a time of careful saving.»y lo que ese caso extremo ilustra: el lugar de la fiesta en la sociedad tradicional, opuesta a lo cotidiano, tiempo de derroche precisamente porque lo cotidiano era tiempo de ahorro cuidadoso; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 368»

«Its special quality was symbolized by the clothes people wore to take part in it: their best.»y su símbolo: la ropa con que se participaba en ella, la mejor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 368»

«Certain kinds of performance took place only during festivals, among them the English May Games and their Tuscan equivalents the Maggi or Bruscelli, the Spanish auto pastoril, played at Christmas and the auto sacramental, played at Corpus Christi – not to mention the many kinds of Carnival play.»y las ejecuciones exclusivas de la fiesta: los *May Games* ingleses y sus equivalentes toscanos, los *maggi* o *bruscelli*, el auto pastoril español de Navidad y el auto sacramental del Corpus, sin contar las muchas clases de pieza carnavalesca

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 368»

«Within the house, the most richly decorated jugs, bowls, and plates were often for use only on festival occasions, and so they have survived to mislead historians, if they are not careful, about the quality of everyday life»y el sesgo material que eso introduce: dentro de la casa, las jarras, cuencos y platos más ricamente decorados solían usarse solo en las fiestas, y por eso han sobrevivido y pueden engañar al historiador descuidado sobre la calidad de la vida cotidiana; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *in the past*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 368»

«Indeed, half the house might be reserved for special occasions. In Sweden in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, for example, the common house-type was the parstuga, the house with two main rooms, one for everyday use and the other for guests and festivals.»y hasta la casa: media casa podía reservarse para las ocasiones especiales, como en la *parstuga* sueca de los siglos XVII y XVIII, con una sala para el diario y otra para huéspedes y fiestas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 368»

«If the house had only one main room, it might be transformed for special occasions by bringing painted hangings (bonadsmåler) out of store.»y si solo había una sala: se transformaba para las ocasiones sacando del arca las colgaduras pintadas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 368»

«Popular themes of these hangings such as The Marriage at Cana or The Queen of Sheba's visit to King Solomon were particularly appropriate for these special occasions, presenting an idealized mirror image of the host and guests.»y sus temas: *Las bodas de Caná* o *La visita de la reina de Saba a Salomón*, especialmente apropiados porque presentaban una imagen especular idealizada del anfitrión y sus huéspedes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 368»

«(though it must be admitted that Gray had not spent a whole year in Turin).»y la reserva que añade: hay que admitir que Gray no había pasado un año entero en Turín

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 369»

«People reckoned time by major festivals such as Michaelmas or Martinmas. For major urban festivals the crowds were swelled by the local peasants, who came into town so as not to miss the fun.»y cómo se medía el tiempo: por fiestas mayores como San Miguel o San Martín, y en las urbanas la multitud la engrosaban los campesinos de los alrededores, que venían a la ciudad para no perderse la diversión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 369»

«Pilgrimages to holy places on the occasion of major festivals were great events in people's lives. In Provence, a man who had visited the shrine of St Claude in the Jura was known for the rest of his life as a Romieu, much as pilgrims to Mecca are given the title of Haji today.»y las peregrinaciones: eran grandes acontecimientos en la vida de la gente, y en Provenza al que había visitado el santuario de san Claudio en el Jura se lo llamaba *Romieu* el resto de su vida, como hoy se da a los peregrinos de La Meca el título de hayí

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 369»

«Pictures on the walls of cottages might often be souvenirs of pilgrimage, for woodcuts of holy images were sold near the shrine, as at Mariazell in Austria or Częstochowa in Poland.»y su huella material: las estampas en las paredes de las cabañas eran a menudo recuerdos de peregrinación, porque cerca del santuario se vendían xilografías de imágenes sagradas, como en Mariazell o en Częstochowa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 369»

«Even an article of furniture like a cupboard or bed, in everyday use, might be associated with the festival for which it was made, often the wedding of the first owners. It would often carry their initials and the date of the great event.»y el mueble mismo: un armario o una cama de uso diario podía asociarse a la fiesta para la que se hizo, a menudo la boda de sus primeros dueños, y llevar sus iniciales y la fecha del acontecimiento

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 369»

«To discuss festivals is necessarily to discuss ritual. ‘Ritual’ is a difficult term to catch in a definition. In the following pages it will refer to the use of action to express meaning, as opposed to more utilitarian actions, though it has been argued that it is more illuminating to think of actions as more or less ritualized than of belonging to one of two separate categories, ‘ritual’ and ‘everyday’.»y la definición que adopta con su reserva: hablar de fiestas obliga a hablar de ritual, término difícil de atrapar en una definición, y en las planas que siguen designará el uso de la acción para expresar significado, por oposición a las acciones más utilitarias, aunque se ha sostenido que ilumina más pensar las acciones como más o menos ritualizadas que como pertenecientes a dos categorías separadas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 369»

«For more elaborate rituals, however, it was necessary to wait for special occasions. Even these rituals have left too few traces for the historian to reconstruct particular examples with any degree of accuracy, but the attempt must be made because a picture of traditional popular culture without ritual would be even more misleading than a historian's reconstruction.»y la decisión metodológica: para rituales más elaborados había que esperar ocasiones especiales, y aunque han dejado pocas huellas para reconstruir ejemplos concretos con exactitud, hay que intentarlo, porque un cuadro de la cultura popular tradicional sin ritual engañaría todavía más que la reconstrucción de un historiador

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 370»

«The significance of a popular hero may be modified by the ritual with which he is presented in public. A well-known example of this modification is that of Robin Hood.»y el nudo del argumento: el significado de un héroe popular puede modificarlo el ritual con que se lo presenta en público, y el ejemplo conocido es el de Robin Hood

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 370»

«Robin was not only a hero of ballads but also appeared in the English spring festival known as the ‘May Games’. Robin's clothes of Lincoln green and his home in the ‘greenwood’ made him an appropriate symbol of spring.»y en qué consiste: Robin no era solo héroe de baladas sino que aparecía en la fiesta inglesa de primavera, los *May Games*, y su ropa de verde de Lincoln y su casa en el bosque lo hacían símbolo apropiado de la primavera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 370»

«The story of St John the Baptist is better documented and follows curiously similar lines to Robin's. St John's Eve falls at Midsummer. In early modern Europe this festival was the occasion of rituals that included lighting bonfires and jumping over them, bathing in rivers, and dipping branches.»y el segundo caso, mejor documentado y de líneas curiosamente semejantes: la noche de San Juan cae en el solsticio de verano, y en la Europa moderna temprana la fiesta era ocasión de ritos que incluían encender hogueras y saltarlas, bañarse en los ríos y mojar ramas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 370»

«What has all this to do with St John? It looks as if the medieval Church took over a pre-Christian festival and made it her own. Just as the Midwinter festival on 25 December came to be celebrated as the birthday of Christ, so the Midsummer festival came to be celebrated as the birthday of the forerunner of Christ.»y cómo entra el santo: parece que la Iglesia medieval tomó una fiesta precristiana y la hizo suya, y así como la fiesta de mediados de invierno del 25 de diciembre pasó a celebrarse como natalicio de Cristo, la del solsticio de verano pasó a celebrarse como natalicio de su precursor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 371»

«Bathing in the river was reinterpreted as a commemoration of St John's baptism of Christ in the river Jordan.»y la reinterpretación del rito: el baño en el río se releyó como conmemoración del bautismo de Cristo por Juan en el Jordán

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 371»

«St John, like Robin Hood, seems to have stepped into the role of a vegetation spirit. He was sometimes shown holding a branch and often as a hermit, scantily clothed and living in wild places. We might therefore view him as a ‘woodwose’ or wild man of the woods, a popular figure in medieval art who seems to symbolize Nature (as opposed to Culture).»y la conclusión del paralelo: san Juan, como Robin Hood, parece haber entrado en el papel de un espíritu de la vegetación, se lo mostraba a veces con una rama y a menudo como ermitaño mal vestido que vive en lugares salvajes, de modo que cabe verlo como un *woodwose* u hombre salvaje del bosque, figura popular del arte medieval que parece simbolizar la naturaleza frente a la cultura

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 371»

«A famous nineteenth-century theory declared that myths are derived from rituals. In the course of time, so the argument went, rituals ceased to be understood and myths had to be invented to explain them. This theory is too simple»y la teoría decimonónica que discute: una famosa declaraba que los mitos derivan de los ritos, porque con el tiempo los ritos dejaban de entenderse y había que inventar mitos para explicarlos, teoría que a su juicio es demasiado simple

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 371»

«After all, everyday life in early modern Europe was filled with rituals, religious and secular, and the performances of songs and»y por qué: la vida cotidiana de la Europa moderna temprana estaba llena de rituales, religiosos y seculares; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *stories were no exception*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 369»

«Fire and water are common symbols of»y su lectura: fuego y agua son símbolos comunes de purificación; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el significado de renovación, regeneración y fertilidad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 370»

«Other examples support the nineteenth-century theory, among them Robin Hood and St John the Baptist.13 Even more clear-cut are the examples of St Antony Abbot and St Martin.»y los que la apoyan: Robin Hood y san Juan Bautista, y más claros aún san Antonio Abad y san Martín; el troceo imprime la frase con salto de renglón a media cláusula

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 371»

«Why should the hermit-saint Antony be represented with a pig? Because his feast day falls on 17 January, the time of year when households killed their pigs.»con la explicación del primero: por qué se representa con un cerdo al ermitaño Antonio, y responde que porque su fiesta cae el 17 de enero, la época del año en que las casas mataban el cerdo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 371»

«There is nothing about this incident in the traditional lives of the saint. However, Martinmas, the feast of St Martin, falls on 11 November. Geese were killed at about this time, and it was traditional, in Germany in particular, to eat them on this day. The goose was part of the ritual, and so it crept into the myth.»y su lectura: no hay nada de ese incidente en las vidas tradicionales del santo, y como San Martín cae el 11 de noviembre, cuando se mataban los gansos y era tradicional comerlos sobre todo en Alemania, el ganso era parte del rito y se coló en el mito

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 372»

«The example par excellence of the festival as a context for images and texts is surely Carnival.»y el ejemplo por excelencia de la fiesta como contexto de imágenes y textos: el carnaval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 372»

«In southern Europe in particular, Carnival was the greatest popular festival of the year, and a privileged time when what was often thought could be expressed with relative impunity.»y qué era: sobre todo en el sur de Europa, la mayor fiesta popular del año y un tiempo privilegiado en que lo que a menudo se pensaba podía expresarse con relativa impunidad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 372»

«Carnival was a favourite time for the performance of plays, and many of these plays cannot be properly understood without some knowledge of the Carnival rituals to which they often allude.»y por qué importa aquí: el carnaval era tiempo favorito para representar piezas, y muchas de ellas no se entienden bien sin algún conocimiento de los ritos carnavalescos a los que aluden

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 372»

«Before any interpretation can be attempted, it is necessary to reconstruct a typical Carnival from the fragmentary evidence which has survived. Such a reconstruction is inevitably a hazardous business.»y la tarea que se impone antes de interpretar: reconstruir un carnaval típico con la evidencia fragmentaria que ha sobrevivido, reconstrucción que es por fuerza arriesgada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 372»

«Since the Italian evidence is the richest, there will be some danger of seeing Europe through Italian spectacles.»y el primer riesgo: como la evidencia italiana es la más rica, hay peligro de ver Europa con gafas italianas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 372»

«Most of the surviving evidence concerns cities and does not tell us what we would like to know about peasant culture, although some peasants lived in towns and others came to town for the festival.»y el segundo: casi toda la evidencia que sobrevive es urbana y no dice lo que se querría saber de la cultura campesina, aunque algunos campesinos vivieran en las ciudades y otros vinieran a ellas para la fiesta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 372»

«Much of the evidence comes from outsiders, foreign tourists who may have misunderstood what they saw and heard»y el tercero: mucha de la evidencia viene de forasteros, turistas extranjeros que pueden haber malentendido lo que vieron y oyeron

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 372»

«No Carnival was exactly like any other. There were regional variations and other differences that were due to the weather, the political situation, or the price of meat at a given time.»y el cuarto: ningún carnaval era exactamente igual a otro, con variaciones regionales y otras debidas al tiempo, la situación política o el precio de la carne

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 372»

«What follows will attempt to compensate for these omissions.»y lo que se propone: compensar esas omisiones en lo que sigue

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 373»

«The Carnival season began in January or even in late December, with mounting excitement towards the end as Lent approached.»y el calendario: la temporada de carnaval empezaba en enero o aun a fines de diciembre, con la excitación en aumento hacia el final, según se acercaba la cuaresma; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 374»

«The special place of Carnival was the open air in the city centre, notably on Piazza S. Marco in Venice and along the Corso in Rome (named after the races that took place there»y su lugar: el aire libre del centro de la ciudad, señaladamente la plaza de San Marcos en Venecia y el Corso en Roma, llamado así por las carreras que allí se hacían

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 374»

«Carnival may be regarded as a huge play in which the main streets and squares became stages, the city became a theatre without walls and the inhabitants became either actors or spectators, playing roles or observing the scene from balconies.»y la imagen con que lo define: el carnaval puede verse como una pieza enorme en que las calles y plazas principales se vuelven escenarios, la ciudad un teatro sin muros y los habitantes actores o espectadores, que hacen papeles o miran desde los balcones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 374»

«In fact, there was no sharp distinction between actors and spectators, since the ladies on their balconies might throw eggs at the crowd below, while the maskers were often licensed to burst into private houses.»y por qué la distinción no era tajante: las damas de los balcones podían arrojar huevos a la multitud de abajo, y los enmascarados tenían a menudo licencia para irrumpir en las casas particulares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 374»

«The action of this gigantic play was a set of more or less formally structured events. The less formally structured events went on intermittently for the whole Carnival season and were spread over the whole town.»y su estructura: la acción de esa pieza gigante era un conjunto de acontecimientos más o menos formalmente estructurados, y los menos formales seguían intermitentemente toda la temporada y por toda la ciudad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 374»

«Many individuals wore masks, some with long noses (Figure 15), or entire fancy dress. Men dressed as women and women as men. Other popular costumes represented clerics, devils, fools, wild men, and wild animals, for example, bears»y las máscaras: muchos las llevaban, algunas de nariz larga, o disfraz entero, con hombres vestidos de mujer y mujeres de hombre, y trajes populares de clérigos, diablos, locos, hombres salvajes y animales salvajes, por ejemplo osos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«(in Russia, real bears participated in the festivities, dancing in shows presented in marketplaces).»con el detalle ruso: allí participaban osos de verdad, que bailaban en funciones presentadas en los mercados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«and examples can be found»y el contraejemplo que opone a la teoría: se hallan casos en que el mito vino antes del rito; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *where the myth came before the ritual, as in the case of the Mass*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 371»

«People sang and danced in the streets. This was common in early modern Europe, but the excitement was unusual»y la música: la gente cantaba y bailaba en las calles, cosa común en la Europa moderna temprana, con la excitación inusual; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 374»

«Fools and wild men rushed about striking at the bystanders with pig's bladders and even with sticks.»y la violencia ritual: locos y hombres salvajes corrían golpeando a los mirones con vejigas de cerdo y aun con palos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«People threw flour at one another, or sugarplums, or apples, or oranges, or stones, or eggs, which might be filled either with rosewater or urine.»y los proyectiles: harina unos a otros, o confites, manzanas, naranjas, piedras o huevos, que podían ir llenos de agua de rosas o de orina

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«Animals were common victims of the Carnival madness. Dogs might be tossed in a blanket, and cocks pelted to death.»y los animales, víctimas comunes de la locura carnavalesca: se manteaba a los perros y se apedreaba a los gallos hasta matarlos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«Aggression was also verbal. Many insults were exchanged, and satirical verses were sung.»y la agresión verbal: se cambiaban muchos insultos y se cantaban versos satíricos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«Other happenings were structured rather more formally, concentrated in the central squares and in the last few days of Carnival, made more of a distinction between actors and spectators, and were often organized by clubs or fraternities.»y los actos más formales: concentrados en las plazas centrales y en los últimos días, con más distinción entre actores y espectadores, y organizados a menudo por clubes o cofradías

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«The performances which they organized were ‘improvised’ in the sense that there was no script and (probably) no rehearsal, but they were coordinated by members of a group who knew one another and had taken part in such occasions before.»y en qué sentido eran improvisadas sus funciones: no había guion ni probablemente ensayo, y las coordinaban miembros de un grupo que se conocían y habían participado antes en ocasiones así

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 376»

«The performances were not exactly fixed but not exactly free either, just as they were neither serious nor pure entertainment, without a message.»y la fórmula que las sitúa: no eran exactamente fijas ni exactamente libres, igual que no eran ni serias ni puro entretenimiento sin mensaje

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 376»

«In the first place, a procession, often including floats bearing people dressed as giants, goddesses, devils, and so on.»y el primero de los tres elementos: la procesión, a menudo con carros que llevaban gente vestida de gigantes, diosas y diablos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 376»

«They would sing songs composed for the occasion, which they addressed to the ladies on their balconies looking down on the procession as it passed.»y qué hacían: cantaban canciones compuestas para la ocasión dirigidas a las damas de los balcones que miraban pasar la procesión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 376»

«A second recurrent element of the Carnival ritual was some kind of competition, such as running at the ring, horse races or footraces.»y el segundo elemento: alguna clase de competencia, como correr la sortija, carreras de caballos o a pie

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 376»

«A third recurrent element in Carnival was the performance of a play of some kind, usually a farce, though it is difficult to draw the line between a formal play and informal games.»y el tercer elemento: la representación de alguna pieza, por lo común una farsa, aunque cuesta trazar la línea entre pieza formal y juego informal

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 377»

«There were mock sieges, popular in Italy, in which a castle erected on the main square would be taken by assault; mock lawsuits, or causes grasses, popular in France; mock sermons, popular in Spain; mock ploughings, popular in Germany, with unmarried women pulling the ploughs; and mock weddings, in which the bride might be a man or the groom a bear.»y su catálogo: asedios burlescos populares en Italia, con un castillo levantado en la plaza mayor tomado al asalto; pleitos burlescos o *causes grasses* populares en Francia; sermones burlescos populares en España; arados burlescos populares en Alemania, con solteras tirando del arado, y bodas burlescas en que la novia podía ser un hombre o el novio un oso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 377»

«‘Lent’, by contrast, took the form of a thin old woman, dressed in black and hung about with fish – the English ‘Jack a Lent’, a male figure, seems to have been the exception.»y su contrario: la *Cuaresma* tomaba forma de vieja flaca vestida de negro y colgada de pescados, con el *Jack a Lent* inglés, figura masculina, por excepción aparente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 377»

«This context enables us to explain the names and guess at the characteristics of several famous clowns of the period; ‘Hans Wurst’ was surely a Carnival figure with a sausage, while ‘Pickleherring’ and ‘Steven Stockfish’ were emaciated Lenten types.»y lo que ese contexto explica: los nombres y los rasgos de varios payasos famosos del periodo, porque *Hans Wurst* era sin duda una figura carnavalesca con una salchicha, mientras *Pickleherring* y *Steven Stockfish* eran tipos cuaresmales escuálidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 377»

«What did Carnival mean to the people who took part in it? In a sense, the question is unnecessary. Carnival was a holiday, a game, an end in itself, needing no explanation or justification.»y la pregunta que abre el apartado, con su reserva: qué significaba el carnaval para quienes participaban en él, pregunta en un sentido innecesaria porque el carnaval era fiesta, juego, fin en sí mismo que no necesitaba explicación ni justificación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 378»

«It was a time of liberation, indeed of ecstasy. In another sense, the question needs to be multiplied. Why did the game take these particular forms? Why did people wear masks with long noses, why did they throw eggs, and why did they execute ‘Carnival’?»y en qué sentido la pregunta sí hace falta: era tiempo de liberación y aun de éxtasis, y cabe preguntar por qué el juego tomaba esas formas particulares, por qué máscaras de nariz larga, por qué huevos arrojados y por qué la ejecución del *Carnaval*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 378»

«Contemporaries did not bother to record what Carnival meant to them – it must have seemed obvious – so we shall have to proceed indirectly, looking for recurrent themes and their most common associations.»y el método que impone esa falta de fuentes: los contemporáneos no se molestaron en registrar qué significaba el carnaval para ellos, cosa que debió parecerles obvia, de modo que hay que proceder indirectamente, buscando temas recurrentes y sus asociaciones más comunes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 378»

«There were three major themes in Carnival, both real and symbolic: food, sex, and violence.»y los tres temas mayores que halla, reales y simbólicos a la vez: la comida, el sexo y la violencia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 378»

«Food is the most obvious. It was meat that put the carne in Carnival. Heavy consumption of pork, beef, and other meat took place as well as being represented symbolically.»y el primero: la comida es el más obvio, porque fue la carne la que puso el *carne* en carnaval, con consumo pesado de cerdo, vaca y otras carnes además de su representación simbólica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 378»

«The figure of ‘Carnival’ had chickens and rabbits hanging from his clothes. In Nuremberg, Munich, and elsewhere the butchers played an important part in the rituals, dancing or running through the streets or ducking one of their juniors.»y sus portadores: la figura del *Carnaval* llevaba gallinas y conejos colgados de la ropa, y en Núremberg, Múnich y otras partes los carniceros tenían papel importante en los ritos, bailando o corriendo por las calles o zambullendo a uno de sus jóvenes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 378»

«Carne also meant ‘the flesh’. Sex was, as usual, more interesting symbolically than food because of the many ways in which it was disguised, transparent as these veils may have been.»y el segundo tema: *carne* significaba también *la carne*, y el sexo era, como de costumbre, más interesante simbólicamente que la comida por los muchos modos en que se disfrazaba, por transparentes que fueran esos velos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 378»

«Weddings often took place during Carnival, while mock weddings were a popular form of game.»y su forma ritual: las bodas se hacían a menudo en carnaval, y las bodas burlescas eran forma popular de juego

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 378»

«Typical is the one sung by a float of Florentine ‘keymakers’ (in Italian, the word for key is chiave, but chiavare means ‘to screw’»con el ejemplo típico: la que cantaba un carro de *cerrajeros* florentinos, con el juego entre *chiave*, llave, y *chiavare*; el impreso parte *key-makers* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *keymakers*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 379»

«Given such an incident, it does not seem too far-fetched to interpret long-nosed masks or horned masks as phallic symbols, not to mention the giant sausage carried in procession at Koenigsberg.»y la lectura que autoriza: dado ese incidente no parece descabellado interpretar las máscaras de nariz larga o de cuernos como símbolos fálicos, por no hablar de la salchicha gigante de Königsberg

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 379»

«It is also scarcely necessary to draw attention to the sexual significance of the ‘ploughing’ in which unmarried girls had to take part, or of the pig's bladder that was used to make music, play football, and strike people.»y los demás símbolos: apenas hace falta señalar el significado sexual del *arado* en que habían de participar las solteras, o de la vejiga de cerdo con que se hacía música, se jugaba al fútbol y se golpeaba a la gente; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 379»

«Like the pig, the cock was a symbol of lust, while the hairy woodwoses (wild men of the woods), like the bears who frequently appeared at Carnival and might kidnap ladies, were obvious symbols of male potency.»y los animales: como el cerdo, el gallo era símbolo de lujuria, y los peludos *woodwoses*, hombres salvajes del bosque, como los osos que aparecían a menudo en carnaval y podían raptar damas, eran símbolos obvios de potencia masculina

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 379»

«Carnival was not only a festival of sex but also a festival of aggression, destruction, and desecration. This was the time to accuse your neighbour not only of being cuckolded but also beaten by his wife.»y el tercer tema: el carnaval era fiesta de agresión, destrucción y profanación además de fiesta de sexo, y era el tiempo de acusar al vecino no solo de cornudo sino de apaleado por su mujer

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 379»

«Indeed, one should perhaps think of sex as the middle term connecting food and violence. Like the sex, the violence was – to some extent – sublimated into ritual.»y cómo encadena los tres: quizá haya que pensar el sexo como término medio que conecta comida y violencia, porque como el sexo, la violencia estaba en alguna medida sublimada en rito

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 379»

«In a Carnival procession at Madrid in 1637, one figure, who seemed to be skinned, carried the inscription»con el caso madrileño de 1637: en una procesión de carnaval una figura que parecía desollada llevaba una inscripción

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 380»

«Aggression was often ritualized in mock battles or football matches or displaced onto animals such as cocks, dogs, and cats, or human victims who could not easily defend themselves, such as the Jews, who were pelted with mud and stones on their annual race through Rome.»y el desplazamiento de la agresión: se ritualizaba en batallas o partidos burlescos o se desplazaba a animales como gallos, perros y gatos, o a víctimas humanas que no podían defenderse fácilmente, como los judíos, a quienes se apedreaba con barro y piedras en su carrera anual por Roma

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 380»

«More serious violence not infrequently occurred, whether because some insults went too far or because the season was an opportunity for paying off old grudges.»y la violencia real: ocurría no pocas veces, porque algún insulto iba demasiado lejos o porque la temporada era ocasión de saldar viejos rencores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 380»

«The last act of the festival was often a drama in which»y el último acto de la fiesta; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el juicio, la confesión, el testamento, la ejecución y el funeral burlescos del *Carnaval*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 377»

«In the case of Carnival, two basic oppositions of which contemporaries were well aware provide a context for interpreting many elements in the proceedings.»y las dos que halla: en el caso del carnaval, dos oposiciones básicas de las que los contemporáneos eran bien conscientes dan contexto para interpretar muchos elementos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 381»

«The first opposition is that between Carnival and Lent, between what the French called jours gras and jours maigres. According to the law of the Church, Lent was a time of fasting and abstinence – abstinence not only from meat but also from eggs, sex, and playgoing.»y la primera: entre carnaval y cuaresma, entre lo que los franceses llamaban *jours gras* y *jours maigres*, porque según la ley de la Iglesia la cuaresma era tiempo de ayuno y abstinencia, no solo de carne sino de huevos, sexo y teatro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 381»

«Hence, it was natural to represent Lent as emaciated (the very word ‘Lent’ means ‘lean time’), and as a killjoy, associated with the cold-blooded creatures of Lenten diet.»y su iconografía: de ahí lo natural de representar la cuaresma como escuálida —la palabra inglesa *Lent* significa *tiempo flaco*— y aguafiestas, asociada a las criaturas de sangre fría de la dieta cuaresmal

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 381»

«One might describe Carnival as a Gargantuan or Falstaffian figure, although the connection was of course the other way round: Carnival is a context for interpreting Gargantua and Falstaff.»y la inversión que propone: cabría describir el carnaval como figura gargantuesca o falstaffiana, y la conexión va desde luego al revés, porque el carnaval es el contexto para interpretar a Gargantúa y a Falstaff

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 381»

«The second basic opposition demands more explanation. Carnival was opposed not only to Lent but also to the everyday, not only to the forty days that began on Ash Wednesday but to the rest of the year.»y la segunda oposición: el carnaval se oponía no solo a la cuaresma sino a lo cotidiano, no solo a los cuarenta días desde el miércoles de ceniza sino al resto del año

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 381»

«Carnival was an enactment of ‘the world turned upside down’, a favourite theme in the popular culture of early modern Europe: le monde renuersé, il mondo alla rovescia, Die verkehrte Welt.»y su nombre: el carnaval era la puesta en escena del *mundo al revés*, tema favorito de la cultura popular de la Europa moderna temprana, *le monde renversé*, *il mondo alla rovescia*, *die verkehrte Welt*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 381»

«The world upside down lent itself to illustration, and from the mid-sixteenth century it was a favourite theme of popular prints.»y su vehículo: el mundo al revés se prestaba a ilustrarse, y desde mediados del XVI fue tema favorito de las estampas populares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 381»

«There was physical reversal: people standing on their heads, cities in the sky, the sun and moon on earth, fishes flying, or that favourite item of carnival processions, a horse going backwards with its rider facing the tail.»y sus formas: la inversión física, con gente parada de cabeza, ciudades en el cielo, el sol y la luna en la tierra, peces que vuelan o el caballo que anda hacia atrás con su jinete mirando a la cola, ítem favorito de las procesiones carnavalescas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 381»

«Also represented in popular prints were reversals of the relations between people, whether age reversal, sex reversal, or other inversions of status. The son is shown beating his father, the pupil beating his teacher, servants giving orders to their masters, the poor giving alms to the rich, the laity saying Mass or preaching to the clergy, the king going on foot while the peasant rides, and the husband holding the baby and spinning while his wife smokes and holds a gun.»y la inversión entre personas: de edad, de sexo o de estatus, con el hijo que apalea al padre, el alumno al maestro, los criados que mandan a sus amos, los pobres que dan limosna a los ricos, los laicos que dicen misa o predican al clero, el rey que va a pie mientras el campesino cabalga, y el marido que sostiene al niño e hila mientras la mujer fuma y empuña un arma

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 382»

«What was the meaning of this series of images? There is no simple answer to the question. They were ambiguous, with different meanings for different people, and possibly ambivalent, with different meanings for the same person.»y su abstención interpretativa: no hay respuesta simple a qué significaba esa serie de imágenes, porque eran ambiguas, con significados distintos para gente distinta, y posiblemente ambivalentes, con significados distintos para la misma persona

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 382»

«It is most easy to document the attitude of the upper classes, for whom these images symbolized chaos, disorder, and misrule.»y lo que sí se documenta con facilidad: la actitud de las clases altas, para quienes esas imágenes simbolizaban caos, desorden y desgobierno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 382»

«Opponents of change in the early modern period frequently characterized it as quite literally ‘subversive’, an attempt to turn the world upside down. Their assumption was that the existing order was the natural order and that any alternative to it was simply disorder.»y su uso polémico: los adversarios del cambio lo caracterizaban con frecuencia como literalmente *subversivo*, un intento de poner el mundo del revés, con el supuesto de que el orden existente era el orden natural y toda alternativa a él era simple desorden

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 382»

«A topsy-turvy world was involved in the popular utopia of the Land of Cockaigne, ‘Lubberland’ or ‘The land of Prester John’, where houses were thatched with pancakes, brooks ran with milk, roast pigs ran about with knives conveniently stuck in their backs, and races in which the last past the post was the winner.»y su utopía: el mundo al revés estaba implicado en la del país de Jauja, *Lubberland* o *tierra del Preste Juan*, donde las casas se techaban con tortas, los arroyos corrían de leche, los cerdos asados andaban con el cuchillo convenientemente clavado en el lomo y en las carreras ganaba el último

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 383»

«Cockaigne was a vision of life as one long Carnival, while Carnival was a temporary Cockaigne, with the same emphasis on eating, especially in Naples, where floats heaped with food were ritually pillaged by the crowd.»y la relación entre ambos: Jauja era una visión de la vida como un carnaval largo, y el carnaval una Jauja temporal, con el mismo acento en el comer, sobre todo en Nápoles, donde la multitud saqueaba ritualmente carros cargados de comida

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 383»

«Carnival costume allowed men and women to reverse roles. The relations of master and servant might be inverted: in England, ‘Shrove Tuesday's liberty of servants’ was traditional.»y el disfraz: permitía a hombres y mujeres invertir papeles, y podían invertirse las relaciones de amo y criado, con la tradicional *libertad de los criados del martes de carnaval* inglesa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 384»

«Everyday taboos on the expression of sexual and aggressive impulses were replaced by encouragements. Carnival was, in short, a time of institutionalized disorder, a set of rituals of reversal.»y la fórmula que lo resume: los tabúes cotidianos sobre la expresión de los impulsos sexuales y agresivos quedaban reemplazados por estímulos, de modo que el carnaval era un tiempo de desorden institucionalizado, un conjunto de ritos de inversión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 384»

«No wonder, then, that contemporaries called it a time of ‘madness’ in which Folly was king. The rules of culture were suspended. The exemplars to follow were the wild man, the fool, and ‘Carnival’ himself, who all represent Nature, or in Freudian terms, the Id.»y lo que los contemporáneos decían: no sorprende que lo llamaran tiempo de *locura* en que reinaba la Necedad, con las reglas de la cultura suspendidas y con el hombre salvaje, el loco y el *Carnaval* mismo por modelos, todos los cuales representan la naturaleza o, en términos freudianos, el ello

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 384»

«Songs with double»y las canciones de doble sentido; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *meanings were not only permitted at this time but virtually obligatory*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 378»

«Verbal aggression was»y la licencia verbal; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *licensed at this season*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 379»

«There were reversals of the relation between man and beast: the horse turned farrier, shoeing his master; the ox turned butcher, cutting up a man; the fish eating the»y la inversión entre hombre y bestia: el caballo vuelto herrador que hierra a su amo, el buey vuelto carnicero que descuartiza a un hombre, el pez que se come al pescador; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con las liebres y el cazador

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 381»

«In the Vivarais»y el tercer caso, el del Vivarés; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *in 1670, the peasants made the same claim*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 382»

«Carnival was also a time of comedies, which often enacted»y las comedias de carnaval; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el juez en el cepo y la mujer que triunfa sobre el marido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 383»

«The lines have a Freudian ring. Of course the terms libido and censor have associations for us which were lacking in the sixteenth century. Nonetheless, the poet is pointing out that Carnival provided an outlet for sexual desires that were normally suppressed.»y su lectura con reserva: los versos tienen resonancia freudiana, y los términos *libido* y *censor* tienen para nosotros asociaciones que faltaban en el siglo XVI, y aun así el poeta señala que el carnaval daba salida a deseos sexuales normalmente reprimidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 384»

«The twin oppositions between Carnival and Lent, the world turned upside down and the everyday world, do not of course exhaust the meanings of the festival.»y el límite de su propio esquema: las dos oposiciones no agotan los significados de la fiesta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 384»

«Perhaps the topsy-turvy world is itself a gigantic symbol of rejuvenation, of return to the licence of the years before the age of reason.»y la lectura que propone: quizá el mundo al revés sea él mismo un símbolo gigante de rejuvenecimiento, de vuelta a la licencia de los años anteriores al uso de razón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 384»

«Whatever the origin of the ritual, it does not seem that this is what it primarily meant to participants in the cities of early modern Europe.»y su objeción: sea cual sea el origen del rito, no parece que eso fuera lo que significaba ante todo para los participantes en las ciudades de la Europa moderna temprana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 385»

«A sausage might symbolize a phallus, but a phallus might symbolize something else, whether contemporaries were conscious of this or not. We can do no more than speculate.»y el límite en que se detiene: una salchicha puede simbolizar un falo, y un falo puede simbolizar otra cosa, fueran o no conscientes de ello los contemporáneos, y no cabe hacer más que especular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 385»

«It is clear, on the other hand, that Carnival was polysemous, meaning different things to different people. Christian meanings were superimposed on pagan ones without obliterating them, and the result has to be read as a palimpsest.»y lo que sí da por claro: el carnaval era polisémico, significaba cosas distintas para gente distinta, y los significados cristianos se superpusieron a los paganos sin borrarlos, de modo que el resultado ha de leerse como un palimpsesto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 385»

«The rituals convey simultaneous messages about food and sex, religion and politics.»y su simultaneidad: los ritos transmiten a la vez mensajes sobre comida y sexo, religión y política

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 385»

«A fool's bladder, for example, has several meanings, because it is a bladder, associated with the sexual organs; because it comes from a pig, the Carnival animal par excellence; and because it is carried by a fool, whose ‘fatuity’ is symbolized by its emptiness.»con el ejemplo: la vejiga de un loco tiene varios significados, porque es una vejiga asociada a los órganos sexuales, porque viene de un cerdo, el animal carnavalesco por excelencia, y porque la lleva un loco, cuya *fatuidad* simboliza su vacío

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 385»

«As stories wandered from one hero to another, so elementary ‘particles’ of the ritual wandered from one festival to another.»y el mecanismo: como los relatos vagaban de un héroe a otro, las *partículas* elementales del rito vagaban de una fiesta a otra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 386»

«Most obviously ‘carnivalesque’ were some feast days in December, January, and February, in other words, inside the Carnival period in its wide sense.»y las más obviamente carnavalescas: ciertas fiestas de diciembre, enero y febrero, es decir dentro del periodo carnavalesco en sentido amplio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 386»

«A famous example is that of the Feast of Fools, held on 28 December (the feast of the ‘innocents’ massacred by Herod) or thereabouts, and particularly well-documented for France.»y el ejemplo famoso: la Fiesta de los Locos, celebrada el 28 de diciembre, fiesta de los inocentes degollados por Herodes, o por esas fechas, y especialmente bien documentada para Francia; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 386»

«The Feast of Fools was organized by the junior clergy, the ecclesiastical equivalent of the YAMs who played such a prominent role during Carnival. Ordinary people participated in the same way as they participated at Mass, in the congregation.»y quiénes la organizaban: el clero menor, equivalente eclesiástico de los varones adultos jóvenes que tanto papel tenían en el carnaval, con la gente común participando como en la misa, desde la congregación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 386»

«During the Feast of Fools a bishop or abbot of the fools would be elected, there would be dancing in church and in the streets, the customary procession, and a mock Mass in which the clergy wore masks or women's clothes or put their vestments on back to front, held the missal upside down, played cards, ate sausages, sang bawdy songs, or cursed the congregation instead of blessing them.»y en qué consistía: se elegía un obispo o abad de los locos, había baile en la iglesia y en las calles, la procesión de costumbre y una misa burlesca en que el clero llevaba máscaras o ropas de mujer o se ponía los ornamentos del revés, sostenía el misal al revés, jugaba a las cartas, comía salchichas, cantaba canciones obscenas o maldecía a la congregación en vez de bendecirla

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 386»

«The ‘indulgences’ proclaimed in the south of France (in Occitan instead of the usual Latin) might go like this»y las *indulgencias* que se proclamaban en el sur de Francia, en occitano en vez del latín de costumbre

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 386»

«One could hardly wish for a more literal enactment of the world turned upside down. Its legitimation was a line from the Magnificat, Deposuit potentes de sede et exaltavit humiles: ‘He hath put down the mighty from their seat and hath exalted the humble’»y su legitimación: difícilmente cabe una puesta en escena más literal del mundo al revés, legitimada con un verso del Magníficat, *depuso a los poderosos de su trono y ensalzó a los humildes*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 386»

«Elsewhere, for example in England before the Reformation, the occasion took the milder form of the feast of ‘the boy bishop’ or ‘Childermass’.»y su forma inglesa antes de la Reforma, más suave: la fiesta del *obispillo* o *Childermass*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 387»

«On the anniversary of Herod's massacre, children were allowed to take over.»y la fórmula que lo resume: en el aniversario de la matanza de Herodes se dejaba mandar a los niños

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 387»

«The Feast of the Innocents fell within the twelve days of Christmas, and this whole season was treated as carnivalesque, appropriately enough from a Christian point of view, since the birth of the son of God in a manger offers a spectacular example of the world turned upside down.»y el marco mayor: la fiesta de los Inocentes caía dentro de los doce días de Navidad, y toda esa temporada se trataba como carnavalesca, cosa apropiada desde el punto de vista cristiano, porque el nacimiento del hijo de Dios en un pesebre ofrece un ejemplo espectacular del mundo al revés

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 387»

«Like Carnival, the twelve days of Christmas were a great time for eating and drinking’, for the performance of plays, and for ‘Misrule’ of various kinds.»y qué se hacía: como en el carnaval, los doce días de Navidad eran gran tiempo de comer y beber, de representar piezas y de *desgobierno* de varias clases

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 387»

«In England, the custom was to perform ‘Plough Plays’, which might include mock weddings, on the first Monday after Epiphany. There might also be ‘a changing of clothes between men and women’ at New Year.»y las costumbres inglesas: representar *Plough Plays*, que podían incluir bodas burlescas, el primer lunes tras la Epifanía, y cambiarse las ropas entre hombres y mujeres en Año Nuevo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 387»

«In Italy it was Epiphany who was personified, as an old woman, La Befana or La Vecchia, an old witch rather like ‘Lent’ who might be burned at the end of the festivities.»y la italiana: allí se personificaba la Epifanía como una vieja, la Befana o la Vecchia, bruja vieja bastante parecida a la *Cuaresma* que podía quemarse al final de las fiestas; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 387»

«Still in the Carnival season, on 5 February there was the feast of St Agatha, Santa Agueda to the Spanish, for whom the day was an occasion for another rite of reversal. The women gave the orders and the men obeyed, as if St Agatha's torturers, by cutting off her breasts, had turned her into an Amazon.»y la fiesta del 5 de febrero: santa Águeda, que para los españoles era ocasión de otro rito de inversión, con las mujeres dando las órdenes y los hombres obedeciendo, como si los verdugos de la santa, al cortarle los pechos, la hubieran vuelto amazona

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 388»

«Outside the Carnival season, certain festivals emphasized the themes of renewal, reversal, eating, sex, or violence, and so might be described as ‘carnivalesque’. In England, Easter Tuesday, or ‘Hock Tuesday’, was one of these, in which the women captured the men and made them pay a ransom for their release.»y las carnavalescas fuera de temporada: ciertas fiestas subrayaban la renovación, la inversión, la comida, el sexo o la violencia, como el martes de Pascua inglés o *Hock Tuesday*, en que las mujeres capturaban a los hombres y les hacían pagar rescate

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 388»

«In Italy, maypoles were known as Alberi della Cuccagna, ‘trees of Cockaigne’, another link with the world of Carnival.»y el italiano: los mayos se llamaban *alberi della cuccagna*, árboles de Jauja, otro enlace con el mundo del carnaval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 389»

«Summer, too, had its carnivals, notably Corpus Christi and the feast of St John the Baptist. The festival of Corpus Christi, which spread in Europe from the thirteenth century on, was a day of processions and plays.»y los carnavales de verano: señaladamente el Corpus y la fiesta de san Juan Bautista, con el Corpus difundiéndose en Europa desde el siglo XIII como día de procesiones y piezas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 389»

«Corpus Christi was also a great day for the performance of religious plays in Spain, but proceedings there were invaded by carnivalesque elements.»y el español: el Corpus era también gran día de piezas religiosas, y allí los elementos carnavalescos invadían la función

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 389»

«Elaborate floats would be drawn through the streets carrying saints, giants, and, most important of all, a huge dragon, explained in Christian terms as the Beast of the Apocalypse, while the woman on his back was supposed to represent the Whore of Babylon.»y en qué: se arrastraban por las calles carros elaborados con santos, gigantes y, lo más importante, un dragón enorme explicado en términos cristianos como la Bestia del Apocalipsis, con la mujer sobre su lomo por la Ramera de Babilonia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 389»

«The ears of the crowd would be assaulted by fireworks, bagpipes, tambourines, castanets, drums, and trumpets. Devils had an important part to play, tumbling, singing, and engaging in mock battles with the angels. The fool had another chance to strike bystanders with his bladder.»y el resto: fuegos, gaitas, panderetas, castañuelas, tambores y trompetas asaltaban los oídos de la multitud, los diablos tenían papel importante volteando, cantando y peleando en broma con los ángeles, y el loco tenía otra ocasión de golpear a los mirones con su vejiga

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 389»

«It has already been suggested that St John's Eve, Midsummer, was an important festival organized around the theme of renewal.»y vuelve a la noche de San Juan: ya se ha sugerido que era fiesta importante organizada en torno al tema de la renovación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 389»

«The devils, rather like the Russian ‘Chaldeans’, threw fireworks at the crowd, ran about town on Sunday evenings, terrorized the countryside, and taxed the market. These activities were interpreted as a representation of the Devil's power over the world.»y qué hacían: como los *caldeos* rusos, arrojaban fuegos a la multitud, corrían por la ciudad los domingos por la tarde, aterrorizaban el campo y gravaban el mercado, actividades que se interpretaban como representación del poder del diablo sobre el mundo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 390»

«In northern and eastern Europe, St John's Eve was a particularly important festival in our period, whether because pagan survivals were stronger or because the public rituals which took place at Carnival in Mediterranean countries and in May in England were better postponed to June in these colder climes – though not always, as the example of the Baltic cities reminds us.»y la explicación que ensaya para el norte y el este: allí la noche de San Juan era fiesta particularmente importante en el periodo, sea porque las supervivencias paganas fueran más fuertes o porque los ritos públicos que en el Mediterráneo caían en carnaval y en Inglaterra en mayo convinieran mejor en junio en esos climas más fríos, aunque no siempre, como recuerda el ejemplo de las ciudades bálticas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 390»

«Where Carnival was weak, and even in some places where it was lively, other festivals performed its functions»y qué pasaba donde era débil: otras fiestas cumplían sus funciones; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *and shared its characteristics*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 385»

«It enacts a»y la lectura que propone de la Fiesta de los Locos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *praise of humility rather than a critique of society*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 386»

«So was May Day, for in England a lively May festival seems to have compensated for a relatively quiet Shrove Tuesday.»y el primero de mayo: en Inglaterra una fiesta viva de mayo parece haber compensado un martes de carnaval relativamente tranquilo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 388»

«The Carnival emphasis on eating and drinking seems to have been absent from these spring and summer festivals, but people made up for this in the autumn.»y el desplazamiento estacional: el acento carnavalesco en comer y beber parece haber faltado en esas fiestas de primavera y verano, y la gente se resarcía en otoño

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 391»

«Eating and drinking was the main point of the harvest supper given for the reapers, although other forms of entertainment were not forgotten.»y su ocasión: comer y beber era el punto principal de la cena de la cosecha dada a los segadores, sin olvidar otras formas de entretenimiento

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 391»

«Other autumn rituals of eating and drinking were the feasts of St Bartholomew (25 August) and St Martin (11 November). St Bartholomew, who was said to have been flayed alive, was an appropriate if grisly patron for butchers.»y las otras fiestas otoñales de comer y beber: san Bartolomé el 25 de agosto y san Martín el 11 de noviembre, y a Bartolomé, del que se decía que fue desollado vivo, le tocaba un patronazgo apropiado si bien macabro sobre los carniceros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 391»

«The repertoire of ritual was also laid under contribution on special occasions which were not part of the annual cycle of feasts.»y su uso fuera del calendario: el repertorio de ritos se aprovechaba también en ocasiones especiales que no eran parte del ciclo anual de fiestas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 392»

«Public executions, the solemn ‘entry’ of important people into town, the celebration of victories (or coronations, or the birth of royal children), and, in eighteenth-century England at least, parliamentary elections, all took carnivalesque forms.»y las demás ocasiones que tomaban formas carnavalescas: las ejecuciones públicas, la *entrada* solemne de personajes en la ciudad, la celebración de victorias, coronaciones o nacimientos reales y, al menos en la Inglaterra del XVIII, las elecciones parlamentarias

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 392»

«Elections, notably at Westminster, were an occasion for eating, drinking, singing, and fighting in the streets, ending with a ritual of triumph, the ‘chairing’ of the successful candidate.»y en qué consistían: las elecciones, señaladamente en Westminster, eran ocasión de comer, beber, cantar y pelear en las calles, con un rito de triunfo final, el paseo en silla del candidato vencedor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 392»

«Victories meant feasting, fireworks, and bonfires; royal entries meant the erection of triumphal arches, speeches, mock battles, fountains flowing with wine, and coins thrown to the crowd.»y sus repertorios respectivos: las victorias traían banquetes, fuegos y hogueras, y las entradas reales arcos triunfales, discursos, batallas fingidas, fuentes que manaban vino y monedas arrojadas a la multitud

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 392»

«In London, proceedings would begin with a procession of the condemned men and their guards, the journey to Tyburn in Middlesex for example. The condemned men were taken in carts with ropes round their necks.»y su guion londinense: empezaba con una procesión de los condenados y sus guardias, el viaje a Tyburn, y a los condenados se los llevaba en carretas con la soga al cuello

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 393»

«The condemned who were present would be beheaded, or hanged, or burned, or broken on the wheel, and the ghastly ritual would end with ‘drawing and quartering’, the display of their heads at the city gates, and, of course, the selling of ballads recounting their last moments.»y su desenlace: a los condenados se los decapitaba, ahorcaba, quemaba o rompía en la rueda, y el rito espantoso acababa con el descuartizamiento, la exhibición de las cabezas en las puertas de la ciudad y, por supuesto, la venta de baladas que contaban sus últimos momentos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 393»

«If the criminal had escaped, he might be hanged in effigy, a procedure that must have reminded the spectators of Carnival.»y el eco carnavalesco: si el criminal había escapado, podía ahorcárselo en efigie, procedimiento que debió recordar el carnaval a los espectadores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 393»

«These performances required the participation of the public, like Carnival; they offered similar opportunities for sadism, throwing mud and stones at the criminals as they passed, like the crowd watching the Jews running along the Corso in Rome.»y lo que exigían: esas funciones requerían la participación del público, como el carnaval, y ofrecían ocasiones semejantes de sadismo, con barro y piedras arrojados a los criminales al pasar, como la multitud que miraba correr a los judíos por el Corso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 394»

«In similar fashion, the point of the stocks and the pillory was partly public shaming, and partly the exposure of the offender to the violence of the crowd.»y el sentido del cepo y la picota: en parte la vergüenza pública y en parte la exposición del ofensor a la violencia de la multitud; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 394»

«However, audiences do not always react in the way the playwright expects or wants, and the crowd did not necessarily interpret proceedings in the same way as the authorities or Dr Johnson.»y el reverso: el público no siempre reacciona como el dramaturgo espera o quiere, y la multitud no interpretaba necesariamente la función como las autoridades o el doctor Johnson

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 394»

«At executions, notably at Tyburn in the eighteenth century, official proceedings coexisted with popular rituals that presented the hangman as the villain and the criminal as a hero.»y el rito popular paralelo: en las ejecuciones, señaladamente en Tyburn en el XVIII, el procedimiento oficial coexistía con ritos populares que presentaban al verdugo como villano y al criminal como héroe

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 394»

«It was normally accompanied by ‘rough music’ (German Katzenmusik, Dutch ketelmusik), such as the beating of pots and pans. In other words, it was a mock serenade.»y su sonido: iba normalmente acompañada de *música áspera* —*Katzenmusik* alemana, *ketelmusik* neerlandesa—, con golpes de ollas y cacerolas, es decir una serenata burlesca

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 394»

«It was not only the old man married to the young woman (or vice versa) who might be the object of a charivari, but anyone marrying for the second time, or a girl marrying outside the village, or a husband who was beaten or made a cuckold by his wife.»y a quién podía tocarle: no solo al viejo casado con joven o al revés, sino a cualquiera que se casara por segunda vez, a la muchacha que se casara fuera de la aldea o al marido apaleado o encornudado por su mujer

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 395»

«The victim (or his neighbour, or his effigy) might be taken through the streets mounted backwards on an ass, presumably to show that these breaches of the conventions of marriage turned the world upside down, while the beating of pots and pans provided an upside-down kind of music.»y su escenificación: a la víctima, o a su vecino, o a su efigie, se la paseaba por las calles montada al revés en un asno, presumiblemente para mostrar que esas faltas a las convenciones del matrimonio ponían el mundo del revés, mientras el golpear de ollas y cacerolas daba una música al revés

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 395»

«This ritual might also be used outside the marriage context, against preachers or landlords. In seventeenth-century France, taxcollectors were expelled from towns they visited in a kind of charivari.»y su uso fuera del matrimonio: contra predicadores o terratenientes, y en la Francia del XVII a los recaudadores se los expulsaba de las ciudades en una especie de cencerrada; el impreso parte *tax-collectors* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *taxcollectors*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 395»

«Alternatively, unpopular figures might be hanged or burned in effigy like ‘Carnival’. Indeed, a register – if one could be compiled – of everyone who was publicly destroyed in effigy between 1500 and 1800 would tell us a great deal about the popular culture of early modern Europe. Prominent on this list would be Judas, Machiavelli, Guy Fawkes, Cardinal Mazarin, Tom Paine, and, of course, the Pope.»y la lista que propone: a las figuras impopulares podía ahorcárselas o quemárselas en efigie como al *Carnaval*, y un registro de todos los destruidos públicamente en efigie entre 1500 y 1800 diría mucho de la cultura popular del periodo, con Judas, Maquiavelo, Guy Fawkes, Mazarino, Tom Paine y por supuesto el papa en cabeza

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 395»

«There is a sense in which every festival was a miniature Carnival because it was an excuse for disorder and because it drew from the same repertoire of traditional forms, which included processions, races, mock battles, mock weddings, and mock executions.»y la tesis que lo cierra: en cierto sentido toda fiesta era un carnaval en miniatura, porque era excusa de desorden y porque tiraba del mismo repertorio de formas tradicionales, procesiones, carreras, batallas, bodas y ejecuciones burlescas; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 395»

«The use of the term ‘carnivalesque’ is not intended to imply that Shrove Tuesday customs were the origin of all the others. The point is simply that the major feasts of the year had rituals in common and that Carnival was an especially important cluster of»y la reserva que pone al término: usar *carnavalesco* no implica que las costumbres del martes de carnaval fueran el origen de todas las demás, sino simplemente que las fiestas mayores del año tenían ritos en común y que el carnaval era un racimo especialmente importante de ellos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 395»

«It is closer to the truth to think of the religious festivals of early modern Europe as little carnivals than to think of them as solemn and sedate rituals in the modern manner.»y la corrección que propone: está más cerca de la verdad pensar las fiestas religiosas de la Europa moderna temprana como pequeños carnavales que como ritos solemnes y comedidos a la manera moderna; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 396»

«So far, we have been looking at popular festivals primarily in terms of what they meant to the participants, but this approach is not the only one possible.»y el giro del apartado siguiente: hasta ahí se han mirado las fiestas populares sobre todo por lo que significaban para los participantes, y ese no es el único enfoque posible

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 396»

«Social anthropologists studying myths and rituals in many parts of the world have emphasized that these myths and rituals have social functions, whether participants are aware of this or not.»y el que añade: los antropólogos sociales han subrayado que mitos y ritos tienen funciones sociales, sean o no conscientes de ello los participantes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 396»

«Can we say the same of early modern Europe? Once again, the historian – like the anthropologist – has to choose between opposite interpretations, social control or social protest, linked to the ideas of popular culture as expressions of conformity or contestation.»y la disyuntiva que impone: como el antropólogo, el historiador ha de elegir entre interpretaciones opuestas, control social o protesta social, ligadas a las ideas de la cultura popular como expresión de conformidad o de contestación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 396»

«Some functions of popular festivals seem obvious enough. They offered entertainment, a welcome respite from the daily struggle to earn a living. They gave people something to look forward to.»y las funciones obvias: ofrecían entretenimiento, respiro bienvenido de la lucha diaria por ganarse la vida, y daban a la gente algo que esperar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 396»

«They celebrated the community itself, displaying its ability to put on a good show. The mocking of outsiders (Jews at the Roman Carnival, peasants in that of Nuremberg) may have been, among other things, a dramatic expression of community solidarity.»y la comunitaria: celebraban a la comunidad misma mostrando su capacidad de dar buen espectáculo, y la burla de los de fuera —judíos en el carnaval romano, campesinos en el de Núremberg— pudo ser, entre otras cosas, expresión dramática de la solidaridad comunitaria

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 396»

«At the feast of St John the Baptist in Florence, as at the Carnival of Venice, some rituals expressed the subordination of other communities to these capital cities of small empires.»y la imperial: en la fiesta de san Juan Bautista en Florencia, como en el carnaval de Venecia, algunos ritos expresaban la subordinación de otras comunidades a esas capitales de imperios pequeños

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 396»

«Festivals were also an opportunity for different groups within the community to compete with one another, a competition that was often ritualized in the form of mock battles, such as the battles on the bridges of Venice and Pisa or the football matches on Piazza Santa Croce in Florence»y la competitiva: las fiestas eran ocasión de que grupos distintos de la comunidad compitieran, competencia ritualizada a menudo en batallas fingidas como las de los puentes de Venecia y Pisa o los partidos de fútbol de la plaza de Santa Croce

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 396»

«The ritual of charivari seems to have served the function of social control, in the sense that it was the means for a community, a village or urban parish, to express its hostility to individuals who stepped out of line and so to discourage other breaches of custom.»y la función de control social que le ve a la cencerrada: era el medio por el que una comunidad, aldea o parroquia urbana, expresaba su hostilidad a los individuos que se salían de la raya y desalentaba así otras faltas a la costumbre

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 397»

«Lesser forms of public punishment were also presented in dramatic form, like whipping at the cart's tail through the centre»y los castigos menores, también dramáticos, empezando por el azote atado a la carreta; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la pena por ejercer la medicina sin título

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 393»

«The charivari was known right across Europe, from Portugal to Hungary, although details of the»y su extensión: la cencerrada se conocía de un extremo a otro de Europa, de Portugal a Hungría; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *ritual might vary*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 394»

«but might also be expressed in the efforts of different parishes or guilds or quarters of the city to present a»y su forma menos violenta: los esfuerzos de parroquias, gremios o barrios por dar mejor espectáculo que sus rivales; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el sacerdote de Provins

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 396»

«To make spinsters pull a plough through the streets at Carnival was a way of encouraging them to find husbands.»y otro ejemplo de control social: hacer que las solteras tiraran de un arado por las calles en carnaval era un modo de animarlas a hallar marido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 397»

«The rituals of public execution might also be regarded as a form of social control, insofar as there was community consensus about the wickedness of the crime.»y las ejecuciones públicas como forma de control social, en la medida en que hubiera consenso comunitario sobre la maldad del crimen

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 397»

«Outside the face-to-face community, though, the term ‘social control’ becomes misleading.87 It is more illuminating to ask which groups are using ritual to control which other groups.»y su reserva sobre el término: fuera de la comunidad cara a cara, *control social* se vuelve engañoso, y ilumina más preguntar qué grupos usan el rito para controlar a qué otros grupos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 397»

«The official ritual at Tyburn expressed the attempt of the ruling classes to control ordinary people, while the unofficial rituals expressed protest against these attempts.»y el reparto en Tyburn: el rito oficial expresaba el intento de las clases dirigentes de controlar a la gente común, y los ritos no oficiales la protesta contra ese intento

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 397»

«A crowd went to burn the house of an unpopular official and succeeded in smashing the windows, an action which might be interpreted as the expression of their fury, but equally well as an attempt to put pressure on the government in an unofficial yet customary way.»y la doble lectura del hecho: una multitud fue a quemar la casa de un funcionario impopular y logró romper las ventanas, acción que puede leerse como expresión de su furia o igual de bien como intento de presionar al gobierno de un modo no oficial y a la vez consuetudinario

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 397»

«These examples are obvious enough. Functional analysis is more interesting where it is more paradoxical, in other words when rituals that apparently express protest against the social order are interpreted as contributions to that order.»y dónde el análisis funcional se vuelve más interesante: donde es más paradójico, cuando ritos que en apariencia expresan protesta contra el orden social se interpretan como contribuciones a ese orden; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 398»

«Are these analyses of any relevance to early modern Europe? They surely are. Just as Zulu girls put on men's clothes once a year, so did Venetian women. Just as the Swazi were licensed to criticize the authorities during certain festivals, so were the Spaniards.»y su aplicación a Europa: sí son pertinentes, porque así como las muchachas zulúes se ponían ropas de hombre una vez al año lo hacían las venecianas, y como a los suazis se les licenciaba criticar a las autoridades en ciertas fiestas también a los españoles

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 398»

«On the other hand, as a part of the story, the theory has much to recommend it. It draws attention to a number of features of Carnival that have received too little emphasis in the last few pages.»y lo que sí tiene a su favor: como parte de la historia la teoría tiene mucho que recomendarla, porque llama la atención sobre rasgos del carnaval poco subrayados hasta ahí

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 399»

«For example, it helps explain the importance of violence, which, unlike food and sex, was not just about to be restricted during Lent.»con el primero: ayuda a explicar la importancia de la violencia, que a diferencia de la comida y el sexo no estaba a punto de restringirse en cuaresma

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 399»

«Again, young men could openly express their desire for ladies of higher social status, while respectable ladies could show themselves on balconies or walk the streets in disguise.»y el segundo: los jóvenes podían expresar abiertamente su deseo por damas de estatus superior, mientras las damas respetables podían mostrarse en los balcones o andar por las calles disfrazadas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 399»

«Wearing masks helped liberate people from their everyday selves, conferring a sense of impunity like the cloak of invisibility in folktales.»y lo que hacía la máscara: ayudaba a liberar a la gente de su yo cotidiano, confiriéndole una sensación de impunidad como la capa de invisibilidad de los cuentos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 399»

«Another point in favour of the theory is its suggestion of a controlled escape of steam. The expression of sexual and aggressive impulses was stereotyped and so channelled.»y otro punto a favor: la idea de un escape controlado de vapor, porque la expresión de los impulsos sexuales y agresivos estaba estereotipada y así canalizada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 399»

«Hence the need for symbolism, the songs with double meanings, the aggression sublimated into ritual.»y de ahí la necesidad del simbolismo: las canciones de doble sentido, la agresión sublimada en rito

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 400»

«The trial, execution, and burial of ‘Carnival’ might be interpreted as a demonstration to the public that the time of ecstasy and licence was over and that they must make a ‘sober return’ to everyday reality.»y su lectura del final: el juicio, la ejecución y el entierro del *Carnaval* pueden interpretarse como demostración al público de que el tiempo de éxtasis y licencia había acabado y que había que hacer un *regreso sobrio* a la realidad cotidiana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 400»

«Comedies built round situations of reversal, like the judge in the stocks, and played during Carnival, frequently end in a similar way with a reminder to the audience that it is time to set the world the right way up again.»y lo mismo en las comedias: las construidas sobre situaciones de inversión, como el juez en el cepo, y representadas en carnaval acaban con frecuencia recordando al público que es hora de poner el mundo del derecho otra vez

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 400»

«In spite of the value of the theory of the ‘safety-valve’ or ‘social control’, it would be misleading to interpret the Carnivals and other festivals of early modern Europe in these terms alone.»y su corrección: pese al valor de la teoría de la válvula de seguridad o del control social, sería engañoso interpretar los carnavales y demás fiestas de la Europa moderna temprana solo en esos términos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 400»

«Perhaps this is because Europe in this period was a group of societies more highly stratified than the Africa studied by Max Gluckman and Victor Turner, or perhaps because anthropologists used to be concerned with consensus at the expense of conflict.»y las dos razones que ensaya: quizá porque la Europa del periodo era un grupo de sociedades más estratificadas que el África que estudiaron Gluckman y Turner, o quizá porque los antropólogos solían ocuparse del consenso a costa del conflicto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 400»

«At all events, in Europe between 1500 and 1800, rituals of revolt coexisted with serious questioning of the social, political, and religious order, and the one sometimes turned into the other.»y el hecho que declara: en la Europa de 1500 a 1800 los ritos de revuelta coexistieron con un cuestionamiento serio del orden social, político y religioso, y uno se volvía a veces el otro; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 400»

«Protest was expressed in ritualized forms, but the ritual was not always sufficient to contain the protest. The wine barrel sometimes blew its top.»y la fórmula que lo dice: la protesta se expresaba en formas ritualizadas, y el rito no bastaba siempre para contenerla, porque el barril de vino saltaba a veces la tapa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 400»

«On occasion, the authorities showed that they were well aware of the problem, as many edicts against carrying arms during Carnival suggest.»y la prueba de que las autoridades lo sabían: los muchos edictos contra llevar armas durante el carnaval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 400»

«During festivals, as we have seen, peasants came to town and everyone took to the streets. Many people were masked; some were armed.»y la mezcla que hacía posible el estallido: en las fiestas los campesinos venían a la ciudad y todos salían a la calle, muchos enmascarados y algunos armados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 401»

«The excitement of the occasion and the heavy consumption of alcohol meant that inhibitions against expressing hostility to the authorities or private individuals would be at their weakest.»y el efecto: la excitación de la ocasión y el consumo pesado de alcohol dejaban en su punto más débil las inhibiciones contra expresar hostilidad a las autoridades o a los particulares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 401»

«Add to this a bad harvest, an increase in taxes, or an attempt to introduce, or forbid, reforms. The resulting mixture could be explosive. In the words of linguists, there might be a sudden ‘code-switching’, from the language of ritual to the language of rebellion.»y los ingredientes que faltaban: una mala cosecha, una subida de impuestos o un intento de introducir o prohibir reformas, con lo que la mezcla podía ser explosiva y darse, en términos de los lingüistas, un *cambio de código* súbito del lenguaje del rito al de la rebelión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 401»

«To move from the point of view of the authorities to that, more elusive, of ordinary people, it may well have been that members of groups who were excluded from power saw Carnival as an opportunity to make their concerns known and so to bring about change.»y el otro punto de vista, más esquivo: bien pudo ser que los miembros de grupos excluidos del poder vieran el carnaval como ocasión de dar a conocer sus preocupaciones y con ello producir cambio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 401»

«Riots and rebellions may be regarded as extraordinary forms of popular ritual. Of course, they are not just rituals. They are attempts at direct as well as symbolic action.»y la extensión del argumento: los motines y rebeliones pueden verse como formas extraordinarias de rito popular, y no son solo ritos, porque son intentos de acción directa además de simbólica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 401»

«Riots took over the rituals of charivari and Carnival in particular, because rituals of deposition, destruction and defamation – burning in effigy, for example – were suited to the protests which the rioters wanted to make.»y por qué: los motines adoptaron sobre todo los ritos de la cencerrada y del carnaval, porque los ritos de deposición, destrucción y difamación —quemar en efigie, por ejemplo— convenían a las protestas que los amotinados querían hacer

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 401»

«Masks not only liberated their wearers from everyday roles but imposed new ones. In Rome, in spite of the proverb, ‘In Carnival, everything is»y el doble filo de la máscara: no solo liberaba de los papeles cotidianos sino que imponía otros nuevos, y en Roma, pese al proverbio de que en carnaval todo está permitido; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con los *sbirri* en la calle

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 399»

«It is hardly surprising to find that members of the upper classes often argued that particular festivals ought to be abolished, or indeed that popular»y lo que de ahí se sigue: no sorprende que las clases altas sostuvieran a menudo que ciertas fiestas debían abolirse; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la reforma de la cultura popular en general

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 402»

«The two chapters that follow attempt to complement that description with a narrative of change, or more exactly two kinds of change. Chapter 8 is concerned with a movement, indeed a deliberate campaign to change popular culture, or in the language of the time to ‘reform’ it.»Burke presenta la parte III: dos clases de cambio, y el capítulo 8 dedicado a una campaña deliberada por *reformar* la cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 414»

«This campaign offers an early example of what Dutch sociologists and historians in the circle of Norbert Elias have described as a ‘civilizing offensive’ (beschavingsoffensief), an attempt to speed up what Elias called the ‘civilizing process’, in other words the rise of discipline and self-control.»Burke toma de los sociólogos e historiadores holandeses del círculo de Norbert Elias el nombre de *ofensiva civilizadora* (*beschavingsoffensief*) para esa campaña

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 414»

«Chapter 9, on the other hand, deals with cultural changes that were not planned by anyone but resulted from the major economic, social, and political changes of the last three centuries before the Industrial Revolution.»Burke anuncia en el capítulo 9 los cambios que nadie planeó, resultado de las mudanzas económicas, sociales y políticas de los tres siglos anteriores a la Revolución Industrial

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 414»

«One of the most famous paintings by Pieter Brueghel is the Combat of Carnival and Lent, in which a fat man astride a barrel is jousting with a thin old woman seated on a chair. The literal meaning of this painting is obvious enough, for mock battles between these two figures were a common part of Shrovetide festivities, as we have seen.»Burke abre el capítulo 8 con el *Combat of Carnival and Lent* de Pieter Brueghel y recuerda que las batallas fingidas entre ambas figuras eran parte corriente de la carnestolenda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 416»

«I am tempted to interpret ‘Carnival’, who belongs to the tavern side of the picture, as a symbol of traditional popular culture, and ‘Lent’, who belongs to the church side, as the clergy, who at that time (1559) were trying to reform or suppress many popular festivities.»Burke propone leer al Carnaval de la pintura como símbolo de la cultura popular tradicional y a la Cuaresma como el clero que hacia 1559 quería reformar o suprimir las fiestas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 416»

«I have tried to launch the phrase ‘the reform of popular culture’ to describe the systematic attempt by some of the educated (henceforth described as ‘the reformers’ or ‘the godly’) to replace traditional festive culture, supported by the ethos of ‘good»Burke declara suya la fórmula *the reform of popular culture* para el intento sistemático de algunos letrados —*los reformadores*, *los piadosos*— de sustituir la cultura festiva; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana a media expresión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 416»

Sobre la obra

1507 entradas — lo que el aparato y la investigación dicen de ella

«Cultural history has in the last few decades come to the fore of historical research into early modern Europe. Due in no small part to Peter Burke's pioneering work»la contracubierta —no la voz del cuerpo— sitúa el libro como causa parcial del auge de la historia cultural de la Europa moderna temprana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 2»

«First published in 1978, this study examines the broad sweep of pre-industrial Europe's popular culture. From the world of the professional entertainer to the songs, stories, rituals, and plays of ordinary people, it shows how attitudes and values shaped – and were shaped by – the shifting social, religious, and political conditions of European society between 1500 and 1800.»la contracubierta resume el arco del volumen: del artista profesional a las canciones, relatos, rituales y obras de la gente común, entre 1500 y 1800

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 2»

«This fourth edition has been updated throughout with more information on the unconventional/non-academic scientific culture of women, Jewish popular culture, the culture of children and youth, and the culture of captives in the Mediterranean.»la contracubierta enumera lo que esta cuarta edición añade: cultura científica no académica de las mujeres, cultura popular judía, cultura de la infancia y la juventud, y cultura de los cautivos del Mediterráneo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 2»

«It also includes a new introduction and afterword exploring and responding to the problem of the ‘popular’, the notion of ‘culture’, the rise and fall of ‘the early modern’, and Europe as a category in the face of global»y anuncia la introducción y el epílogo nuevos, sobre lo *popular*, la noción de *cultura*, el auge y la caída de lo *moderno temprano* y Europa como categoría; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana, y sigue *interconnections*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 2»

«Peter Burke is a cultural historian, retired from teaching but remaining a Life Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and a Fellow of the British Academy.»la solapa de autor da los cargos: Life Fellow del Emmanuel College de Cambridge y Fellow de la British Academy

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 3»

«He is the author of over 30 books on cultural history, mainly focusing on early modern Europe and the history of knowledge.»y la solapa cifra su producción en más de treinta libros, centrados en la Europa moderna temprana y en la historia del conocimiento

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 3»

«Burke's is still an erudite and stimulating guide to pre-industrial European culture after thirty years of lively work in the field.»endoso a la tercera edición firmado por el *Times Literary Supplement*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 4»

«probably even more important now than it was in 1978.»endoso del *Times Higher Education*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 4»

«The study of popular culture has come a long way since the first publication of Burke's work. However, it is still the only work offering a European-wide view. This updated, third edition remains a valuable reference point for those interested in early modern European societies.»endoso de *Historein*: concede el avance del campo y mantiene que sigue siendo la única obra con mirada europea de conjunto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 4»

«Burke's highly readable book remains an excellent introduction to early modern European history.»endoso de *Sport in History*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 4»

«Designed cover image: A Blind Hurdy-Gurdy Player by Georges de La Tour (1593-1652), oil on canvas, c. 1620-30. IanDagnall Computing/Alamy Stock Photo.»el crédito de cubierta: un óleo de Georges de La Tour, hacia 1620-30, con un zanfonista ciego

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«Description: Fourth edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2026. | First edition published by Maurice Temple Smith Ltd 1978 ; Revised and reprinted by Scolar Press 1994, 1996; Revised and reprinted by Ashgate Publishing Limited 1999, 2001, 2002, and 2006 ; Revised and reprinted by Routledge 2009 -- Title page verso.»la ficha de la Library of Congress traza el linaje editorial del libro: primera edición de Maurice Temple Smith en 1978, revisiones de Scolar Press (1994, 1996), de Ashgate (1999, 2001, 2002, 2006) y de Routledge (2009)

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«Street Singers (German, seventeenth century). [Inv.-Nr. HB 19114 Kaps 1281]. Courtesy Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nürnberg»el índice de figuras abre con cantores callejeros alemanes del siglo XVII, del Germanisches Nationalmuseum de Núremberg; el pie se reimprime igual en la sección de láminas

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«Skomorokhi at Ladoga in 1634, by Adam Olearius. Ryhor Bruyeu/ Alamy Stock Photo»la figura 4 del índice recoge a los *skomorokhi* de Ladoga en 1634 según el grabado de Adam Olearius; el pie se reimprime en la sección de láminas

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«The mice bury the cat (Russian Broadside, c. 1765). GRANGER – Historical Picture Archive/Alamy Stock Photo»la figura 10 es la estampa rusa de los ratones que entierran al gato, hacia 1765; el pie se reimprime igual en la sección de láminas

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«Musicians masked as Jews, from Francesco Bertelli's Ill carneuale italiano mascherato… (Venice, 1642). [Douce C. 414, fol. 7v]»la figura 15 es la de los músicos enmascarados de judíos, del *Ill carneuale italiano mascherato* de Francesco Bertelli (Venecia, 1642); el pie se reimprime en la sección de láminas

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«Let's hope the game ends soon (a peasant carrying a prelate and a noble)’. Paris, Musée Carnavalet.»la figura 17 es la estampa del campesino que carga a un prelado y a un noble, del Musée Carnavalet; el pie se reimprime en la sección de láminas

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«developed by giants in the field such as Jacob Burckhardt, Aby Warburg, and Johan Huizinga, and to borrow concepts and methods from other disciplines.»continuación del tramo anterior en la plana siguiente: *desarrollados por gigantes del campo como Jacob Burckhardt, Aby Warburg y Johan Huizinga*, y a tomar prestados conceptos y métodos de otras disciplinas

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«In the 1920s, one leading Norwegian historian, Halvdan Koht, was already interested in popular culture. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Finnish school of folklorists, like Kaarle Krohn and Anti Aarne, were interested in the relation between folklore and history.»nombra a los precursores: el noruego Halvdan Koht en los años veinte y la escuela finlandesa de folcloristas —Kaarle Krohn, Anti Aarne— a principios de siglo

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«In the later nineteenth century, outstanding students of popular culture like Giuseppe Pitrè in Sicily and Theofilo Braga in Portugal were well aware of its changes over time.»y a Giuseppe Pitrè en Sicilia y Theofilo Braga en Portugal, que a fines del XIX ya advertían los cambios de la cultura popular en el tiempo

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«In the long interval between the first edition of this book and the present one, the volume of historical studies of European popular culture, or cultures, has grown enormously.»en los agradecimientos mide el intervalo: entre la primera edición y esta, el volumen de estudios históricos sobre la cultura o las culturas populares de Europa creció enormemente

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«New material has made the book longer and the decision has been taken to make the expanded bibliography available online but not in print.»y consigna la decisión editorial: la bibliografía ampliada queda en línea y no impresa

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«I should like to thank the British Academy for an exchange grant that made it possible to visit people and museums in Norway and Sweden in 1975, and the University of Sussex for intellectual, moral, and financial support.»agradece a la British Academy la beca de intercambio que le permitió visitar personas y museos de Noruega y Suecia en 1975, y a la Universidad de Sussex su apoyo

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«A book of this scope is inevitably stuffed with names and technical terms. The reader is advised that brief biographical details about persons mentioned in the text will be found in the index, which also contains a glossary.»la nota previa advierte que el libro está lleno de nombres y términos técnicos, y remite al índice, que lleva además datos biográficos y glosario

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«Unless stated otherwise, translations are my own. The following abbreviations will be used in the notes.»y declara que las traducciones son suyas salvo indicación contraria

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«Child (ed.) The English and Scottish Popular Ballads (5 vols., Boston, 1882–98). Individual ballads are cited with Child's numbering.»la tabla de abreviaturas cifra las baladas por la numeración de Child, los cinco tomos de Boston 1882-98

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«S. Thompson (ed.) Motif-Index of Folk Literature (revised edn, 6 vols., Copenhagen, 1955–8»y abrevia como *Motif-Index* los seis tomos de Stith Thompson, Copenhague 1955-8

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«Folksongs, especially ballads, had been studied long before by scholars in departments of literature in Europe and the United States. Traditional popular customs had been studied by folklorists, some of whom had become increasingly uncomfortable with the term ‘folklore’ following its contamination by the Nazi cult of the Volk. These scholars now preferred to describe themselves as ethnographers or ethnologists.»señala que baladas y costumbres populares venían estudiándose desde antes, y que parte de los folcloristas dejó el término *folklore* por su contaminación con el culto nazi del *Volk*, pasando a llamarse etnógrafos o etnólogos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 22»

«Sociologists had become interested in what they described as contemporary ‘mass culture’, responding to public debates about the effects – usually perceived as negative – of the new medium of television.»y que los sociólogos se habían interesado por la *cultura de masas* contemporánea al hilo del debate público sobre los efectos de la televisión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 22»

«(with a few distinguished exceptions), still showed little interest in a topic that their predecessors had considered beneath the ‘dignity of history’.»Burke marca el contraste: salvo excepciones contadas, los historiadores seguían sin interés por un tema que sus predecesores tenían por indigno de la historia; la frase abre plana y arranca en el crudo con el paréntesis, porque la cláusula que la encabeza queda en la plana anterior.

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«One such exception was Eric Hobsbawm, who published two important books on the subject in 1959, one on popular revolts and the other on jazz.»nombra a Eric Hobsbawm como excepción, con dos libros de 1959: uno sobre revueltas populares y otro sobre jazz

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 23»

«It is surely significant that the first book, Primitive Rebels, was based on lectures at the University of Manchester that had been given at the invitation of the anthropologists, not the History Department.»y lee como significativo que *Primitive Rebels* naciera de conferencias dadas en Manchester por invitación de los antropólogos y no del departamento de Historia

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«Not long before, the head of that History Department, Sir Lewis Namier, examining a dissertation about a popular movement within the French Revolution, had asked the candidate, ‘Why do you bother with these bandits?’»según Burke, Sir Lewis Namier, jefe de aquel departamento, preguntó a un doctorando sobre un movimiento popular de la Revolución francesa por qué se molestaba con esos bandidos

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«Hobsbawm published his Jazz Scene under a pseudonym, presumably not to ruin his future chances of promotion.»y consigna que Hobsbawm firmó *The Jazz Scene* con seudónimo, a su juicio para no arruinar sus posibilidades de ascenso

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«His friend and fellow-Marxist George Rudé published a study of ‘the crowd in the French Revolution’ in the same year, 1959, as the books just mentioned.»añade a George Rudé, con su estudio de la multitud en la Revolución francesa, del mismo 1959

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«Another Marxist, Albert Soboul, had published a study of the French sans-culottes in 1958. In Sweden, a country with a strong tradition of folklore studies, the church historian Hilling Pleijel published studies of popular Protestantism at much the same time.»y a Albert Soboul sobre los *sans-culottes* en 1958 y al historiador de la Iglesia Hilling Pleijel sobre el protestantismo popular sueco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 23»

«Well-known early examples of what is often described as ‘history from below’ include Edward Thompson's Making of the English Working Class (1963), Robert Mandrou's De la culture populaire aux 17e et 18e siècles (1964), and two studies published at opposite ends of Europe in 1965, Mikhail Bakhtin's Rabelais and his World and Júlio Caro Baroja's Carnival (it is worth noting that Bakhtin was a literary theorist, while Caro Baroja's books included studies of anthropology as well as history»enumera los ejemplos tempranos de la *historia desde abajo*: Thompson (1963), Robert Mandrou (1964), y en 1965 Mikhail Bakhtin y Júlio Caro Baroja, con la observación de que Bakhtin era teórico de la literatura y Caro Baroja hacía también antropología

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 24»

«In Italy, Carlo Ginzburg's Night Battles, a study of the beliefs of some peasants in Northeast Italy, appeared in 1966.7 In the United States, the Journal of Popular Culture began publication in 1967. In Latin America, Miguel Leon Portilla's Vision of the Vanquished appeared in 1969, reconstructing the indigenous culture of the Mexicans before and after the Spanish conquest.»sigue la lista con *Night Battles* de Carlo Ginzburg (1966), la fundación del *Journal of Popular Culture* en 1967 y la *Vision of the Vanquished* de Miguel León-Portilla (1969)

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«The rise of social history was a reaction against the long dominance of a political history that viewed politics from above and paid little attention to the ideas and interests of the majority of the population. It was also a movement of emancipation from economic history, which was concerned with structures and trends rather than with the lives of individuals, families, or groups.»lee el auge de la historia social como reacción contra el predominio de una historia política mirada desde arriba y como emancipación de la historia económica

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«Thompson's book on the working class, for instance, showed unusual interest – at least for a historian – in popular songs, images and rituals.»señala que el libro de Thompson sobre la clase obrera mostró un interés inusual en un historiador por canciones, imágenes y ritos populares

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«Thompson was criticized for his ‘Culturalism’ by fellow-Marxists of the structuralist persuasion, including the sociologist and cultural theorist Stuart Hall, and responded in kind with a notorious attack on what he called the ‘poverty of theory’, especially the theories of the French structuralist Marxist Louis Althusser.»y consigna el pleito: marxistas estructuralistas, entre ellos Stuart Hall, acusaron a Thompson de *culturalismo*, y él respondió con su ataque a la *pobreza de la teoría* de Althusser

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«In 1964, just a year after Thompson's book was published, the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies was founded at the University of Birmingham by Richard Hoggart, a professor of English who had published, in 1957, what was soon viewed as a classic study of working-class culture, The Uses of Literacy.»sitúa la fundación del Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies en Birmingham en 1964, por Richard Hoggart, autor en 1957 de *The Uses of Literacy*

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«Hoggart became the first director of the Centre, while his successor, Stuart Hall, was co-author of a study entitled The Popular Arts (published in the year that the Centre was established, 1964).»y su relevo: Stuart Hall, coautor de *The Popular Arts*, publicado el mismo año de fundación del Centre

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«In the 1970s, important books associated with the Centre included Resistance through Rituals, a collective study of working-class youth culture; Learning to Labour, which was concerned with the experiences of working-class boys at school; and a study of the punks entitled Subculture: Revolt into Style (a reference to a book by the singer and critic George Melly about ‘the Pop Arts in Britain’).»enumera los libros del Centre en los setenta: *Resistance through Rituals*, *Learning to Labour* y *Subculture: Revolt into Style*, este último en guiño al libro de George Melly

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«The publication of The Interpretation of Cultures (1973) by the American anthropologist Clifford Geertz spread an interest in culture more widely. British anthropologists, who had usually defined themselves as ‘social’, as opposed to ‘cultural, began to take culture more seriously.»y consigna que *The Interpretation of Cultures* (1973) de Clifford Geertz difundió el interés por la cultura, al punto de que los antropólogos británicos, que se decían *sociales*, empezaron a tomarla en serio

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«On the other hand, anthropologists, including Geertz, were unsympathetic to the idea of ‘popular culture’ at this time because they were still concerned to view each culture – ‘the’ Nuer, ‘the’ Balinese’ and so on – as a whole, at the expense of the differences between different groups within the culture.»matiza a la vez que los antropólogos, Geertz incluido, no simpatizaban entonces con la idea de *cultura popular*, porque miraban cada cultura como un todo a costa de las diferencias internas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 26»

«The German anthropologist Johannes Fabian was unusual in reacting against this concern and writing about ‘popular culture in Africa’.»y da la excepción: el antropólogo alemán Johannes Fabian, que escribió sobre la cultura popular en África

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«By the 1990s, a German anthropologist who carried out research in a multi-ethnic neighbourhood of London discovered, much to his surprise, that when he asked them about their practices and beliefs, his informants – Jamaican or Irish, Sikh or Muslim – would often reply, ‘it's part of our culture’.»y da la anécdota que lo mide: en los noventa, un antropólogo alemán en un barrio multiétnico de Londres oía a sus informantes —jamaicanos, irlandeses, sijs, musulmanes— responder que aquello era parte de su cultura

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«In response to this vogue, anthropologists became increasingly suspicious of the term. In the words of one of them, ‘Culture's popular success is its own theoretical demise’.»y cita a un antropólogo sin nombrarlo: el éxito popular de la cultura es su propia defunción teórica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 26»

«Meanwhile, a number of historians – among them Keith Thomas in Britain, Jacques Le Goff in France, Natalie Davis and Robert Darnton in the United States, and Aaron Gurevich in the Soviet Union – were discovering anthropology.»nombra a los historiadores que descubrían la antropología: Keith Thomas en Gran Bretaña, Jacques Le Goff en Francia, Natalie Davis y Robert Darnton en Estados Unidos, Aaron Gurevich en la Unión Soviética

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 26»

«A few even described themselves as ‘historical anthropologists’, although the phrase ‘anthropological historians’ might have been more exact, since the inspiration and some of the concepts of anthropology were combined with traditional historical methods, the archive rather than the field.»y enmienda la etiqueta: dice que *historiadores antropológicos* habría sido más exacto que *antropólogos históricos*, porque el método siguió siendo el del archivo y no el del campo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 26»

«In Britain in the 1950s, Hobsbawm and Thompson, along with the medievalist Rodney Hilton and the charismatic Raphael Samuel, were members of the Communist Party Historian's Group.»nombra a los miembros del Communist Party Historian's Group en los cincuenta: Hobsbawm, Thompson, el medievalista Rodney Hilton y Raphael Samuel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 27»

«This was, like the British Communist Party more generally, a small group that became even smaller following the invasion of Hungary by the Soviet army in 1956. However, the group, which practiced an ‘open’, undogmatic version of Marxism, became an influential one following its foundation of the journal Past & Present in 1952.»y mide su peso: grupo pequeño que menguó tras la invasión soviética de Hungría en 1956, pero influyente por haber fundado *Past & Present* en 1952 con un marxismo abierto y no dogmático

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 27»

«A few years later, in 1960, the New Left Review was founded. Leading members of what was known as the ‘New Left’ included, once again, Edward Thompson, Stuart Hall and Raphael Samuel, who founded History Workshop in the late 1960s for the study of what he called ‘People's History’ in the sense of the history of the working class.»sigue con la fundación de la *New Left Review* en 1960 y con el History Workshop de Raphael Samuel, dedicado a la *historia del pueblo* entendida como historia de la clase obrera

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«The group also included the polymath Perry Anderson and Raymond Williams, a professor of literature who was turning his attention from the drama to the media of communication in general. Williams, who was, like Thompson, accused of ‘culturalism’, was one of the inspirations of the Birmingham Centre.»y añade a Perry Anderson y a Raymond Williams, también acusado de *culturalismo* y una de las inspiraciones del Centre de Birmingham

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«In the 1960s and 1970s, the ‘New Left’ became an important movement in continental Europe, where it became associated with ‘Eurocommunism’, a version of the party that was more democratic and more independent from the Soviet Union than before.»traza el paso de la Nueva Izquierda al continente y su vínculo con el *eurocomunismo*

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«In France, the student revolt of 1968 brought down the government of General de Gaulle, while the Jesuit Michel de Certeau, who had been radicalized by the revolt, published a study of popular attitudes that emphasized the autonomy, often denied by social scientists at this time, of ordinary consumers.»consigna que la revuelta estudiantil de 1968 tumbó al gobierno de De Gaulle y que el jesuita Michel de Certeau, radicalizado por ella, publicó un estudio que subrayaba la autonomía —entonces negada— de los consumidores comunes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 27»

«In 1966 the Instituto Ernesto de Martino, named in honour of a famous anthropologist, was founded by a group associated with the New Left.»y data en 1966 la fundación del Instituto Ernesto de Martino por un grupo ligado a la Nueva Izquierda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 28»

«In Italy, Carlo Ginzburg's book The Cheese and the Worms, which reconstructed the world view of an unorthodox Italian miller who was arrested and executed by the Inquisition, has become a classic.»nombra *El queso y los gusanos* de Ginzburg, sobre la visión del mundo de un molinero heterodoxo detenido y ejecutado por la Inquisición, como clásico del campo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 28»

«In the United States, Natalie Davis published an important collection of studies of sixteenth-century France, including essays on ‘The Reasons of Misrule’, ‘The Rites of Violence’ and ‘Printing and the People’.»y la colección de Natalie Davis sobre la Francia del siglo XVI, con los ensayos *The Reasons of Misrule*, *The Rites of Violence* y *Printing and the People*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 28»

«In Britain, one thinks of Keith Thomas's Religion and the Decline of Magic, subtitled ‘Studies in Popular Beliefs’, as well as of further contributions by Edward Thompson and his students.»y *Religion and the Decline of Magic* de Keith Thomas, subtitulado *Studies in Popular Beliefs*, junto con los trabajos de Thompson y sus discípulos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 28»

«In France, Robert Muchembled's Popular Culture and Elite Culture appeared in 1978, presenting a dramatic view of a culture ‘buried in the darkest dungeons until the last few decades’, ever since its ‘repression’ in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and what he called the ‘acculturation’ of the countryside.»y el libro de Robert Muchembled de 1978, que según Burke presenta una cultura sepultada en las mazmorras más oscuras hasta hace pocas décadas, tras su *represión* en los siglos XVII y XVIII y la *aculturación* del campo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 28»

«Historians of popular culture began to meet one another at conferences and to comment on one another's work. Ginzburg wrote an introduction to the Italian translation of my Popular Culture, while Muchembled reviewed my book at the same moment that I was reviewing his.»y consigna el trato entre ellos: Ginzburg prologó la traducción italiana de su libro y Muchembled lo reseñó mientras él reseñaba el de Muchembled

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 28»

«In Italy, historians, sociologists, and anthropologists were inspired by the Marxist intellectual Antonio Gramsci to study popular culture, viewing it from a political point of view that had been absent from»consigna que en Italia el marxista Antonio Gramsci inspiró a historiadores, sociólogos y antropólogos a estudiar la cultura popular desde un punto de vista político; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *earlier studies of popular traditions by folklorists such as Giuseppe Pitré*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 27»

«in Germany, the trend may have been delayed by the association of popular culture with the Nazi cult of the ‘Folk’ that was mentioned earlier.»apunta que en Alemania el giro pudo retrasarse por la asociación de la cultura popular con el culto nazi del *Folk*, y nombra a Hans Medick, Richard van Dülmen y Norbert Schindler como aportes tardíos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 29»

«Attempts at definition often reveal problems or even produce them. Stuart Hall once remarked that ‘I have almost as many problems with “popular” as I have with “culture”. When you put the two terms together, the difficulties can be pretty horrendous’.»abre con que las definiciones revelan o producen problemas, y cita a Stuart Hall: tiene casi tantos problemas con *popular* como con *cultura*, y juntos los dos términos resultan horrendos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 29»

«From the eighteenth century onwards, the word ‘people’ appears increasingly often in the title of national histories, even if they were mainly concerned with politics from above. Famous examples are the Historia narodu polskiego (1780) by Adam Narusziewicz; the Geschichten der romanischen und germanischen Völke (1824) by Leopold von Ranke; Svenska folkets historia (1832) by Eric Gustaf Geijer; Le Peuple (1846) by Jules Michelet; and the Short History of the English People (1874) by J. R. Green.»da la serie de historias nacionales que llevan *pueblo* en el título desde el siglo XVIII: Naruszewicz (1780), Ranke (1824), Geijer (1832), Michelet (1846) y J. R. Green (1874)

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 30»

«One, chosen by Roger Chartier, focusses on artefacts (in his case, books), including the cheap little books analysed by Robert Mandrou (below, Chapter 9) but noting, unlike him, that the same text might appeal to a variety of readers who included peasants, artisans, and noblewomen.»expone el enfoque de Roger Chartier, centrado en los artefactos —los libros—, que enmienda a Robert Mandrou al notar que un mismo texto podía atraer a campesinos, artesanos y nobles; el troceo imprime las últimas palabras en columna de una palabra por renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 30»

«Going still further (and deeper), Certeau and his colleagues criticized Mandrou and other writers on French popular culture for failure to realize that they had not discovered but constructed their object of study, by following the late nineteenth-century bourgeois view of the people as natural, naïf, and childlike.»recoge la objeción de Certeau y los suyos a Mandrou y a otros: no descubrieron sino construyeron su objeto, siguiendo la mirada burguesa decimonónica del pueblo como natural, ingenuo e infantil

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 30»

«the peasant culture that Herder, for instance, admired and the plebeian culture that he despised.»continuación: la cultura campesina que Herder admiraba y la plebeya que despreciaba

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 31»

«Again, legal anthropologists use the term ‘vernacularization’ to describe situations where an international legal term such as ‘human rights’ is taken up, and to some extent transformed, by local movements.»y en antropología jurídica la *vernacularización* nombra la adopción y transformación local de un término como *derechos humanos*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 32»

«The second problem of definition, even more acute than the first, is to answer the question, ‘What Is Culture?’ In the late 1950s, Raymond Williams had distinguished two meanings of the term ‘culture’. The first was ‘the arts and learning’, while the second was ‘a whole way of life’.»pasa al segundo problema, a su juicio más agudo: qué es la cultura, y recuerda que Raymond Williams distinguió a fines de los cincuenta *las artes y el saber* de *todo un modo de vida*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 32»

«He commented that ‘I insist on both’. It was Williams who coined the memorable phrase ‘culture is ordinary’.»y consigna que Williams insistía en los dos sentidos y acuñó la frase *la cultura es ordinaria*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 32»

«‘Way of life’ seems to evoke anthropological traditions, although Williams was unaware of them at that time – if he had been aware, he would surely have included in Culture and Society (1958) the famous definition of culture by the Victorian anthropologist Edward Tylor as ‘that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired»señala que *modo de vida* evoca tradiciones antropológicas que Williams desconocía entonces, y que de haberlas conocido habría incluido la definición de cultura de Edward Tylor; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *by man as a member of society*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 32»

«In the case of this book, one colleague claimed that it ignored ‘sex, marriage and family life’.31 I don’t think that I ignored sex, which is prominent in the chapter on Carnival»recoge la objeción de un colega —que el libro ignoraba el sexo, el matrimonio y la vida familiar— y responde que el sexo está muy presente en el capítulo sobre el carnaval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 33»

«In other words, I have remained faithful to what William Sewell has described as the older concept of culture as ‘a system of symbols and meanings’, rather than adopt the newer one of culture as a system of practices – although a history of ‘symbolic practices’ would sum up the book quite well.»se coloca con el concepto antiguo de cultura que William Sewell describe como sistema de símbolos y significados, y no con el nuevo de sistema de prácticas, aunque *prácticas simbólicas* resumiría bien el libro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 33»

«subject, once confessed in an interview that he had become more and more aware of the difficulties built into the concept of culture. ‘You know the number of times I’ve wished that I had never heard of the damned word’.»continuación: Williams confesó en una entrevista ser cada vez más consciente de las dificultades del concepto, y haber deseado no oír nunca la maldita palabra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 34»

«One useful way to approach the problem is to ask, What is not culture? The Dutch editors of a recent collection of essays on cultural history chose to give their volume the bold title, Everything Is Culture.»propone acercarse por la negativa —qué no es cultura— y nombra el volumen holandés de historia cultural titulado *Everything Is Culture*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 34»

«On the other hand, I would accept the more modest suggestion that ‘Culture is Everywhere’, following the definition of culture by the Russian semiologist Yuri Lotman as ‘the realm of the symbolic’, a realm that includes aspects of politics and even (as advertisers are well aware) the economy.»acepta en cambio la fórmula más modesta de que la cultura está en todas partes, siguiendo la definición del semiólogo ruso Yuri Lotman como *el reino de lo simbólico*, que alcanza a la política y aun a la economía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 34»

«Given these difficulties, I have sometimes been tempted to follow the example of an American historian of science, Steven Shapin, whose essay on The Scientific Revolution (1996) begins with the sentence, ‘There was no such thing as the Scientific Revolution, and this is a book about it’.»y confiesa la tentación de imitar a Steven Shapin, cuyo ensayo sobre la Revolución científica abre negando que tal cosa existiera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 34»

«In any case, by the 1990s, criticisms of the concept of culture, especially for its vagueness, were becoming increasingly frequent. A conference held at the University of Essex in 1991 was entitled ‘Popular Culture in Question’, while a collection of essays published in 1999 was entitled ‘Beyond the Cultural Turn’.»data en los noventa la frecuencia creciente de las críticas al concepto por vago, con el congreso de Essex de 1991 y la colección de 1999

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 34»

«Criticisms were not confined to historians. Indeed, they came in the main from the very group that had done so much to spread the term in the first place, the anthropologists.»y precisa de dónde venían: sobre todo del gremio que más había difundido el término, los antropólogos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 34»

«In the case of popular culture, Bourdieu argued that ‘the very categories with which one pursues it’ are themselves an effect of domination. He compared culture to language: ‘It is indeed paradoxical to define the dominated language by relation to the dominant language’, he wrote, while the dominant language is taken for granted.»y recoge su argumento: las categorías mismas con que se persigue la cultura popular son efecto de la dominación, como definir la lengua dominada por relación a la dominante mientras la dominante se da por supuesta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 35»

«For example, Pierre Bourdieu, who in a well-known book published in 1979 had employed phrases such as ‘repas populaire’, ‘ethos populaire’, and ‘langue populaire’, later rejected the concept of the ‘popular’ not»da el caso de Pierre Bourdieu, que tras usar en 1979 fórmulas como *repas populaire*, *ethos populaire* y *langue populaire* rechazó después el concepto de lo popular; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 34»

«only for its ‘incoherence’ but also because it exemplified nothing more than one group's perception of another.»continuación: lo rechazó por incoherente y porque no ejemplificaba más que la percepción que un grupo tiene de otro

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«The American-Palestinian feminist Lila Abu-Lughod, for instance, engaged in what she called ‘writing against culture’ (more exactly, against the idea of homogeneous cultures) on the grounds that the concept is tied to the ‘assumption of a fundamental distinction between self and other’, without recognizing a space in between for hybrid people or for women.»recoge la posición de Lila Abu-Lughod, que escribe *contra la cultura* —contra la idea de culturas homogéneas— porque el concepto va atado al supuesto de una distinción de fondo entre el yo y el otro, sin sitio para lo híbrido ni para las mujeres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 35»

«On the other side, the concept of culture was defended by two leading anthropologists, Clifford Geertz and Marshall Sahlins. Geertz concluded that ‘Whatever the infirmities of the concept of culture …there is nothing for it but to persist in spite of them.»y la contraria: Clifford Geertz y Marshall Sahlins lo defendieron, y Geertz concluyó que, con todas sus dolencias, no queda más que persistir en él

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 35»

«In anthropology, the so-called ‘ontological turn’, is inspired by the undermining of the traditional distinction between ‘culture’ and ‘nature’. In the tradition of the ‘anthropology of experience’ and ‘phenomenological anthropology’, the ontological anthropologists replace the idea of multiple cultures with that of different lifeworlds.»describe el *giro ontológico* de la antropología, que socava la distinción entre cultura y naturaleza y sustituye las culturas múltiples por mundos de vida distintos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 35»

«In the case of history, Francesco Benigno has claimed that the concept of popular culture is ‘no longer in vogue’ and should be rejected. In reply, another Italian historian, Ottavia Niccoli, suggested that the concept still has its value and should be revised rather than abandoned.»consigna el desacuerdo italiano sin arbitrarlo: Francesco Benigno declara el concepto fuera de moda y pide desecharlo; Ottavia Niccoli replica que conserva valor y debe revisarse, no abandonarse

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 35»

«On one side, continuities with the Middle Ages cannot be denied, especially in the case of inhabitants of the countryside, while on the other side some scholars argue for the persistence of the old regime until as late as the First World War.»recoge las dos objeciones opuestas: no se pueden negar las continuidades con la Edad Media, sobre todo en el campo, y hay quien alarga el antiguo régimen hasta la Primera Guerra Mundial

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 36»

«As Stuart Hall put it, ‘there is no whole, authentic, autonomous “popular culture” which lies outside the field of force of the relations of cultural power and domination’.»y cita a Stuart Hall: no hay cultura popular entera, auténtica y autónoma fuera del campo de fuerzas de las relaciones de poder cultural y dominación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 37»

«In Britain, for instance, Edward Thompson criticized his New Left colleague Raymond Williams for describing culture as a ‘way of life’ rather than a ‘way of conflict’.»consigna la objeción de Edward Thompson a Raymond Williams por describir la cultura como modo de vida y no como modo de conflicto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 37»

«Decades later, commenting on this book (and also on my definition of popular culture as ‘a system of shared meanings, attitudes and values’), Thompson rejected this view as ‘over-consensual’.»y la que le tocó a este libro: Thompson lo rechazó por *demasiado consensual*, apuntando también a la definición de cultura popular como sistema de significados, actitudes y valores compartidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 37»

«In his wake, a collection of essays on ‘popular culture and class conflict’ in Britain appeared in 1981.»y su estela: una colección sobre cultura popular y conflicto de clase en Gran Bretaña, de 1981

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«In Italy, the anthropologist Luigi Lombardi Satriani (who became a Senator who supported the Centre-Left), published an essay on Italian folklore under the title a ‘culture of contestation’.»del lado del conflicto nombra al antropólogo Luigi Lombardi Satriani, que publicó sobre el folclore italiano como *cultura de contestación*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 37»

«In contrast, the French historian Robert Mandrou emphasized the acceptance by artisans and peasants of the values of lay and clerical elites, noting the importance of lives of the saints»y del lado del consenso a Robert Mandrou, que subrayaba la aceptación por artesanos y campesinos de los valores de las élites laicas y clericales; el tramo se corta en el salto de renglón del troceo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 37»

«and romances of chivalry such as The Four Sons of Aymon in French chapbooks of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.»continuación: Mandrou apoyaba su lectura en las vidas de santos y las novelas de caballerías, como *Los cuatro hijos de Aymón*, en los pliegos franceses de los siglos XVII y XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 37»

«Responding to Thompson's criticisms, Raymond Williams made a useful distinction between class conflict and class struggle.»recoge la distinción con que Williams respondió a Thompson: conflicto de clase y lucha de clases no son lo mismo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 38»

«As the Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci famously argued, the ruling class was enabled to rule not only by force but also by cultural hegemony, in other words ‘intellectual and moral leadership’, including in the early modern case, the belief that the social and political order is natural or that the king embodies justice»expone la hegemonía de Gramsci: la clase dirigente gobernaba no solo por la fuerza sino por hegemonía cultural —dirección intelectual y moral—, incluida la creencia de que el orden social es natural o que el rey encarna la justicia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 38»

«As Gramsci put it, ‘Subaltern groups are always subject to the activity of ruling groups, even when they rebel’.»y cita a Gramsci: los grupos subalternos están siempre sujetos a la actividad de los grupos dirigentes, aun cuando se rebelan

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 38»

«In short, a history of popular culture needs to take account of both consensus and conflict, deference and defiance, viewing them, as Andy Wood has suggested, ‘in constant, trans-historical friction’.»cierra la cuestión: una historia de la cultura popular ha de contar con el consenso y con el conflicto, con la deferencia y el desafío, en fricción constante y transhistórica según Andy Wood

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 39»

«issues such as grain riots, while others have noted that the English Reformation, for instance, ‘was necessarily based … on the collaboration of the governed’ and that during the Civil War, some ‘groups drawn from the people’ were able to influence events, leading a historian of London to refer to ‘mass mobilization’.»resume lo que esos estudios hallan: motines del grano, una Reforma inglesa necesariamente apoyada en la colaboración de los gobernados, y grupos del pueblo capaces de influir durante la guerra civil, hasta que un historiador de Londres habla de movilización de masas; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 39»

«In Brazil, for instance, the focus has been on Carnival and chapbooks (folhetos).»en Brasil el foco fue el carnaval y los *folhetos*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 40»

«In the case of Japan, the emphasis has fallen on the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the rise of popular literature, prints, and plays together with street performers (singers, dancers, jugglers, wrestlers, charlatans, storytellers, and players of the shamishen).»y en Japón los siglos XVII y XVIII, con literatura, estampas y teatro populares y artistas callejeros: cantores, bailarines, malabaristas, luchadores, charlatanes, narradores y tañedores de shamisén

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 40»

«This commercialization of leisure in major cities, notably Edō, Ōsaka, and Kyōto, ran parallel to the similar rise in Europe.»y señala el paralelo: la mercantilización del ocio en Edo, Osaka y Kioto corre a la par de la europea

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 40»

«There were also Japanese parallels to the European reform of popular culture and to the withdrawal of elites from it at more or less the same time as in Europe.»y añade paralelos japoneses a la reforma de la cultura popular y a la retirada de las élites, más o menos en las mismas fechas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 40»

«As might have been expected, a major theme in all these studies is the controversy between those who emphasize the invasion of western forms of popular culture and those who stress both the resilience and the creativity of local cultures.»y el pleito que atraviesa esos estudios: quienes subrayan la invasión de formas occidentales frente a quienes subrayan la resistencia y la creatividad de las culturas locales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 40»

«In the United States, in 1973, a survey showed that half the contributions to the Journal of Popular Culture had been made by professors or former professors of»mide el peso de los estudiosos de literatura: en 1973 la mitad de las contribuciones al *Journal of Popular Culture* venían de profesores o exprofesores de inglés; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 40»

«In Britain, in 1990, Stuart Hall noted that ‘nearly all of us who entered the cultural studies project were actually formed in the Leavisite ethos’, if they were not former students of F. R. Leavis, a charismatic teacher of English literature at Cambridge.»y cita a Stuart Hall en 1990: casi todos los que entraron al proyecto de los estudios culturales se habían formado en el ethos leavisita, cuando no eran alumnos de F. R. Leavis

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 41»

«The tradition continues today with professors of English literature such as Andrew Hadfield and Matthew Dimmock in Britain and Mary Ellen Lamb in the United States.»y da la continuidad: Andrew Hadfield y Matthew Dimmock en Gran Bretaña, Mary Ellen Lamb en Estados Unidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 41»

«popular culture in the twenty-first century has led to the globalization of its history. Studies of the history of popular culture in Brazil, Latin America, Egypt, China, and Japan were published in the 1980s and 1990s.»continuación: esa globalización arrastró la de su historia, con estudios de Brasil, América Latina, Egipto, China y Japón en los ochenta y noventa

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«He went on to say that if someone advertised for a member of the masses, no one would answer the advertisement.»prolonga la objeción de A. J. P. Taylor sobre las masas: si alguien pusiera un anuncio buscando a un miembro de las masas, nadie respondería

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 41»

«Hence, the French sociologist Bernard Lahire emphasizes what he calls ‘cultural diversity’ at the level of the individual.»y remite al sociólogo Bernard Lahire, que subraya la *diversidad cultural* en el nivel del individuo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 42»

«Another major theme in studies of popular culture in the late modern period would be what I described as ‘reform’ while the sociologist Norbert Elias famously referred to the ‘civilizing process’»empareja lo que él llamó *reforma* con lo que Norbert Elias llamó *proceso civilizatorio*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 42»

«These attempts have been described as ‘civilizing offensives’ and are vividly illustrated in a study of cultural change in Montevideo in the late nineteenth century.»y da el nombre que han recibido, *ofensivas civilizatorias*, con el estudio del cambio cultural en el Montevideo de fines del XIX

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 42»

«I agree with Ottavia Niccoli that the central concepts of that field should not be abandoned.»y se coloca con Ottavia Niccoli: los conceptos centrales del campo no deben abandonarse

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 42»

«Despite the calls to go ‘beyond culture’, no new horizon is visible. For this reason, I agree with Niccoli, Geertz, and Sahlins that despite its weaknesses, no better concept than ‘culture’ has yet been found.»y concluye con Niccoli, Geertz y Sahlins que, con todas sus debilidades, no se ha hallado concepto mejor que el de cultura

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 43»

«Fortunately, scholars who study popular culture today are usually well aware of earlier debates and so tread with more care than their predecessors. Some of them use the phrase in the plural rather than the singular, as in the case of the Institute for Popular Cultures in Zurich, in order not to overlook varieties.»señala que quienes estudian hoy la cultura popular conocen los debates previos y pisan con más cuidado, y que algunos usan el plural, como el Instituto de Culturas Populares de Zúrich, para no perder las variedades

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 43»

«Michel de Certeau, who was quoted earlier in this introduction, was asked to investigate ‘mass consumption’ in France in the 1970s. However, what his report emphasized was the way in which consumers»consigna el encargo a Michel de Certeau de investigar el consumo de masas en la Francia de los setenta; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 41»

«selected particular objects and then adapted them to their individual tastes in a process that he described as creative, a case of ‘invention’.»continuación: lo que su informe subrayó fue que los consumidores escogían objetos y los adaptaban a su gusto en un proceso que llamó creativo, un caso de *invención*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 42»

«M. Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (1965: English translation, Cambridge, MA, 1968); J. Caro Baroja, El Carnaval (Madrid, 1965).»la nota 6 da las ediciones que Burke maneja: el Bakhtin de 1965 por su traducción inglesa de Cambridge (Massachusetts) de 1968 —no la traducción nueva de 2025— y *El Carnaval* de Caro Baroja, Madrid 1965

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 44»

«C. Ginzburg, The Night Battles: Witchcraft and Agrarian Cults in the 16th and 17th centuries (1966: English translation, London, 1983).»la nota 7 cita *The Night Battles* de Ginzburg, sobre brujería y cultos agrarios de los siglos XVI y XVII, por la traducción inglesa de 1983

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 44»

«C. Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms (1976: English translation, London, 1980); N. Z. Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (London, 1975).»la nota 17 cita *El queso y los gusanos* por la traducción inglesa de 1980 y *Society and Culture in Early Modern France* de Natalie Z. Davis, Londres 1975

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«E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (London, 1871), p. 1.»la nota 30 remite la definición de cultura a la primera plana de *Primitive Culture* de Edward B. Tylor, Londres 1871

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 47»

«Y. Lotman, Russlands Adel: eine Kulturgeschichte von Peter I bis Nikolaus I (German translation, Cologne, 1997), p. 3.»la nota 36 saca la definición de Lotman de la traducción alemana de su historia cultural de la nobleza rusa, Colonia 1997

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 48»

«M. Ingram, ‘The Reform of Popular Culture?’ in B. Reay (ed.) Popular Culture in Seventeenth Century England (London, 1985),»la nota 31 identifica al colega que objetó la ausencia del sexo, el matrimonio y la familia: Martin Ingram, en el volumen de Barry Reay de 1985

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 47»

«F. Benigno, ‘Popular Culture’, Words in Time (2009: English translation, London, 2017), pp. 39–60; O. Niccoli, ‘Cultura Popolare: Un Relito Abbandonato?’, Studi Storici 4 (2015), pp.»la nota 43 da las dos piezas del desacuerdo italiano: el *Popular Culture* de Francesco Benigno en *Words in Time* y el *Cultura Popolare: Un Relito Abbandonato?* de Ottavia Niccoli en *Studi Storici*, 2015

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«A. J. Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime: Europe to the Great War (London, 1981).»la nota 45 respalda la persistencia del antiguo régimen hasta la Gran Guerra con el libro de Arno J. Mayer, Londres 1981

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 49»

«D. Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (Glencoe, IL, 1958); W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, 1959); S. N. Eisenstadt (ed.) Multiple Modernities (London, 2017).»la nota 46 alinea la teoría de la modernización —Lerner 1958, Rostow 1959— frente a las *Multiple Modernities* de Eisenstadt

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 49»

«L. Lombardi Satriani, Il folklore come cultura della contestazione (Messina, 1966).»la nota 49 da el título italiano del folclore como cultura de la contestación, Mesina 1966

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 50»

«N. Z. Davis, ‘The Rites of Violence’ (1973: rpr Society and Culture in Early Modern France (London, 1975), pp. 152–»la nota 50 remite la violencia ritualizada de las guerras de religión a *The Rites of Violence* de Natalie Z. Davis, recogido en *Society and Culture in Early Modern France*

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«A. Gramsci, Prison Notebooks (London, 1971), pp. 55–7. Cf. P. Anderson, ‘The Antinomies of Antonio Gramsci’, New Left Review 100 (1977), pp. 5–36; T. J. Jackson Lears, ‘The Concept of Cultural Hegemony: Problems and Possibilities’, American Historical Review 90 (1985), pp. 567–93.»la nota 51 cita los *Prison Notebooks* de Gramsci y los comentarios de Perry Anderson sobre sus antinomias y de T. J. Jackson Lears sobre la hegemonía cultural

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«A. Wood, ‘Plebeian Languages of Deference and Defiance’, in T. Harris (ed.) The Politics of the Excluded (Basingstoke, 2001), pp. 67–98. Cf. P. Bailey, ‘Will the Real Bill Banks Please Stand Up? Towards a Role Analysis of Mid-Victorian Working-Class Respectability’, Journal of Social History 12 (1978), pp. 336– 53; J. C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance (New»la nota 52 sostiene la deferencia táctica con Andy Wood, Peter Bailey y *Domination and the Arts of Resistance* de James C. Scott

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«P. Blickle, The Revolution of 1525 (1975: English translation, Baltimore, MD, 1981). Cf. W. Te Brake, Shaping History: Ordinary People in European Politics, 1500–1700 (Berkeley, CA,»la nota 53 sostiene la agencia popular de 1525 con Peter Blickle y con *Shaping History* de Wayne Te Brake

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«J. Toner, Popular Culture in Ancient Rome (Cambridge, 2009); E. Lelli, Folklore antico e moderno: una proposta di ricerca sulla cultura popolare greca e romana (Pisa, 2014); L. Grig (ed.) Popular Culture in the Ancient World (Cambridge, 2017); L. Grig (ed.) Popular Culture and the End of Antiquity in Ancient Gaul (Cambridge, 2024).»la nota 56 documenta la extensión al mundo antiguo: Jerry Toner sobre Roma, Emanuele Lelli sobre folclore griego y romano y los dos volúmenes de Lucy Grig

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«W. Rowe and V. Schelling, Memory and Modernity: Popular Culture in Latin America (London, 1992); B. Shoshan, Popular Culture in Medieval Cairo (Cambridge, 1993); A. E. McLaren, Chinese Popular Culture and Ming Chantefables (Leiden, 1998); D. H. Shively, ‘Popular Culture’, in J. W. Hall (ed.) Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 4 (Cambridge,»la nota 57 da la cosecha global: Rowe y Schelling sobre América Latina, Boaz Shoshan sobre el Cairo medieval, Anne McLaren sobre las *chantefables* Ming y Donald Shively sobre Japón

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«B. Manning, The English People and the English Revolution (London, 1976), preface: K. Lindley, Popular Politics and Religion in Civil War London (Aldershot, 1997); A. Fox, ‘News and Popular Political Opinion in Elizabethan and Early Stuart England’, Historical Journal 40 (1997), pp. 597–620; J. Walter, Crowds and Popular Politics in Early Modern England»la nota 54 reúne la bibliografía de la política popular inglesa: Brian Manning, Keith Lindley, Adam Fox y John Walter; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«N. Elias, The Civilizing Process (1939: English translation, revised edn, Oxford, 2004); E. P. Thompson, ‘Time, Work Discipline and Industrial Capitalism’, Past & Present 38 (1967), pp. 56–97; P. Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England: Rational Recreation and the Contest for Control, 1830–»la nota 68 encadena el proceso civilizatorio de Elias, la disciplina del tiempo de E. P. Thompson y la recreación racional de Peter Bailey; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«J. P. Barran, Historia de la sensibilidad en Uruguay (2 vols., Montevideo, 1989–90), vol. 2, El Disciplinamiento (1860–1920).»y cierra con la *Historia de la sensibilidad en Uruguay* de José Pedro Barrán, cuyo segundo tomo es *El Disciplinamiento*; el troceo imprime el apellido sin acento, *Barran*

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«As his friend Goethe put it, ‘Herder taught us to think of poetry as the common property of all mankind, not as the private possession of a few refined, cultured individuals’.»cierra con Goethe: Herder nos enseñó a pensar la poesía como propiedad común de la humanidad y no como posesión privada de unos pocos refinados

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«To mention only some of the most famous, a collection of Russian byliny (ballads), was published in 1804 under the name of a certain Kirsha Danilov.»abre la serie de colecciones nacionales con las *byliny* rusas publicadas en 1804 bajo el nombre de un tal Kirsha Danilov

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«German songs were collected by Achim von Arnim and Clemens Brentano and published as Des Knaben Wunderhorn (1806–1808).»sigue con *Des Knaben Wunderhorn* de Achim von Arnim y Clemens Brentano

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«Adam Afzelius and Erik Gustav Geijer collected Swedish ballads from oral tradition in Västergötland and published them in 1814. The Serbian ballads collected by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić were first published in the same year.»y con las baladas suecas de Afzelius y Geijer, recogidas en Västergötland, y las serbias de Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, las dos de 1814

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«Elias Lönnrot collected Finnish songs from oral tradition and combined them to form a famous text, the Kalevala (1835), thus creating ‘a Romantic epic out of Baltic-Finnish folk poetry’.»y con el *Kalevala* de Elias Lönnrot (1835), compuesto combinando canciones de tradición oral, que según la fórmula que Burke cita crea una épica romántica a partir de la poesía popular báltico-finesa

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«Thomas Percy, a Northamptonshire clergyman, published his Reliques of English Poetry in 1765, based on a seventeenth-century manuscript he had found and on the printed ballads collected by the diarist Samuel Pepys.»expone el caso: Thomas Percy, clérigo de Northamptonshire, publicó en 1765 sus *Reliques of English Poetry* a partir de un manuscrito del XVII y de las baladas impresas que reunió Samuel Pepys

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«These ‘reliques’, as Percy called them, with deliberately archaic spelling, included famous ballads such as Chevy Chase, Barbara Allen, The Earl of Murray, and Sir Patrick Spence.»y nombra las baladas que incluyó, con grafía arcaizante deliberada: *Chevy Chase*, *Barbara Allen*, *The Earl of Murray*, *Sir Patrick Spence*

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«Despite this claim, the Reliques was interpreted, from Herder onwards, as a collection of folksongs, and received with enthusiasm in Germany and elsewhere.»y el desenlace: pese a esa tesis, las *Reliques* se leyeron desde Herder como colección de canciones populares y se recibieron con entusiasmo en Alemania

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«In Ireland, in homage to Percy, Charlotte Brooke entitled her collection Reliques of Irish Poetry (1789).»y consigna el homenaje irlandés: Charlotte Brooke tituló su colección *Reliques of Irish Poetry* en 1789; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«Geijer used the term ‘poetry of nature’, asserted the communal authorship of the songs that he and Afzelius collected and looked back with nostalgia to the days when ‘the whole people sang as one man’ (et helt folk söng som en man).»da el caso sueco: Geijer usó *poesía de la naturaleza*, afirmó la autoría comunal de las canciones que recogió y miró con nostalgia los días en que todo un pueblo cantaba como un solo hombre

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«Claude Fauriel, a French scholar who edited and translated the popular poetry of the modern Greeks, compared folksongs to mountains and rivers and used the phrase ‘poésie de la nature’.»y el francés: Claude Fauriel, editor y traductor de la poesía popular de los griegos modernos, comparó las canciones con montañas y ríos y habló de *poésie de la nature*

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«The popular ballad … is rescued from the hands of the vulgar, to obtain a place in the collection of the man of taste. Verses which a few years past were thought worthy the attention of children only, are now admired for that artless simplicity which once obtained the name of coarseness and vulgarity.»cita en bloque a Vicesimus Knox, de una generación anterior, para resumir el giro: la balada popular se rescata de manos del vulgo para entrar en la colección del hombre de gusto, y unos versos que poco antes se creían solo para niños se admiran ahora por una sencillez sin arte que antes se llamó tosquedad

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«The writer Gotthold Ephraim Lessing collected and appreciated what he called Bilderreimen (verses for pictures), in other words German satirical broadsheets.»y da los casos: Lessing coleccionaba y apreciaba los *Bilder-reimen*, hojas satíricas alemanas; el impreso parte *Bilder-reimen* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *Bilderreimen*

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«The poet Ludwig Tieck was an enthusiast for German chapbooks and produced his own versions of two of them, The Four Sons of Aymon and The Beautiful Magelone.»y el poeta Ludwig Tieck, entusiasta de los pliegos alemanes, hizo sus propias versiones de *Los cuatro hijos de Aymón* y *La bella Magelone*

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«A similar admiration for chapbooks was expressed by the German journalist Joseph Görres in his essay on the subject.»y consigna la misma admiración por los pliegos en el periodista Joseph Görres

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«Percy (who was something of a snob and changed his name from ‘Pearcy’ in order to claim noble descent) did not think ballads had»la ironía del caso: Percy, algo esnob y que cambió su apellido para reclamar ascendencia noble, no creía que las baladas tuvieran que ver con el pueblo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«anything to do with the people, but rather that they were composed by minstrels enjoying a high status at medieval courts.»continuación: Percy las tenía por obra de juglares de alto rango en las cortes medievales

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«Several volumes of folktales were published in Germany before the famous collection of the Grimm brothers came out in 1812.»y precisa que en Alemania se publicaron varios volúmenes de cuentos antes de la colección famosa de los Grimm, de 1812

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«The Grimms did not use the term ‘folktale’, calling their volume ‘childrens’ and domestic tales’ (Kinder-und Hausmärchen), but they did claim that these stories expressed the nature of the German ‘folk’, thus contributing to what has been called ‘the nationalization of the fairy tale’.»consigna que los Grimm no usaron *folktale* sino *Kinder-und Hausmärchen*, pero sí declararon que esos relatos expresaban la naturaleza del *folk* alemán, con lo que contribuyeron a lo que se ha llamado la nacionalización del cuento de hadas

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«Georg von Gaal published the first collection of Hungarian folktales, in German, in 1822. He made his collection not in the countryside but in Vienna, from the hussars of a Hungarian regiment whose colonel, a friend of his, issued an order to his men to write down any stories they knew.»da el caso húngaro: Georg von Gaal publicó en alemán la primera colección en 1822, y no la recogió en el campo sino en Viena, entre los húsares de un regimiento cuyo coronel, amigo suyo, ordenó a sus hombres poner por escrito los cuentos que supieran

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 59»

«Two famous collections of tales were published in Norway and Russia: Peter Cristen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe's Norske Folk-Eventyr (1841), which included the story of Peer Gynt that inspired Ibsen and Grieg, and Aleksandr Nikolayevich Afanasiev's Narodnye russkii skazki (published from 1855 onwards).»y las dos colecciones célebres del norte y del este: los *Norske Folk-Eventyr* de Asbjørnsen y Moe (1841), con el Peer Gynt que inspiró a Ibsen y a Grieg, y los cuentos rusos de Afanásiev desde 1855

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«The ‘folk-play’ was a category that included the puppet-plays about Faust that inspired both Lessing and Goethe; the traditional Swiss play on William Tell that the poet Schiller studied before writing his own; the Spanish autos sacramentales, which the German romantics discovered with enthusiasm; the English mystery plays published by the bookseller William Hone, and the German ones published by the historian Franz Josef Mone.»y define la cuarta categoría, el *folk-play*: los títeres de Fausto que inspiraron a Lessing y a Goethe, la pieza suiza sobre Guillermo Tell que Schiller estudió, los autos sacramentales españoles que descubrieron los románticos alemanes y los misterios ingleses y alemanes que editaron William Hone y Franz Josef Mone

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«The Prussian nobleman Achim von Arnim wrote that ‘for me, the religion of the people is something extremely worthy of respect’, while in his famous book on the ‘genius of Christianity’, the French aristocrat François-René de Chateaubriand included a discussion of dévotions populaires, the unofficial religion of the people, which he saw as an expression of the harmony between religion and nature.»da los dos testimonios: Achim von Arnim declara la religión del pueblo digna de respeto extremo, y Chateaubriand incluye en su libro sobre el genio del cristianismo las *dévotions populaires*, la religión no oficial del pueblo, que lee como armonía entre religión y naturaleza

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«According to the historian Edward Thompson, ‘folklore at its very origin’ expressed a ‘sense of patronizing distance’. He may well be right in the case of Britain and Ireland.»recoge el juicio de Edward Thompson —el folclore expresó desde su origen una distancia paternalista— y lo acota: puede que acierte en el caso de Gran Bretaña e Irlanda

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«In 1824, the Irish Protestant antiquary Thomas Croker published what he called his researches into ‘the manners and superstitions’ of the Irish peasantry.»y lo ilustra con el anticuario protestante irlandés Thomas Croker, que en 1824 publicó sus investigaciones sobre las maneras y supersticiones del campesinado irlandés

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«Irish collectors of folklore have been described as ambivalent: ‘they could neither wholly romanticize nor wholeheartedly condemn a peasant society that was considered not only barbarous but subversive, and yet which lay at the heart of the Irish problem and its solution’.»y con la ambivalencia que se les ha atribuido a los recopiladores irlandeses: no podían ni romantizar del todo ni condenar de corazón una sociedad campesina tenida por bárbara y subversiva y a la vez situada en el centro del problema irlandés y de su solución

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«Goethe was excited by the Roman Carnival, which he witnessed in 1788 and interpreted as a festival ‘which the people give themselves’.»y con Goethe, entusiasmado por el carnaval romano que presenció en 1788 y leyó como fiesta que el pueblo se da a sí mismo

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«This excitement led to historical research, and to books like the English engraver Joseph Strutt's book on sports and pastimes, the aristocrat Giustina Renier Michiel's study of Venetian festivals, and the scholar Ivan Mikhailovich Snegirov's book on the holidays and ceremonies of the Russian people.»y consigna que de ese entusiasmo salió investigación histórica: el libro del grabador Joseph Strutt sobre deportes y pasatiempos, el estudio de Giustina Renier Michiel sobre las fiestas venecianas y el de Ivan Mikhailovich Snegirov sobre las fiestas y ceremonias del pueblo ruso

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«Folk music was also discovered by the middle class at this time. In the late eighteenth century, the court musician Vasily Fyodorovich Trutovsky published some Russian folksongs together»añade el descubrimiento de la música popular, con el músico de corte Vasily Fyodorovich Trutovsky publicando canciones rusas con su música a fines del XVIII; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *with their music*

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«In the 1790s, the composer Joseph Haydn made arrangements of Scottish folksongs. In 1819, a government decree ordered the collection of folk-tunes by the local authorities in Lower Austria on behalf of the Society of the Friends of Music. A collection of folksongs from Galicia published in Lviv in 1833 includes their melodies as well as the texts.»y sigue la serie: Haydn arreglando canciones escocesas en los años noventa, el decreto de 1819 que ordenó recoger melodías populares en la Baja Austria para la Sociedad de Amigos de la Música, y la colección gallitziana publicada en Leópolis en 1833 con sus melodías

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«In Sweden, Geijer published The History of the Swedish People (1832–1836). Although it devoted most of its space to the policies of kings, Geijer's history did include separate chapters on ‘land and people’.»con el caso de Geijer, cuya *Historia del pueblo sueco* dedicaba casi todo el espacio a la política de los reyes pero incluía capítulos sobre tierra y pueblo

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«Something similar may be said about the Czech historian František Palacký, the French historian Jules Michelet, and the British historian Thomas Macaulay.»y extiende el juicio a František Palacký, Jules Michelet y Thomas Macaulay

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«Palacký, a leading figure in the Czech movement for national revival, had gone folksong collecting in Moravia in his youth. His History of the Czech People was begun in 1836 as a history of Bohemia in German but concluded as a history of the people in Czech.»detalla el caso de Palacký, figura del renacimiento nacional checo que de joven recogió canciones en Moravia y cuya historia, empezada en 1836 como historia de Bohemia en alemán, acabó siendo historia del pueblo en checo

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«His History of the French Revolution, which he was writing during another revolution in 1848, claimed that the leading actor in the events of 1789 was the people, pulling the strings of the ‘puppets’ who imagined that they were the leaders.»expone la *Historia de la Revolución francesa* de Michelet, escrita durante la revolución de 1848: según Burke, sostiene que el actor principal de 1789 fue el pueblo, que movía los hilos de los títeres que se creían dirigentes

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«Thomas Macaulay's History of England (1848–1855) includes his famous third chapter on English society in the late seventeenth century, based in part on the Scottish ballads that he loved and that he imitated in his Lays of Ancient Rome.»y la *Historia de Inglaterra* de Macaulay, cuyo tercer capítulo sobre la sociedad inglesa de fines del XVII se apoya en parte en las baladas escocesas que amaba e imitó en sus *Lays of Ancient Rome*

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«In 1860, for instance, the Polish writer Józef Ignacy Kraszewski published Die Kunst der Slaven; in 1861, William Morris founded the firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and Co.; in 1867, the sociologist Eilert Sundt published a study of domestic industry in Norway.»da las fechas del giro: Kraszewski y *Die Kunst der Slaven* en 1860, la firma de William Morris en 1861, el estudio de Eilert Sundt sobre la industria doméstica noruega en 1867

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«An open-air museum of peasant culture opened in Skansen, Stockholm, in 1891, soon followed by another one, the Norsk Folkemuseum at Bygdøy, Oslo, in 1901. A Swiss scholar, Charles Victor de Bonstetten, had suggested the creation of such a museum as early as 1799.»y la cadena de los museos al aire libre: Skansen en Estocolmo en 1891, el Norsk Folkemuseum de Bygdøy en Oslo en 1901, con la propuesta previa de Charles Victor de Bonstetten ya en 1799

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«For this purpose, in the early 1770s, the Italian priest Alberto Fortis visited Dalmatia, while his account of his travels devoted a chapter to the way of life of the ‘Morlacchi’, their religion and ‘superstitions’, their songs, dances, and festivals.»con el sacerdote italiano Alberto Fortis, que a principios de los setenta del XVIII visitó Dalmacia y dedicó un capítulo al modo de vida de los *morlacchi*, su religión, sus supersticiones, sus canciones, danzas y fiestas

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«As Fortis put it, ‘the innocence and the natural liberty of the pastoral centuries still survives in Morlacchia’. At one point he compared its inhabitants to the Hottentots, the nomads of South Africa.»y cita a Fortis: la inocencia y la libertad natural de los siglos pastorales sobreviven aún en Morlaquia; en un punto compara a sus habitantes con los hotentotes

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«In similar fashion, when Samuel Johnson and James Boswell toured the Western Islands of Scotland, it was ‘to speculate’, in Johnson's words, ‘upon the remains of pastoral life’, to look for ‘primitive customs’, to enter the huts of shepherds, listen to the bagpipes, and meet people who spoke»y el viaje de Samuel Johnson y James Boswell por las Hébridas: especular sobre los restos de la vida pastoral, buscar costumbres primitivas, entrar en las chozas de los pastores y oír la gaita; el tramo se corta en el salto de renglón y sigue *no English and still wore the plaid*

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«At Auchnasheal, Boswell remarked to Dr Johnson, ‘it was much the same as being with a tribe of Indians’, for the villagers ‘were as black and wild in their appearance as any American savages whatever’.»y cita a Boswell en Auchnasheal: era casi como estar con una tribu de indios, porque los aldeanos parecían tan negros y salvajes como cualquier salvaje americano

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«Goya's Duchess of Alba as a Maja is a reminder that Spanish noblemen and noblewomen sometimes dressed like the working classes of Madrid. They were on friendly terms with popular actors.»con la duquesa de Alba de Goya vestida de maja, recordatorio de que nobles y nobles españolas se vestían a veces como las clases trabajadoras de Madrid y trataban con actores populares

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«That they also participated in popular festivals is suggested by the remark of an English visitor, Blanco White, that on such occasions, ‘a gentleman who, either out of curiosity or depraved taste, attends the amusements of the vulgar, is generally respected, provided he is a mere spectator, and appears indifferent to the females’.»y el testimonio del visitante inglés Blanco White: en tales ocasiones se respeta al caballero que asiste a las diversiones del vulgo, por curiosidad o gusto depravado, siempre que sea mero espectador y se muestre indiferente a las mujeres

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«A few of the discoverers were themselves the sons of craftsmen and peasants: Tieck was the son of a ropemaker, Lönnrøt the son of a village tailor, William Hone was himself a bookseller, while Vuk Stefanović Karadžić and Jørgen Moe were the sons of peasants.»consigna el origen de unos pocos descubridores: Tieck hijo de un cordelero, Lönnrøt de un sastre de aldea, William Hone librero él mismo, Karadžić y Jørgen Moe hijos de campesinos; el troceo imprime *Lönnrøt* con ø

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«As the Polish writer Adam Czarnocki, writing as ‘Chodakowski’, put it in 1818, ‘We must go to the peasants, visit them in their thatched huts, take part in their feasts, work and amusements. In the smoke rising above their heads the ancient rites are still echoing, the old songs are still heard’.»cita al polaco Adam Czarnocki, que firmaba Chodakowski, en 1818: hay que ir a los campesinos, visitarlos en sus chozas de paja, tomar parte en sus fiestas, trabajos y diversiones, porque en el humo que se alza sobre sus cabezas resuenan aún los ritos antiguos

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«On occasion, notably in Russia in the later nineteenth century, ‘going to the people’ on the part of the ‘populists’ (narodniki) was a way of criticizing the authoritarian tsarist regime.»y consigna el uso político: en la Rusia de fines del XIX, el *ir al pueblo* de los *narodniki* era una manera de criticar al régimen zarista

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«Percy liked the old poems he published because they possessed what he called ‘a pleasing simplicity and many artless graces’, qualities which his generation found lacking in the poetry of their own age.»y lo mide en las *Reliques*: a Percy le gustaban los poemas viejos por su *grata simplicidad y muchas gracias sin arte*, cualidades que su generación echaba de menos en la poesía de su tiempo

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«Percy's first publication was the translation of a Chinese novel – from Portuguese – and some fragments of Chinese poetry, written at a time (so he suggested) when the Chinese lived in a state of ‘wild nature’.»y rastrea sus otros entusiasmos: su primera publicación fue la traducción —desde el portugués— de una novela china y unos fragmentos de poesía china de una época en que, según él sugería, los chinos vivían en estado de naturaleza salvaje

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«In short, like other men of his time, Percy was an enthusiast for the exotic, whether it was Chinese, Icelandic, or, like Chevy Chase, Northumbrian. The appeal of the exotic was that it was wild, natural, and free from the rules of classicism.»resume: como otros de su tiempo, Percy era entusiasta de lo exótico —chino, islandés o de Northumbria—, y el atractivo de lo exótico era ser salvaje, natural y libre de las reglas del clasicismo

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«As the eighteenth-century English scholar Richard Hurd observed, ‘Gothic architecture has it's [sic] own rules’.»y cita al erudito Richard Hurd: la arquitectura gótica tiene sus propias reglas; el troceo imprime el *sic* del propio libro sobre el apóstrofo

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«His next publication was Five Pieces of Runic Poetry Translated from the Icelandic, with a preface noting the fondness for poetry of that»y la siguiente publicación de Percy, las *Five Pieces of Runic Poetry* traducidas del islandés, con prefacio sobre la afición a la poesía de los europeos del norte; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *‘hardy and unpolished race’*

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«This last point was perhaps of particular importance in the German-speaking world, since Johann Christoph Gottsched, professor of poetry at Leipzig, had been laying down the law for literature in his Versuch einer Critische Dichtkunst (1730), insisting that playwrights should observe Aristotle's supposed unities of time, place, and action.»sitúa la importancia particular del caso alemán: Johann Christoph Gottsched dictaba la ley literaria desde Leipzig, exigiendo a los dramaturgos las supuestas unidades aristotélicas de tiempo, lugar y acción

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«The Swiss critic Johann Jacob Bodmer, who published a collection of traditional English and Swabian ballads in 1780, was in revolt against Gottsched.»y da al rebelde: el crítico suizo Johann Jacob Bodmer, que en 1780 publicó baladas tradicionales inglesas y suabas

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«Goethe too was a rebel against the rules of classical drama, writing that ‘The unity of place seemed as oppressive as a prison, the unities of action and time burdensome fetters on our imagination’.»y a Goethe, que escribía que la unidad de lugar le parecía opresiva como una prisión y las de acción y tiempo grilletes pesados sobre la imaginación

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«The poet Thomas Gray, for instance, wrote ‘The Bard’ in 1757 after listening to the blind Welsh harper John Parry and finding his music ‘ravishing’.»con el poeta Thomas Gray, que escribió *The Bard* en 1757 tras oír al arpista galés ciego John Parry y hallar su música arrebatadora

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«Ossian, or Oiséan MacFinn, was a Gaelic bard (reputedly flourishing in the third century) whose works were ‘translated’ by the Scottish poet James Macpherson in the 1760s.»presenta el caso: Ossian, u Oiséan MacFinn, bardo gaélico que según la fama floreció en el siglo III, cuyas obras *tradujo* el poeta escocés James Macpherson en los años sesenta del XVIII

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«poems were enormously popular all over Europe in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. They were translated into ten European languages, from Spanish to Russian. Names like ‘Oscar’ and ‘Selma’ owe their vogue to them.»mide la fortuna europea de los poemas osiánicos: traducidos a diez lenguas, del español al ruso, y nombres como Oscar y Selma les deben su moda; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

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«Mendelssohn's overture ‘Fingal's Cave’ (written in 1830 after a visit to the Hebrides) was inspired by them. Herder and Goethe, Napoleon and Chateaubriand were among the enthusiasts.»y su descendencia: la obertura *La gruta de Fingal* de Mendelssohn, escrita en 1830 tras visitar las Hébridas, y entre los entusiastas Herder, Goethe, Napoleón y Chateaubriand

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«What the readers of the time saw in Ossian may be gathered from the ‘critical dissertation’ on him written by Macpherson's friend Hugh Blair. Blair described Ossian as a Celtic Homer.»y qué veían en él los lectores: la disertación crítica de Hugh Blair, amigo de Macpherson, que lo describió como un Homero celta

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«‘Both are distinguished by simplicity, sublimity and fire’. He admired the poems as examples of the ‘poetry of the heart’ and suggested that ‘many circumstances of those times which we call barbarous are favourable to the poetical spirit’, because men in those days were more imaginative.»cita a Blair: los dos se distinguen por simplicidad, sublimidad y fuego; admiraba los poemas como ejemplos de *poesía del corazón* y sugería que muchas circunstancias de los tiempos que llamamos bárbaros favorecen el espíritu poético, porque los hombres eran entonces más imaginativos

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«It is no surprise to find that Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the great spokesman for cultural primitivism in his generation, had a taste for folksongs, which he found touching because they were simple, naïve, and archaic.»y lo sostiene con Rousseau, portavoz del primitivismo cultural de su generación, aficionado a las canciones populares porque las hallaba simples, ingenuas y arcaicas

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«The brothers Grimm prized tradition above reason, what grew naturally over what was consciously planned and the instincts of the people over the arguments of intellectuals.»y la jerarquía de los Grimm: la tradición sobre la razón, lo que crece naturalmente sobre lo planeado a conciencia, los instintos del pueblo sobre los argumentos de los intelectuales

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«revolt against reason can be illustrated by the new respect for popular religion and the attraction of folktales concerned with the supernatural, all part of what Isaiah Berlin christened the ‘Counter-Enlightenment’.»continuación: la revuelta contra la razón se ilustra con el respeto nuevo por la religión popular y la atracción de los cuentos de lo sobrenatural, todo ello parte de lo que Isaiah Berlin bautizó *Contrailustración*

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«Not in the case of Herder, who was a good European, indeed a good citizen of the world; his collection of folksongs included translations from English and French, Danish and Spanish, Latvian and Inuit.»exceptúa a Herder, buen europeo y aun ciudadano del mundo, cuya colección de canciones incluía traducciones del inglés, el francés, el danés, el español, el letón y el inuit

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«The Grimms, too, published Danish and Spanish ballads and took considerable interest in the popular culture of the Slavs (Jacob Grimm learned Serbian in order to read the works of Vuk»y matiza a los Grimm: publicaron baladas danesas y españolas y se interesaron por la cultura popular eslava, hasta el punto de que Jacob Grimm aprendió serbio; el tramo se corta en el salto de renglón y sigue *Karadžić*

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«On the other hand, their folktales played a part in the making of German nationalism. Later in his life, Jacob Grimm advocated the incorporation of Schleswig and Holstein (in which both German and Danish were spoken), into Prussia.»y el otro lado del mismo caso: sus cuentos jugaron un papel en la fabricación del nacionalismo alemán, y Jacob Grimm defendió tarde en su vida la incorporación de Schleswig y Holstein a Prusia

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«The publication of Wunderhorn coincided with the invasion of Germany by Napoleon. One of its two editors, Achim von Arnim, intended it to be a songbook for the»y da la coincidencia: el *Wunderhorn* se publicó cuando Napoleón invadía Alemania, y uno de sus editores, Achim von Arnim, lo quería como cancionero; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«In Sweden, the Afzelius–Geijer collection of folksongs was inspired by the ‘Gothic Society’, which had been founded in 1811. Its members took ‘Gothic’ names and worked for the revival of the old Swedish or ‘Gothic’ virtues. They read old Swedish ballads aloud together.»da el caso sueco: la colección de Afzelius y Geijer la inspiró la *Sociedad Gótica*, fundada en 1811, cuyos miembros tomaban nombres góticos, trabajaban por revivir las viejas virtudes suecas y leían baladas en voz alta

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«The impulse to the formation of this society, which was at once literary, antiquarian, moral and political, was the shock to the Swedes caused by their loss of Finland to Russia two years earlier, in 1809.»y le da su causa política: el impulso de esa sociedad —literaria, anticuaria, moral y política a la vez— fue el golpe que supuso para los suecos perder Finlandia ante Rusia en 1809

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«They had already begun to study their traditional literature in the later eighteenth century, beginning with Henrik Gabriel Porthan's Latin dissertation on Finnish poetry, published in 1766.»con el antecedente: la disertación latina de Henrik Gabriel Porthan sobre la poesía finlandesa, de 1766

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«As one Finnish intellectual put it at the time, ‘No fatherland can exist without folk poetry. Poetry is nothing more than the crystal in which a nationality can mirror itself; it is the spring which brings to the surface the truly original in the folk sou1’.»cita a un intelectual finlandés sin nombrarlo: ninguna patria puede existir sin poesía popular, porque la poesía es el cristal en que una nacionalidad se mira y el manantial que trae a la superficie lo verdaderamente original del alma del pueblo; el troceo imprime *sou1* con un uno por la ele final

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«It was in this political-cultural atmosphere that Elias Lönnrot found himself when he went up to Turku University. He was encouraged by his professor to collect folksongs, and out of this collection grew his Kalevala.»sitúa a Lönnrot en esa atmósfera político-cultural al llegar a la universidad de Turku, donde su profesor lo animó a recoger canciones

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«Elsewhere, too, middle-class enthusiasm for folksongs was part of a movement of self-definition and national liberation. Fauriel's collection of Greek folksongs was inspired by the Greek revolt against the Turks of 1821.»generaliza: el entusiasmo burgués por las canciones populares era parte de un movimiento de autodefinición y liberación nacional, como la colección griega de Fauriel, inspirada por la revuelta de 1821

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«The Pole Hugo Kołłątaj drafted a programme for research into popular culture in the prison where he was confined after taking part in the Kościuszko rising against»y el caso polaco: Hugo Kołłątaj redactó un programa de investigación de la cultura popular en la prisión donde lo confinaron tras el alzamiento de Kościuszko; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«Russian occupation in 1794, while the first collection of Polish folksongs, Łukasz Gołębiowski's Lud Polski (The Polish People) coincided with another revolt against Russian rule, the November Uprising of 1830.»continuación: la primera colección de canciones polacas, el *Lud Polski* de Łukasz Gołębiowski, coincidió con el levantamiento de noviembre de 1830

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«Niccolò Tommaseo, the first important Italian folksong collector, went into exile because of his opposition to Austrian rule in Italy.»y el italiano: Niccolò Tommaseo, primer recopilador importante, se exilió por su oposición al dominio austriaco

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«The Belgian Jan-Frans Willems, editor of Flemish and Dutch folksongs, is regarded as the father of the Flemish nationalist movement, the Vlaamse Beweging.»y el belga Jan-Frans Willems, editor de canciones flamencas y neerlandesas, tenido por padre del movimiento nacionalista flamenco

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«Walter Scott declared that he had compiled his Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802) in order to illustrate ‘the peculiar features’ of Scottish manners and character.»y el escocés: Walter Scott declaró haber compilado su *Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border* para ilustrar los rasgos peculiares de las maneras y el carácter escoceses

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«Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, the editor of Serbian folksongs, was also the outstanding figure in the culture of the South Slavs, even if his heritage is now rejected by Croats.»presenta a Karadžić como la figura sobresaliente de la cultura de los eslavos del sur, y consigna que su herencia es hoy rechazada por los croatas

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«In Vienna, Karadžić met Jernej Kopitar, a Slovene linguist who was imperial censor for Slavonic languages. Kopitar wanted Vienna to become the centre of Slav culture, so that the Serbs, Czechs, and others would prefer Austria to Russia.»y el encuentro que lo decide: Jernej Kopitar, lingüista esloveno y censor imperial para las lenguas eslavas, quería hacer de Viena el centro de la cultura eslava para que serbios y checos prefirieran Austria a Rusia

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«He knew Herder's folksong collection and showed it to Karadžić, who came from a family of singers. Karadžić decided to follow Herder's example.»y el modo de la transmisión: Kopitar conocía la colección de Herder, se la mostró a Karadžić —que venía de una familia de cantores— y este decidió seguir el ejemplo

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«He published the first part of this anthology in 1814, with a preface in pastoral style describing the songs as ‘such as are sung by simple innocent hearts naturally and without artifice’ and saying that he had learned them when ‘in the happiest condition known to mortals, I kept sheep and goats’.»y cita el prefacio pastoril de 1814: canciones tales como las cantan corazones simples e inocentes, con naturalidad y sin artificio, aprendidas cuando él, en la más feliz condición conocida por los mortales, guardaba ovejas y cabras

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«This preface was probably written tongue-in-cheek for the benefit of the educated reader, since Karadžić was indignant whenever he was referred to as an uneducated goatherd and had set his heart on an honorary degree from a German university.»y lo lee con reserva: probablemente el prefacio iba escrito con sorna para el lector educado, porque Karadžić se indignaba cuando lo llamaban cabrero sin educación y aspiraba a un doctorado honorario alemán

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«He was not reacting against the rococo style, or classicism, or against literacy. In fact, he believed that ‘whatever man may have invented in this world, nothing can be compared with writing’, and he went on to write a grammar of Serbian, a spelling-book and a dictionary.»y lo deslinda de sus contemporáneos: no reaccionaba contra el rococó, ni contra el clasicismo, ni contra la escritura —creía que nada de lo inventado por el hombre se compara con la escritura— y escribió una gramática, un silabario y un diccionario del serbio

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«Where he was serious was in his hope that his collection of songs would please ‘every Serb who loves the national spirit of his race’.»y sitúa dónde hablaba en serio: en su esperanza de agradar a todo serbio que ame el espíritu nacional de su raza

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«It is no surprise to find that the Austrian Chancellor, Klemens von Metternich, would not allow Karadžić to publish his enlarged collection of songs in Vienna, for fear that the Ottoman government might find it subversive. The second edition was in fact published in Leipzig in 1823–1824.»con la consecuencia documentada: Metternich no permitió que Karadžić publicara en Viena su colección ampliada por temor a que el gobierno otomano la hallara subversiva, y la segunda edición salió en Leipzig en 1823-1824

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«the liberation of Germany from the French.»continuación en la plana siguiente: von Stein lo recomendaba como auxilio para la liberación de Alemania respecto de los franceses

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«Karadžić came from a family of peasants in the part of Serbia that was under Turkish rule. He took»da su origen: familia campesina de la parte de Serbia bajo dominio turco; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«part in the Serbian rising of 1804 against the Turks, and when it was crushed in 1813, crossed the border into the Habsburg Empire and went to Vienna.»continuación: participó en el alzamiento serbio de 1804 contra los turcos y, aplastado en 1813, cruzó a los Habsburgo y fue a Viena

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«Hence it is hardly surprising to find that in Britain it was the Scots rather than the English who rediscovered popular culture, or that the folksong movement came late to France and was pioneered by a Breton, the Viscount de la Villemarqué, whose collection, Barzaz Braiz, was published in 1839.»y las consecuencias: en Gran Bretaña redescubrieron la cultura popular los escoceses y no los ingleses, y en Francia el movimiento llegó tarde y lo abrió un bretón, el vizconde de la Villemarqué, con el *Barzaz Braiz* de 1839

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«Again, Villemarqué's equivalent in Italy, the journalist Tommaseo, came from Dalmatia, and when Italian folklore was first studied seriously, in the later nineteenth century, the most important contributions were made in Sicily.»y el paralelo italiano: Tommaseo venía de Dalmacia, y cuando el folclore italiano se estudió en serio, a fines del XIX, las aportaciones mayores se hicieron en Sicilia

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«As for Spain, the discovery of folklore in the 1820s started not in the centre, in Castile, but on the periphery, in Andalusia. In Germany too, the initiative came from the periphery. Both Herder and Arnim were born east of the Elbe.»y el español y el alemán: en España el descubrimiento arrancó en Andalucía y no en Castilla, y en Alemania la iniciativa vino igualmente de la periferia, con Herder y Arnim nacidos al este del Elba

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«When, in 1790, the abbé Henri Grégoire sent out a questionnaire about French regional customs and dialects, he was doing his best to undermine them, the better to create a French nation.»con el caso del abate Grégoire, que en 1790 mandó un cuestionario sobre costumbres y dialectos regionales franceses haciendo cuanto podía por socavarlos, para crear mejor una nación francesa

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«Again, in 1794, when Jacques de Cambry visited Finistère to observe the manners and customs of the region, his attitude to the people was ambivalent. As a good republican he found the Bretons backward and superstitious, though he could not help admiring them for their simplicity, their hospitality, and their imagination.»y el de Jacques de Cambry en Finisterre en 1794, cuya actitud fue ambivalente: buen republicano, hallaba a los bretones atrasados y supersticiosos y no podía dejar de admirarlos por su simplicidad, su hospitalidad y su imaginación

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«Popular culture began to be the object of questionnaires. In Scotland in 1797, for instance, a committee of the Highland Society circulated a six-point questionnaire about traditional Gaelic poetry.»consigna que la cultura popular pasó a ser objeto de cuestionarios, con el de seis puntos que un comité de la Highland Society hizo circular en Escocia en 1797 sobre la poesía gaélica tradicional

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«In 1808, Jacques-Antoine Dulaure and Michel Ange de Mangourit, members (like Cambry) of the newly founded Celtic Academy, concerned with early French history, drew up a 51-point questionnaire about French popular customs: festivals, ‘superstitious practices’, popular medicine, songs, games, fairy stories, places of pilgrimage, religious fraternities, sorcerers, and the argot of beggars.»y el de 1808 de Dulaure y Mangourit, de la recién fundada Academia Céltica, con cincuenta y un puntos sobre las costumbres populares francesas: fiestas, prácticas supersticiosas, medicina popular, canciones, juegos, cuentos de hadas, lugares de peregrinación, cofradías, hechiceros y el argot de los mendigos

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«‘Do people engage in any particular superstitious practices during Carnival?’ they asked, or ‘Are there any so-called sorcerers, diviners or old women who make their living in this way? What is the people's opinion of them?’»y cita dos de sus preguntas: si la gente practica supersticiones particulares durante el carnaval, y si hay supuestos hechiceros, adivinos o viejas que vivan de ello y qué opina de ellos el pueblo

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«When Italy was under Napoleonic rule, a five-point questionnaire of the same type was sent out to teachers and public officials, asking for information about festivals, customs, ‘prejudices and superstitions’, and the ‘so-called national songs’ (the term canti popolari had not yet come into use).»y el cuestionario italiano de cinco puntos bajo dominio napoleónico, enviado a maestros y funcionarios sobre fiestas, costumbres, prejuicios y supersticiones y las llamadas canciones nacionales, porque *canti popolari* aún no se usaba

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«Placucci included folksongs and proverbs in his book, which was described on the title-page as ‘a serious-facetious work’, suggesting that he felt some embarrassment at publishing on a subject which was not yet quite respectable.»y lee la portada como síntoma: el libro se anunciaba como *obra serio-faceciosa*, lo que a juicio de Burke sugiere cierta vergüenza por publicar sobre un asunto aún no del todo respetable

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«Similar embarrassment may lurk behind the pseudonyms adopted by a number of writers on popular culture in this period and even later: ‘Otmar’ (Johan Nachtigall), ‘Chodokowski’ (Adam Czarnocki), ‘Merton’ (William Thoms), ‘Kazak Lugansky’ (Vladimir Ivanovich Dal), and later ‘Davenson’ (the classicist Henri-Irénée Marrou).»y propone la misma vergüenza tras los seudónimos: Otmar por Johan Nachtigall, Chodokowski por Adam Czarnocki, Merton por William Thoms, Kazak Lugansky por Vladimir Dal y después Davenson por el clasicista Henri-Irénée Marrou; el troceo escribe aquí *Chodokowski*, frente al *Chodakowski* de la plana 64

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«A few years later, in 1818, a»abre el caso de Placucci; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«local official, Michele Placucci, published a book on the ‘customs and prejudices’ of the peasants of the Romagna, a regional study inspired by the Italian questionnaire and drawing on the answers to it.»continuación: el funcionario local Michele Placucci publicó un libro sobre las costumbres y prejuicios de los campesinos de la Romaña, inspirado en el cuestionario italiano y apoyado en sus respuestas

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«In Riga, for instance, Herder was worried by the retreat of Latvian popular culture before the advance of German.»con Herder en Riga, inquieto por el retroceso de la cultura popular letona ante el avance del alemán

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«‘Otmar’ collected folktales in the Harz Mountains at a time when (he wrote) ‘they were falling fast into oblivion’.»y con Otmar, que recogía cuentos en el Harz cuando, según escribía, caían rápidamente en el olvido

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«In fifty or a hundred years, most of the old folk tales which still survive here and there will have disappeared … or have been driven into the lonely mountains by the industry of the plains and towns, whose inhabitants play a more and more lively part in the political events of our age of change.»cita en bloque a Otmar: en cincuenta o cien años la mayoría de los viejos cuentos que aún sobreviven habrán desaparecido, o habrán sido empujados a las montañas solitarias por la industria de las llanuras y las ciudades, cuyos habitantes toman parte cada vez más viva en los acontecimientos políticos de nuestra era de cambio

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«Thomas Percy described how he ‘rescued from destruction’ a seventeenth-century manuscript of traditional ballads ‘used by the Maids to light the fire’ in the house of a friend.»y el relato de Percy: rescató de la destrucción un manuscrito de baladas del siglo XVII que las criadas usaban para encender el fuego en casa de un amigo; el tramo cruza el salto de renglón del troceo

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«Arnim too believed that folksong was doomed. In France, he wrote, folksongs had disappeared almost entirely before the French Revolution. ‘In England too, folksongs are sung but rarely; in Italy they have declined into opera, thanks to an empty desire for innovation; even in Spain many songs have been lost’.»cita a Arnim sobre la condena de la canción popular: en Francia había desaparecido casi del todo antes de la Revolución, en Inglaterra se canta rara vez, en Italia decayó en ópera por un vano deseo de innovación y en España se han perdido muchas canciones

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«In Norway, a few years later, one collector compared the country to a ‘burning house’ from which there was just time to snatch the ballads before it was too late.»y la imagen que da nombre al apartado: un recopilador noruego comparó el país con una *casa en llamas* de la que aún había tiempo de arrancar las baladas

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«In Ireland, the collection of folklore took on a new urgency after the Great Famine of 1845, which led to massive emigration and the breakup of traditional communities.»y el caso irlandés: la recolección de folclore cobró urgencia nueva tras la Gran Hambruna de 1845, que trajo emigración masiva y la ruptura de las comunidades tradicionales

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«The Belgian Jan-Frans Willems and the Italian Niccolò Tommaseo were both poets as well as editors of folksong. In Portugal, Almeida Garrett was at once the reviver of Portuguese poetry and the rediscoverer of popular ballads. Scott was as much an antiquary as a poet, not to mention a novelist. In Sweden, Geijer was as much a poet, at least in his younger days, as a historian.»y lo documenta: Willems y Tommaseo poetas y editores, Almeida Garrett a la vez renovador de la poesía portuguesa y redescubridor de las baladas, Scott tan anticuario como poeta y novelista, Geijer tan poeta como historiador

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«In Wales, the first collector of folksongs was the stonemason Edward Williams, better known as ‘Iolo Morganwg’. Iolo, who called himself a ‘rattleskull genius’, was also a poet, attributing some of his compositions to a famous fourteenth-century predecessor, Dafydd ap Gwilym.»y el caso galés: el primer recopilador fue el cantero Edward Williams, conocido como Iolo Morganwg, que se llamaba a sí mismo *genio calavera* y atribuía algunas de sus composiciones a un predecesor famoso del siglo XIV, Dafydd ap Gwilym

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«The most notorious case of ‘creative’ editing is that of James Macpherson, the discoverer of the Celtic Homer, the Gaelic bard ‘Ossian’.»nombra el caso más notorio de edición *creativa*: James Macpherson y el bardo gaélico Ossian

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«Not all contemporaries shared the belief in the antiquity of the Ossianic poems; some, like Dr Johnson, thought Macpherson an ‘imposter’ who had written the poems himself.»y consigna la disputa contemporánea sin arbitrarla: no todos creían en la antigüedad de los poemas osiánicos, y el doctor Johnson tuvo a Macpherson por impostor que los había escrito él mismo

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«No one had, but many had heard songs about the same heroes, such as Fion or ‘Fingal’ and Cù Chulainn.»y el resultado: ninguno las había oído, pero muchos conocían canciones sobre los mismos héroes, como Fion o Fingal y Cù Chulainn

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«was in use to supply chasms, and to give connection, by inserting passages which he did not find, and to add what he conceived to be dignity and delicacy to the original composition, by striking out passages, by softening incidents, by refining the language.»cita el dictamen del comité: Macpherson solía llenar lagunas y dar conexión insertando pasajes que no halló, y añadir lo que concebía como dignidad y delicadeza suprimiendo pasajes, suavizando incidentes y refinando la lengua

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«The judgement of later scholars is more or less the same. Macpherson collected songs from oral tradition, he studied the manuscripts of recent collections, and he may well have thought he was reassembling the fragments of an early epic rather than constructing something new.»y consigna que el juicio de los estudiosos posteriores es más o menos el mismo, con la reserva de que Macpherson pudo creer que reensamblaba los fragmentos de una épica temprana y no que construía algo nuevo

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«After a generation of»abre el procedimiento del comité de la Highland Society; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«controversy, the Highland Society of Scotland set up a committee in 1797 to investigate the authenticity of the poems, asking old men in remote parts of Scotland whether they had ever heard the epics.»continuación: tras una generación de controversia, la Highland Society nombró en 1797 un comité para investigar la autenticidad de los poemas, preguntando a ancianos de zonas remotas de Escocia si habían oído alguna vez las epopeyas

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«Villemarqué did collect songs from Brittany, but the authenticity of his collection has been questioned and he has even been described as a Breton Macpherson.»con el caso bretón: Villemarqué sí recogió canciones en Bretaña, pero se ha puesto en duda la autenticidad de su colección y hasta se le ha llamado el Macpherson bretón

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«The most obvious parallel is with Lönnrot, who constructed the Finnish national epic out of the songs he collected, and added passages of his own.»y el paralelo más claro: Lönnrot construyó la épica nacional finlandesa con las canciones que recogió y añadió pasajes propios

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«According to the classical scholar Friedrich August Wolf, writing at the end of the eighteenth century, this was precisely what Homer had done with the traditional material of the Iliad and the Odyssey.»y el precedente que invoca: según el filólogo Friedrich August Wolf, a fines del XVIII, eso era precisamente lo que Homero había hecho con el material tradicional de la *Ilíada* y la *Odisea*; el tramo cruza el salto de renglón del troceo

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«Thinking on similar lines, Jacob Grimm asked Karadžić in 1845 whether the songs about Prince Marko Kraljević might be joined together to make an epic.»y su eco: en la misma línea, Jacob Grimm preguntó a Karadžić en 1845 si las canciones sobre el príncipe Marko Kraljević podrían unirse para hacer una épica

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«On a smaller scale, many editors followed the method of Macpherson and Lönnrot. Percy, who suffered from a conflict of interest between his identity as a poet and a scholar, confessed to having ‘improved’ his ballads»generaliza a menor escala: muchos editores siguieron el método, y Percy, que sufría el conflicto entre su identidad de poeta y la de erudito, confesó haber *mejorado* sus baladas

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«By a few slight corrections or additions, a most beautiful or interesting sense has started forth, and this so naturally and easily, that the editor could seldom prevail on himself to indulge the vanity of making a formal claim to the improvement; but must plead guilty to the charge of concealing his own share in the amendments under some such general title as a Modern Copy.»cita la confesión de Percy: con unas pocas correcciones o añadidos leves brotaba un sentido bellísimo o interesante, y tan natural y fácilmente que rara vez se permitía reclamarlo formalmente, aunque se declara culpable de ocultar su parte en las enmiendas bajo un título general como *copia moderna*

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«These amendments were not always ‘slight’. In the case of Edom o’ Gordon, a letter of Percy's survives, criticizing the ending of the ballad, in which the wronged husband commits suicide, and suggesting its replacement with a line suggesting that the husband went mad.»y mide la confesión contra el archivo: las enmiendas no siempre eran leves, y de *Edom o’ Gordon* sobrevive una carta de Percy que objeta el final —el marido agraviado se suicida— y propone sustituirlo por un verso que sugiera que enloqueció

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«In similar fashion, Lönrott improved the texts that he combined in the Kalevala.57 Later editors often did the same.»y extiende el juicio: del mismo modo Lönnrot mejoró los textos que combinó en el *Kalevala*, y los editores posteriores hicieron a menudo lo mismo; el troceo imprime aquí *Lönrott* con dos tes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 77»

«Something about the ballads seems to have encouraged invention. The Scottish antiquary John Pinkerton tried to pass off Hardyknute, a composition of his own, as a traditional ballad collected from oral tradition in Lanarkshire (the fake was exposed in 1784 by the acute and irascible scholar Joseph Ritson»y la nota general: algo en las baladas parece haber alentado la invención, como cuando el anticuario escocés John Pinkerton quiso hacer pasar su *Hardyknute* por balada tradicional de Lanarkshire, y Joseph Ritson descubrió el fraude en 1784

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«Sir Walter Scott ‘restored’ and ‘corrected’ the texts that he edited and rewrote (if he did not compose) Kinmont Willie.»y el caso de Scott: restauró y corrigió los textos que editó y reescribió, si es que no compuso, *Kinmont Willie*

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«Arnim and Brentano did not go as far as that, but they bowdlerized and otherwise ‘improved’ the songs in their famous collection.»y el de Arnim y Brentano, que sin llegar tan lejos expurgaron y *mejoraron* las canciones de su colección famosa

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«Finally, when no rune-singer could any longer compare with»abre la justificación de Lönnrot; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«me in his knowledge of songs, I assumed that I had the same right which, in my opinion, most of the other singers freely reserved to themselves, namely the right to arrange the songs according as they seemed to fit best.»continuación de la cita de Lönnrot: asumió el mismo derecho que a su juicio se reservaban los demás cantores, el de ordenar las canciones como mejor parecieran encajar

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«However, the Harvard professor Francis James Child offered alternative versions of the texts that he printed in his famous collection of British ballads (future references to these ballads will»con la excepción que nombra: Francis James Child ofreció versiones alternativas de los textos de su colección de baladas británicas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue la advertencia de que este libro adopta su numeración

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 77»

«Editors of folktales followed the same flexible principles as editors of ballads. For their famous book of Märchen, the Grimms collected stories from oral tradition in Hesse, asking their helpers to send the stories ‘without additions and so-called improvement’ (ohne Zusatz und sogennante Verschönerung).»pasa a los cuentos: los editores siguieron los mismos principios flexibles, y los Grimm pedían a sus colaboradores enviar las historias *sin añadidos ni la llamada mejora*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 78»

«When Vasily Fyodorovich Trutovsky published a collection of Russian folksongs in the late eighteenth century (so a musicologist explains), ‘Not only did he deliberately change the melodic outline … in some cases, but he also introduced sharps and flats into otherwise modal tunes, and gave them harmonic accompaniments’.»con el testimonio de un musicólogo sobre Trutovsky: no solo alteró deliberadamente el contorno melódico en algunos casos, sino que introdujo sostenidos y bemoles en melodías modales y les puso acompañamiento armónico

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 79»

«In similar fashion, when William Chappell published a collection of ‘national English airs’ in the early nineteenth century, ‘academic harmonic patterns were imposed on popular melodies, ancient modalities suppressed, irregular tunes squared off’.»y el caso inglés: en los *national English airs* de William Chappell se impusieron patrones armónicos académicos a las melodías populares, se suprimieron las modalidades antiguas y se cuadraron las tonadas irregulares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 79»

«Chappell also omitted words whenever they were ‘too coarse for publication’.»y consigna que Chappell omitía además las palabras demasiado toscas para publicarse

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 79»

«The Carnival of Cologne was revived or at least reformed in 1823, when a middle-class society was formed for this purpose.64 The Carnival of Nuremberg was revived in 1843, and the Carnival of Nice in the mid-nineteenth century.»da las fechas de los carnavales revividos: Colonia en 1823, cuando se formó para ello una sociedad burguesa, Núremberg en 1843 y Niza a mediados del XIX

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 80»

«The Welsh festival of the Eisteddfod did not survive from the time of the Druids but was revived by Iolo Morgannwg, who set up the Gorsedd Circle at Carmarthen in 1819, while the costumes were designed by the artist Sir Hubert Herkomer later in the century.»y el caso galés: el Eisteddfod no sobrevivió desde el tiempo de los druidas, sino que lo revivió Iolo Morgannwg, que instaló el Gorsedd Circle en Carmarthen en 1819, con vestuario diseñado después por Sir Hubert Herkomer; el troceo escribe aquí *Morgannwg*, frente al *Morganwg* de la plana 75

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 80»

«For example, Percy described ancient Chinese poems, Icelandic poems and border ballads in much the same terms. He lumped them together because they were not classical without worrying about the differences between them.»con el ejemplo de Percy, que describía poemas chinos antiguos, islandeses y baladas fronterizas en los mismos términos, agrupándolos por no ser clásicos y sin preocuparse de sus diferencias

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 80»

«According to Herder, Moses, Homer, and the authors of the German Minnesang were all ‘singers of the people’.»y el de Herder, para quien Moisés, Homero y los autores del *Minnesang* alemán eran por igual cantores del pueblo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 80»

«Claude Fauriel lectured on such ‘popular poetry’ as Homer, Dante, the troubadours, and the ballads of Greece and Serbia.»y el de Fauriel, que daba por *poesía popular* a Homero, Dante, los trovadores y las baladas de Grecia y Serbia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 80»

«When Boswell and Johnson visited Glenmorison in the Hebrides, they were a little too eager to see the Highlanders as ‘American savages’. As a result they offended their host: ‘his pride seemed to be much piqued’»con la anécdota que lo mide: Boswell y Johnson, demasiado ansiosos por ver a los montañeses como salvajes americanos, ofendieron a su anfitrión, cuyo orgullo quedó picado; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 80»

«Boswell noted, ‘that we were surprised at his having books’.»y el motivo de la ofensa, según lo anotó Boswell: que se sorprendieran de que tuviera libros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«A number of studies of individual singers and storytellers such as the Siberian storyteller Natalia Vinokurova or the Montenegrin singer Avdo Međedović have shown that passing on an oral tradition does not inhibit the development of a personal style.»con la evidencia que la acota: los estudios de cantores y narradores concretos, como la siberiana Natalia Vinokurova o el montenegrino Avdo Međedović, muestran que transmitir una tradición oral no impide desarrollar un estilo personal

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 81»

«Whose culture is popular culture? As Jakob Grimm asked at a conference of Germanists in 1846, Who are the people? (Was ist ein Volk?).»y la pregunta que la abre, tomada de Jakob Grimm en un congreso de germanistas de 1846: de quién es la cultura popular, quién es el pueblo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 82»

«In similar fashion, in his Essay on the History of the Culture of the Human Race (1782), the German scholar Johann Christoph Adelung affirmed that ‘the culture of the people cannot be the culture of the upper classes’ (die Kultur des Volkes nicht die Kultur der obern Classen seyn kann).»con el paralelo de Johann Christoph Adelung, que en 1782 afirmaba que la cultura del pueblo no puede ser la cultura de las clases altas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 82»

«Sometimes the term was narrowed still further: Herder once claimed that ‘The people are not the mob of the streets, who never sing or compose but shriek and mutilate’ (Volk heisst nicht der Pöbel auf den Gassen, der singt und dichtet niemals, sondern schreit und verstümmelt).»y el estrechamiento mayor, en el propio Herder: el pueblo no es la turba de las calles, que nunca canta ni compone sino que chilla y mutila

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 82»

«G. Cocchiara, The History of Folklore in Europe (1952: English translation, Philadelphia, PA, 1981).»la nota 1 remite el panorama a la *History of Folklore in Europe* de Giuseppe Cocchiara, por la traducción inglesa de 1981

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 83»

«J. G. Herder, ‘Uber die Wirkung der Dichtkunst auf die Sitten der Völker’ (1778), in his Sämtliche Werke, ed. B. Suphan, vol. 8 (Hildesheim, 1967). On him, R. T. Clark, Herder (Berkeley, CA, 1955), esp. ch. 8; L. Arbusow, ‘Herder und die Begründung der Volksliedforschung’, in E. Keyser (ed.) Im Geiste Herders (Kitzingen, 1953); R. Bendix, In Search of Authenticity (Madison, WI, 1997), pp. 29f.»la nota 3 da la fuente del ensayo premiado de Herder en sus *Sämtliche Werke* editadas por Suphan, con la bibliografía de Clark, Arbusow y el *In Search of Authenticity* de Regina Bendix

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 83»

«T. Percy, Reliques of English Poetry (London, 1765); A. B. Friedman, The Ballad Revival (Chicago, IL, 1961), ch. 7; on the reception of the Reliques in Germany, H. Lohre, Von Percy zum Wunderhorn (Berlin, 1902), Part 1.»la nota 7 da la edición de las *Reliques* de 1765, el *Ballad Revival* de Albert Friedman y el estudio de Lohre sobre su recepción alemana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 83»

«W. Hone, Ancient Mysteries Described (London, 1823); F. J. Mone (ed.) Altteutsche Schauspiele (Quedlinburg and Leipzig, 1841).»la nota 15 da los dos libros de misterios: *Ancient Mysteries Described* de William Hone (1823) y los *Altteutsche Schauspiele* de Franz Josef Mone (1841)

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 84»

«R. Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre (New York, 1984), pp. 9– 74; R. B. Bottigheimer, Grimm's Bad Girls and Bold Boys (New Haven, CT, 1987); on the ‘nationalization’, J. Norberg, The Brothers Grimm and the Making of German Nationalism»la nota 13 apoya la lectura de los Grimm en *The Great Cat Massacre* de Robert Darnton, en Ruth Bottigheimer y en el libro de Jakob Norberg sobre los Grimm y el nacionalismo alemán

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 84»

«J. G. Herder, Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte (4 vols, Riga/ Leipzig, 1784–91), part 3; on the ‘invention’ of folksongs, H. Bausinger, Formen der ‘Volkspoesie’ (Berlin, 1968), p. 14. Cf. E. J. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.) The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983).»la nota 26 remite a las *Ideen* de Herder, al estudio de Hermann Bausinger sobre la *invención* de las canciones populares y a *The Invention of Tradition* de Hobsbawm y Ranger

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 86»

«H. Blair, A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian (1763: 2nd edn, London, 1765), esp. pp. 2, 21, 63.»la nota 33 da la disertación crítica de Hugh Blair sobre los poemas de Ossian, por la segunda edición de Londres de 1765

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 87»

«Rearick, Beyond the Enlightenment, pp. 10–12; I. Berlin, ‘The Counter-Enlightenment’, in The Proper Study of Mankind: An Anthology of Essays (London, 1997).»la nota 35 remite la *Contrailustración* al ensayo de Isaiah Berlin recogido en *The Proper Study of Mankind*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 87»

«J. S. Smart, James Macpherson (London, 1905); D. S. Thomson, The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson's Ossian (Edinburgh and London, 1952); M. Shiach, Discourse on Popular Culture (Cambridge, 1989).»la nota 32 da la bibliografía de Ossian: Smart sobre Macpherson, Derick Thomson sobre las fuentes gaélicas y el *Discourse on Popular Culture* de Morag Shiach

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 87»

«H. Mackenzie (ed.) Report of the Committee .. appointed to Inquire into the .. Authenticity of .. Ossian (Edinburgh,»la nota 45 da la fuente del dictamen sobre Ossian: el informe del comité editado por Henry Mackenzie, Edimburgo 1805

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 88»

«G. H. Jenkins (ed.) A Rattleskull Genius: The Many Faces of Iolo Morganwg (Cardiff, 2005). Cf. P. Morgan, ‘From a Death to a View: The Hunt for the Welsh Past in the Romantic Period’»la nota 52 remite a Iolo Morganwg por el volumen de Geraint Jenkins y al ensayo de Prys Morgan sobre la caza del pasado galés en el romanticismo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 89»

«D. Harker, Fakesong (Milton Keynes, 1985), pp. 69–70.»la nota 59 apoya las intervenciones de Scott en *Fakesong* de Dave Harker

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 90»

«A. B. Lord, The Singer of Tales (Cambridge MA, 1960); Contrast R. Jakobson and P. Bogatyrev, ‘Folklore as a Special Form of Creation’»la nota 67 sostiene el estilo personal del cantor oral con *The Singer of Tales* de Albert Lord, y lo contrasta con el ensayo de Jakobson y Bogatyrev sobre el folclore como forma especial de creación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 91»

«The only surviving seventeenth-century texts of Russian popular songs and stories were recorded by two British visitors, Richard James (chaplain to the English merchants in Archangel) and Samuel Collins (physician to the Tsar).»con el ejemplo: los únicos textos del XVII de canciones y relatos populares rusos los anotaron dos visitantes británicos, Richard James, capellán de los mercaderes ingleses en Arcángel, y Samuel Collins, médico del zar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 93»

«Much of what we know about the great carnivals in Rome and Venice between 1500 and 1800 comes from the descriptions left by foreign visitors such as Montaigne, Evelyn, and Goethe.»y lo mismo con los carnavales de Roma y Venecia entre 1500 y 1800, conocidos sobre todo por las descripciones de visitantes extranjeros como Montaigne, Evelyn y Goethe

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 93»

«W. Schoof, Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Grimmschen Märchen (Hamburg, 1959); cf. A. David and M. E. David, ‘A Literary Approach to the Brothers Grimm’»la nota 61 da la bibliografía de las enmiendas de los Grimm, con Wilhelm Schoof y el ensayo de Alfred y Mary Elizabeth David

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 90»

«For example, in 1574 some villagers from Aspra, a village near Rome, were prosecuted for having performed a comedy during Carnival that was ‘contrary to the Holy Catholic faith’, because it represented a monk (played by a shoemaker named Orazio) and also someone who sacrificed to the god Pan.»y el ejemplo de Aspra, cerca de Roma, en 1574: se procesó a unos aldeanos por representar en carnaval una comedia contraria a la santa fe católica, porque salían un fraile, hecho por un zapatero llamado Orazio, y alguien que sacrificaba al dios Pan

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 94»

«Again, something is known about the ‘Summer Lord Game’ in the village of South Kyme in Lincolnshire in 1601 because the game satirized the Earl of Lincoln, who brought a bill of complaint before the Star Chamber.»y un segundo caso: del *Summer Lord Game* de South Kyme, en Lincolnshire, en 1601, se sabe algo porque el juego satirizaba al conde de Lincoln, que llevó querella ante la Cámara Estrellada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 94»

«The evidence from Aspra may be juxtaposed to Shakespeare's representation in A Midsummer Night's Dream of a rural play about Pyramus and Thisbe – a theme taken from the Roman poet Ovid, thus confirming popular knowledge of classical traditions – but in this case, we cannot afford to forget that Shakespeare is presenting his rustics as comic in themselves and satirizing rather than simply describing their performance.»y cruza Aspra con el *Sueño de una noche de verano*: la pieza rústica sobre Píramo y Tisbe, tema tomado de Ovidio, señala el conocimiento popular de las tradiciones clásicas, pero Shakespeare presenta a sus rústicos como cómicos en sí y satiriza su representación en vez de describirla

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 94»

«The English clergyman Thomas Fuller made the crucial point in his life of Tarlton: ‘Much of his merriment lay in his very looks and actions … indeed the self-same words, spoken by another, would hardly move a merry man to smile; which uttered by him, would force a sad soul to laughter’.»y cita a Thomas Fuller sobre Tarlton: mucha de su comicidad estaba en sus miradas y sus acciones, y las mismas palabras dichas por otro apenas moverían a sonreír a un hombre alegre, mientras que dichas por él forzaban a reír a un alma triste

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 95»

«The historian has the frustrating task of writing about Tarlton without being able to see him (in fact, Fuller could not have seen him either, but simply expanded the comment in Tarlton's epitaph).»y cierra el caso con una advertencia sobre la propia fuente: el historiador ha de escribir sobre Tarlton sin poder verlo, y Fuller tampoco pudo verlo, sino que amplió el comentario del epitafio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 95»

«Andreini put his own name to Captain Terror, but Altissimo's poems were edited for publication, and we cannot be sure what ‘editing’ meant.»con el contraste: Andreini firmó su *Capitán Espanto*, pero los poemas de Altissimo se editaron para publicarse y no se sabe qué significaba allí *editar*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 95»

«proceedings of the synod of Guadix in 1554, a synod that was trying to stamp out what was described.»continuación: las actas del sínodo de Guadix de 1554, sínodo que trataba de extirpar lo que describía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 94»

«They include Richard Tarlton's Jests (1611); The Braveries of Captain»abre la lista de esos textos con los *Jests* de Richard Tarlton (1611); el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 94»

«Terror of Hell Valley (1607), a collection of ‘boastful soldier’ speeches published by Francesco Andreini, an actor who specialized in that role; the sung narratives of Cristofano dell’ Altissimo in Italy and Sebastyén Tinódi in Hungary; and the sermons of the friars Gabriele Barletta and Olivier Maillard.»continuación: las bravatas del Capitán Espanto del Valle Infernal que publicó el actor Francesco Andreini, las narraciones cantadas de Cristofano dell'Altissimo y Sebastyén Tinódi, y los sermones de los frailes Gabriele Barletta y Olivier Maillard

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 95»

«One of his poems, the Rout of Ravenna, survives in manuscript form, but the manuscript breaks off with the note: ‘Here some stanzas are missing, the last ones, because the poet was so inspired at the conclusion that the pen or the memory of the man who was taking this down could not»y da el testimonio que mide el problema: la *Derrota de Rávena* de Altissimo sobrevive en manuscrito, y este se interrumpe con la nota de que faltan las últimas estancias porque el poeta estaba tan inspirado al concluir que la pluma o la memoria de quien copiaba no podían seguirle; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 95»

«The problem can be seen at its most obvious in the case of the writers such as Villon and Rabelais who have been studied as sources for popular culture.»abre con el primer mediador, los escritores como Villon y Rabelais estudiados como fuentes de cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 97»

«In the case of Villon, who led the life of a vagabond and a criminal, the mistake is particularly easy to make.»y advierte que con Villon, que llevó vida de vagabundo y criminal, el error es especialmente fácil

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 97»

«Villon was gaoled in 1461 and again in 1462 and he was condemned to death after a brawl, although it is not known whether the sentence was carried out.»da su hoja: encarcelado en 1461 y en 1462 y condenado a muerte tras una riña, sin que se sepa si la sentencia se ejecutó

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 97»

«He wrote some poems, known as ballades, in argot, probably in the jargon of the Coquillards, a group of criminals who were investigated at Dijon in 1455.»y consigna que escribió baladas en argot, probablemente en la jerga de los coquillards, banda investigada en Dijon en 1455

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 97»

«In one ballade he refers to the police of medieval Paris, the sergents, as ‘angels’, a euphemism which may have been suggested by paintings of the Archangel Michael weighing souls.»con un detalle de lectura: en una balada llama *ángeles* a los *sergents*, la policía del París medieval, eufemismo que según Burke pudo sugerirle la pintura del arcángel Miguel pesando almas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 97»

«He made use of the forms of popular culture like the mock testament and the proverb. In fact, Villon constructed a whole ballade out of proverbs»y señala su uso de las formas populares —el testamento burlesco, el refrán—, hasta construir una balada entera con proverbios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 97»

«Tant grate chièvre que mal gist, Tant va le pot à l’eau qu’il brise… Tant crie l’on Noël qu’il vient. (The goat scratches so much it spoils its bed, The pitcher goes to the well so often that it breaks, People cry ‘Christmas’ for so long that it comes.)»cita la balada de proverbios de Villon en francés, con la traducción inglesa que el propio libro imprime a continuación: la cabra escarba tanto que estropea su lecho, el cántaro va tanto al agua que se rompe, tanto se grita *Navidad* que llega

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 97»

«We need to remember that Villon was also a university man, with a master's degree from Paris. His poems refer not only to criminals»y el reverso que obliga a recordar: Villon era también universitario, con grado de maestro por París; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con las referencias de sus poemas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 97»

«and taverns but also to classical writers such as Aristotle and Vegetius and to scholastic philosophers such as Jean Buridan. His ballades are part of a literary tradition, and if the proverbial elements of one of them are popular, the whole poem is not.»continuación: sus poemas remiten no solo a criminales y tabernas sino a Aristóteles, Vegecio y escolásticos como Jean Buridan, de modo que si los elementos proverbiales de una balada son populares, el poema entero no lo es

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 98»

«The case of Rabelais is analogous. Rabelais did not invent Gargantua, a giant who already existed in French chapbooks and oral traditions.»pasa a Rabelais con el mismo argumento: no inventó a Gargantúa, gigante que ya existía en los pliegos franceses y en la tradición oral

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 98»

«His style also owes a good deal to popular culture, as the Russian scholar Mikhail Bakhtin pointed out, drawing attention to what he called ‘the language of the marketplace in Rabelais’ and to his use of ‘popular-festive forms’, notably the carnivalesque.»y consigna la aportación de Bakhtin: el estilo de Rabelais debe mucho a la cultura popular, con lo que llamó el lenguaje de la plaza del mercado y el uso de formas festivo-populares, señaladamente lo carnavalesco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 98»

«Bakhtin was absolutely right in this respect, but we must not forget that Rabelais was also a learned man, professionally trained in theology and medicine, well-read in the classics and well-informed about the law.»y le pone el límite: Bakhtin acertaba en eso, y no hay que olvidar que Rabelais era también hombre docto, con formación profesional en teología y medicina, buen lector de clásicos y bien informado en derecho; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«His use of popular culture was self-conscious rather than spontaneous. Rabelais was (as a French critic has suggested) well aware of the ‘subversive possibilities’ of the chapbook, which he imitated in order to undermine the traditional hierarchy of literary genres.»y la lectura que propone: su uso de la cultura popular era consciente y no espontáneo, y según un crítico francés sabía de las posibilidades subversivas del pliego, que imitó para socavar la jerarquía tradicional de los géneros literarios

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«A book by the Spanish writer Carlos García purports to record a discussion in prison between the author and a celebrated thief, who describes the specialisms within his profession and the statutes and laws which govern it.»con el caso de Carlos García, cuyo libro dice registrar una conversación en la cárcel entre el autor y un ladrón célebre que describe las especialidades de su profesión y los estatutos y leyes que la rigen

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«It does not give us direct access to the world of the pícaro, any more than the more obviously literary romances by Cervantes, Mateo Alemán, and Francisco Quevedo.»y lo niega como acceso directo al mundo del pícaro, igual que las novelas más abiertamente literarias de Cervantes, Mateo Alemán y Quevedo

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«Again, the Pentamarone, a collection of stories in Neapolitan dialect published in the seventeenth century, has been studied from the time of the Grimms onwards as a source for Italian folklore.»y el tercer caso: el *Pentamerone*, colección de relatos en dialecto napolitano del siglo XVII, estudiado desde los Grimm como fuente del folclore italiano; el troceo imprime *Pentamarone*

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«Yet it was written by Gianbattista Basile, a nobleman and a baroque poet. He was attracted to the stories because they were fantastic and bizarre.»con la objeción: lo escribió Giambattista Basile, noble y poeta barroco, atraído por esos relatos por fantásticos y extraños; el troceo imprime *Gianbattista*

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«He may not have altered the plots, but the way in which he tells the stories is characteristic of the learned culture of his day – the long sentences, the profusion of synonyms, the extraordinary ‘conceits’, and so on.»y afina la distinción: puede que no alterara las tramas, pero su modo de contarlas es el propio de la cultura docta de su tiempo, con frases largas, profusión de sinónimos y conceptos extraordinarios

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«Shakespeare too drew on both learned and popular traditions. Some of his comedies follow classical models, while others drew on the repertoire of traditional festivals, from Twelfth Night to Midsummer.»y cierra el primer mediador con Shakespeare, que tiró de las dos tradiciones: unas comedias siguen modelos clásicos y otras el repertorio de las fiestas tradicionales, de la Noche de Reyes al solsticio de verano

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«The friars were not infrequently the sons of artisans and peasants; Abraham a Sancta Clara, the great German preacher of the late seventeenth century, was the son of a serfinnkeeper.»y da el dato social: no era raro que los frailes fueran hijos de artesanos y campesinos, como Abraham a Sancta Clara, hijo de un posadero siervo; el impreso parte *serf-innkeeper* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *serfinnkeeper*

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«They were often in trouble for denouncing prominent clerics and laymen, and even for inciting rebellion, as the Dominican John Pickering did during the rebellion against King Henry VIII known as the ‘Pilgrimage of Grace’.»con la consecuencia documentada: se metían en líos por denunciar a clérigos y laicos prominentes y hasta por incitar a la rebelión, como el dominico John Pickering durante la Peregrinación de Gracia contra Enrique VIII

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«The Dominican Girolamo Savonarola preached to tens of thousands at a time in Florence. Friars often preached in the open air, and people climbed trees or sat on rooftops to hear them – it took 64 days to repair the roofs after a visit of the»con las cifras: Savonarola predicaba a decenas de miles a la vez en Florencia, y la gente se subía a los árboles y los tejados, hasta el punto de que tras una visita a Orleans hubo que reparar techos durante sesenta y cuatro días; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el nombre del franciscano

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«Olivier Maillard to Orleans in 1485.»continuación del dato de los tejados: el franciscano era Olivier Maillard, y la visita a Orleans fue en 1485

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«Savonarola, for example, was the son of a physician and had studied theology at the University of Ferrara. In one sermon he explained the universe (according to the Ptolemaic system) to his listeners by comparing it to an onion with the earth as centre and each skin of the onion corresponding to one of the crystalline spheres in which the planets moved.»y el ejemplo cosmológico: Savonarola, hijo de médico y formado en teología en Ferrara, explicó en un sermón el universo ptolemaico comparándolo con una cebolla, con la tierra por centro y cada capa por una de las esferas cristalinas en que se movían los planetas

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«Again, Thomas Murner, a Franciscan friar who wrote lively and colloquial pamphlets against Luther and books about fools and rogues, was an academic. He was a doctor of ‘both laws’ (canon law and civil law) and the author of an introduction to scholastic logic, and he wrote in Latin as well as German.»y el segundo ejemplo: Thomas Murner, franciscano de panfletos vivos y coloquiales contra Lutero y de libros sobre locos y bribones, era un académico, doctor en ambos derechos y autor de una introducción a la lógica escolástica

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«Even in his German works, Murner sometimes used technical terms from the university such as ‘Text und Gloss’, where the ‘gloss’ is the commentary written between or around the lines of the text.»con la huella que lo delata: aun en sus obras alemanas usaba términos técnicos de la universidad como *Text und Gloss*, donde la glosa es el comentario escrito entre o alrededor de las líneas del texto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 100»

«In the seventeenth century, another friar, Abraham a Sancta Clara, whose pamphlets were even more lively and colloquial than Murner's, was a doctor of theology who had been trained in rhetoric and was invited to preach at»y el tercero: Abraham a Sancta Clara, de panfletos aún más vivos y coloquiales que los de Murner, era doctor en teología formado en retórica e invitado a predicar en la corte; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *court*

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«Take the so-called genre poissard, for instance, current in seventeenth-century France. These booklets purport to reproduce the speech of the fishwives from the market of Les Halles in Paris but they are literary imitations, probably written by members of the upper classes for members of the upper classes, with little more to do with real fishwives than Renaissance pastoral had to do with real shepherds.»con el caso del *genre poissard* francés del siglo XVII: los cuadernillos dicen reproducir el habla de las pescaderas de Les Halles y son imitaciones literarias, probablemente escritas por miembros de las clases altas para miembros de las clases altas, con tan poco que ver con pescaderas reales como la pastoral renacentista con pastores reales; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«A chapbook that went into many editions in Germany and elsewhere and was much better known than any examples of the genre poissard was Eulenspiegel (‘Owlglass’), a collection of stories about a trickster that read like folktales.»y el contraejemplo de difusión: el *Eulenspiegel*, pliego de muchas ediciones en Alemania y fuera, colección de historias de un embaucador que se leen como cuentos populares

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«Its anonymous author claims not to know Latin. In spite of this, some of the chapters appear to be derived from stories in a Latin collection which had not been translated when Eulenspiegel first appeared in print.»con la contradicción interna que consigna: su autor anónimo declara no saber latín, y aun así algunos capítulos parecen derivar de relatos de una colección latina no traducida cuando el *Eulenspiegel* apareció impreso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 101»

«who was just pretending to be ignorant of Latin. Indeed, Eulenspiegel has sometimes been ascribed to Murner.»cierra el caso del *Eulenspiegel*: pudo escribirlo un mediador que fingía ignorar el latín, y de hecho el libro se ha atribuido a veces a Murner

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«During the German Peasants’ War of 1525, a number of ballads on current events appeared in print. They are in general hostile to the peasants, and frequently point out that the rebels have broken their word in taking up arms.»con el caso de la guerra de los campesinos de 1525: las baladas impresas sobre los sucesos son en general hostiles a los campesinos y señalan a menudo que los rebeldes faltaron a su palabra al tomar las armas

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«The comment of the Scottish politician Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, made at the end of the seventeenth century, is worth bearing in mind: ‘I knew a very wise man, that believed that if a man were permitted to make all the ballads, he need not care who should make the laws of a nation’.»cita a Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun a fines del XVII: conoció a un hombre muy sabio que creía que si a uno le permitieran hacer todas las baladas, no necesitaría preocuparse de quién hiciera las leyes de una nación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 102»

«no administration in this country for their own good, or no worthy magistrates for the public good, have been at pains to have ballads of a proper tendency circulated among the people. I am sure money could not be better employed, and I am certain that no placemen, or pensioners, can be of so much service as a set of well-chosen ballad singers might be.»y cita en bloque a un escritor de *The London Magazine* de 1769: se preguntaba por qué ninguna administración había puesto empeño en hacer circular entre el pueblo baladas de tendencia conveniente, pues no cree que el dinero pudiera emplearse mejor ni que ningún pensionado sirviera tanto como un grupo de cantores de baladas bien escogidos

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«However, it would be unwise to conclude, like the historian Robert Mandrou, that the conformist attitudes to the king, the nobles, and the clergy expressed in these texts were the attitudes of the craftsmen and peasants of early modern France, a suggestion that turned the idea of popular culture as a ‘culture of contestation’ upside down.»y objeta la conclusión de Robert Mandrou: tomar por actitudes de los artesanos y campesinos franceses el conformismo hacia el rey, los nobles y el clero que esos textos expresan pone del revés la idea de la cultura popular como cultura de contestación

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«Melusine, for example, had been written in the late fourteenth century by Jean D’Arras at the command of the Duc de Berry.»con el ejemplo de *Melusina*, escrita a fines del siglo XIV por Jean d'Arras por encargo del duque de Berry

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«Editors may, as we have seen, have taken liberties with the texts they collected. Even if they did not, their informants may have done so (Percy printed ballads that acquaintances sent him, while the Grimms were helped by their friends).»con el eslabón siguiente: aun si los editores no se tomaron libertades, pudieron tomárselas sus informantes, porque Percy imprimía baladas que le mandaban conocidos y a los Grimm los ayudaban sus amigos

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«Karadžić recorded the problems he experienced in persuading Serbian women to sing, and as most collectors have been male, much of traditional women's culture has been lost.»con la consecuencia de género que consigna: Karadžić dejó escritos los problemas que tuvo para persuadir a las mujeres serbias de cantar, y como casi todos los recolectores fueron varones se ha perdido mucho de la cultura tradicional de las mujeres; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«One American collector went to great trouble and expense to visit a remote region in the south-west of the United States in order to record folksongs, ‘only to discover … that much of what he had gathered had been learned from recent eastern radio broadcasts’.»con el ejemplo del siglo XX: un recolector estadounidense se tomó grandes trabajos y gastos para grabar canciones en una región remota del suroeste, solo para descubrir que mucho de lo reunido se había aprendido de emisiones de radio recientes del este

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 105»

«In Yugoslavia in the 1930s, songs recorded from oral tradition had sometimes been learned from printed sources, including the Karadžić collection itself. In this way one folklorist helped create the folklore that others would collect.»y el segundo: en la Yugoslavia de los años treinta, canciones grabadas de tradición oral se habían aprendido a veces de fuentes impresas, incluida la colección de Karadžić, con lo que un folclorista ayudó a crear el folclore que otros recogerían

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 105»

«The English writer Izaak Walton once recorded having heard a milkmaid singing ‘Come live with me and be my love’. What was the source of this oral tradition? Quite possibly a printed broadside. In any case, the poem, if not the tune, was the work of the Elizabethan dramatist Christopher Marlowe.»y lo documenta para antes de 1800: Izaak Walton dejó escrito haber oído a una lechera cantar *Come live with me and be my love*, cuya fuente pudo ser un pliego impreso y cuyo poema, si no la tonada, era de Christopher Marlowe

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«The classic British example of mediation is Mrs Brown of Falkland, a Scottish singer who provided versions of 33 traditional ballads in the Child collection, including 5 not otherwise known.»da el caso británico clásico de mediación: Mrs Brown of Falkland, cantora escocesa que dio versiones de treinta y tres baladas de la colección Child, cinco de ellas no conocidas por otra vía

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«She was, however, no peasant but a professor's daughter, who knew her Ossian and her Percy, and it is likely that this knowledge affected her ballad versions.»con la objeción: no era campesina sino hija de un profesor, conocedora de su Ossian y su Percy, conocimiento que probablemente afectó a sus versiones

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«What can be documented for Mrs Brown may be suspected in other cases. Twenty-one tales from the famous Grimm collection were obtained from a single informant, Dorothea Viehmann.»y lo extiende: lo documentado para Mrs Brown cabe sospecharlo en otros casos, como las veintiuna historias de la colección Grimm obtenidas de una sola informante, Dorothea Viehmann

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«She was not a peasant but came from the middle class and was the widow of a tailor. Her first language was not German but French, since she descended from Protestants who left France after their religion was outlawed in 1685.»con su perfil: no campesina sino de clase media, viuda de un sastre, y de primera lengua francesa, descendiente de protestantes que dejaron Francia tras proscribirse su religión en 1685

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«Did she know the Perrault collection of folktales? Are some of the similarities between the Perrault and Grimm collections the result of this accident of dependence on a particular informant?»y deja la pregunta abierta sin responderla: si conocía la colección de Perrault, y si algunas semejanzas entre Perrault y los Grimm son resultado de ese accidente de depender de una informante particular

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«More recently, some anthropologists have privileged a single informant who was particularly helpful and articulate. For his knowledge of the Dogon people in Mali, Marcel Griaule owed a special debt to the diviner Ogotemmêli, while Victor Turner relied on the healer Muchona ‘The Hornet’ for his account of the religion of the Ndembu in Zambia.»y el paralelo antropológico: Marcel Griaule debió su conocimiento de los dogon al adivino Ogotemmêli, y Victor Turner su relato de la religión ndembu al curandero Muchona *el Avispón*; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«As the famous Italian physician Girolamo Cardano pointed out in the mid-sixteenth century, confessions of the standard type were not to be trusted, because ‘these things are said under torture, when they know that a confession of this type will bring the torture to an end’.»cita a Girolamo Cardano a mediados del siglo XVI: no había que fiarse de las confesiones del tipo estándar, porque esas cosas se dicen bajo tortura, cuando se sabe que una confesión así pondrá fin al tormento

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«Actions speak louder than words, and riots and rebellions may be seen not only as expressions of ‘blind fury’, as the French historian Roland Mousnier called them, but also as dramatic expressions of popular attitudes and values.»y su lectura frente a la de Roland Mousnier: los motines y rebeliones pueden verse no solo como expresiones de *furia ciega*, como los llamó el historiador francés, sino como expresiones dramáticas de actitudes y valores populares

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«In this way we know about the many revolts which took place in France between 1620 and 1648 almost exclusively through the reports of provincial officials to the Chancellor, Pierre Séguier, whose papers happen to have survived.»con el ejemplo: se sabe de las muchas revueltas de la Francia de 1620 a 1648 casi exclusivamente por los informes de los funcionarios provinciales al canciller Pierre Séguier, cuyos papeles dio la casualidad de que se conservaran

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«When the Breton peasants rose in 1675, they drew up their demands in a Code Paysan. Such a document, in a seventeenthor eighteenth-century hand, survives, and if genuine tells us much about the mentality of the rebels.»con el caso bretón de 1675 y su *Code Paysan*, conservado en letra del XVII o del XVIII, que de ser genuino dice mucho de la mentalidad de los rebeldes; el impreso parte *seventeenth-or* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *seventeenthor*

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«It is forbidden, on pain of running the gauntlet, to give refuge to the gabelle and to her children … but on the contrary everyone is enjoined to fire on her as they would on a mad dog.»cita la cláusula: se prohíbe, so pena de pasar baquetas, dar refugio a la gabela y a sus hijos, y al contrario se ordena a todos dispararle como a un perro rabioso

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«The existence of a mediator is more visible in the case of the text recording the demands of the peasants in the diocese of Speyer in 1502, for the writer could not resist the comment: ‘Oh, the sinfulness of the peasant mind! What a bane it has always been to the clergy!’»y el caso donde el mediador se ve mejor: en el texto de las demandas de los campesinos de la diócesis de Espira en 1502, el redactor no pudo resistirse al comentario sobre la pecaminosidad de la mente campesina y el daño que siempre ha hecho al clero

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«The articles were drafted with the help of Memmingen men, including the town clerk, Sebastian Lotzer, and a preacher, Christoph Schappeler. Was this demand that mattered most to the peasants, or to the men who drew up the demands in their name?»y la pregunta que abre: los artículos se redactaron con ayuda de hombres de Memmingen, el escribano Sebastian Lotzer y el predicador Christoph Schappeler, de modo que cabe preguntar si esa demanda importaba a los campesinos o a quienes la formularon en su nombre

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«Studying Italian witch-trials, Carlo Ginzburg paid particular attention to the cases in which the interrogator seems to have been disconcerted by the answers of the accused.»con el caso de Ginzburg, que al estudiar los procesos italianos atendió especialmente a los casos en que el interrogador parece haber quedado desconcertado por las respuestas del acusado

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«In Friuli, in north-east Italy, in the 1570s, the accused declared that they were not witches but opponents of witches, whom they fought at night with sticks of fennel, while the witches were armed with sticks of maize, ‘and if we win, that year is an abundant one, and if we lose, there is famine that year’.»y lo documenta: en el Friuli, en los años setenta del siglo XVI, los acusados declaraban no ser brujos sino adversarios de las brujas, a las que combatían de noche con varas de hinojo mientras ellas iban armadas con varas de maíz, y si ganaban el año era abundante y si perdían había hambruna

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«Studying English witchcraft, Keith Thomas and Alan Macfarlane used trial records to answer questions that did not interest the investigators at the time and are therefore unlikely to be distorted: questions about the social status of the accused and the accuser, the relations between them and the situations out of which accusations developed.»y el segundo procedimiento: Keith Thomas y Alan Macfarlane usaron las actas inglesas para responder preguntas que no interesaban a los investigadores de entonces y por eso es improbable que estén distorsionadas —el estatus social de acusada y acusador, la relación entre ellos y las situaciones de que nacían las acusaciones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 110»

«Some manuscripts in which entertainers recorded their repertoire have survived. One famous English example, now in the Bodleian Library in Oxford, is associated with the sixteenth-century minstrel Richard Sheale of Tamworth in Staffordshire, who played the harp and wrote ballads as well as singing them.»con el ejemplo: sobreviven manuscritos donde los artistas anotaron su repertorio, como el de la Bodleiana asociado al juglar del siglo XVI Richard Sheale de Tamworth, en Staffordshire, que tocaba el arpa y escribía baladas además de cantarlas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 111»

«If we know some popular preachers only through posthumous Latin editions of their works, we know others through records made on the spot. Some of the sermons of St Bernardino of Siena have been printed from a manuscript of the fifteenth century, copied out by a man who went to the sermons with wax tablets in order to take down every word in shorthand.»y el segundo ejemplo: si de unos predicadores populares solo se sabe por ediciones latinas póstumas, de otros se sabe por registros hechos en el sitio, como los sermones de san Bernardino de Siena copiados por un hombre que iba con tablillas de cera para tomar cada palabra en taquigrafía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 111»

«Calvin's sermons were also taken down in shorthand as he delivered them so that they could be printed immediately and accurately.»y los sermones de Calvino, tomados igualmente en taquigrafía según los pronunciaba para imprimirlos de inmediato y con exactitud

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 111»

«Particularly valuable is the testimony of men and women from artisan or peasant families who rose socially, or at least became better-known later, among them the Florentine goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini, the son of a musician, and the English preacher John Bunyan, whose father was a tinker from a village in Bedfordshire.»y señala como especialmente valioso el testimonio de quienes salieron de familias artesanas o campesinas, como el orfebre florentino Benvenuto Cellini, hijo de músico, y el predicador inglés John Bunyan, hijo de un calderero de una aldea de Bedfordshire

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«number of manuscript ‘ego-documents’ (autobiographies, journals, or diaries) written by peasants or ordinary townspeople have been rediscovered, and it is now possible to view parts of early modern Europe through the eyes of such men as the Florentine tailor Sebastiano Arditi, for instance, the Barcelona tanner Miquel Parets, the London turner Nehemiah Wallington, and the Paris glassmaker Jacques-Louis Ménétra, and such women as the healer Ana de Jesús of Seville, the Dutch preacher's widow Isabel de Moerloose and the Sussex washerwoman Mary Collier.»y la cosecha de *ego-documentos* recuperados: el sastre florentino Sebastiano Arditi, el curtidor barcelonés Miquel Parets, el tornero londinense Nehemiah Wallington, el vidriero parisino Jacques-Louis Ménétra, y las mujeres Ana de Jesús de Sevilla, Isabel de Moerloose y la lavandera de Sussex Mary Collier

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«Iconography was defined by one of its greatest practitioners, the German art historian Erwin Panofsky, as ‘that branch of the history of art which concerns itself with the subject matter or meaning of works of art as opposed to their form’.»y cita la definición de iconografía de Erwin Panofsky: la rama de la historia del arte que se ocupa del asunto o el significado de las obras, por oposición a su forma

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«One area in which research has been carried out is the folk art of Scandinavia, a region in which it is possible to identify individual eighteenth-century artists.»y el área donde sí se ha investigado: el arte popular de Escandinavia, región donde es posible identificar artistas concretos del siglo XVIII; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 114»

«It includes relatively pedestrian tasks like the identification of saints by their attributes, and at a deeper level of analysis, which Panofsky came to call ‘iconology’, the analysis of the attitudes and values of which»y su escala: desde tareas pedestres como identificar santos por sus atributos hasta lo que Panofsky llamó *iconología*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *works of art are the expressions*

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«In the Northern English rebellion of 1536, the banner of the Five Wounds was prominent. The participants were used to marching behind banners of this kind, in religious processions.»y el segundo caso: en la rebelión del norte de Inglaterra de 1536 destacó el estandarte de las Cinco Llagas, y los participantes estaban habituados a marchar tras estandartes así en las procesiones religiosas

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«In the Norman revolt of 1639, the banner displayed by the rebels represented St John the Baptist. The image of a saint who was often represented barefoot was perhaps one with which it was relatively easy for the poor to identify.»y el tercero: en la revuelta normanda de 1639 el estandarte representaba a san Juan Bautista, santo a menudo representado descalzo y quizá por eso fácil de identificar para los pobres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 114»

«Such an approach is particularly relevant to the ritualized banquets associated with special occasions or more generally with what the British journalist Katharine Whitehorn has called ‘cooking to impress’, as opposed to ‘cooking to survive’.»y dónde rinde más: en los banquetes ritualizados de ocasiones especiales, o en lo que la periodista británica Katharine Whitehorn llamó *cocinar para impresionar*, frente a *cocinar para sobrevivir*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 115»

«An iconological approach to houses has also been pioneered by anthropologists, notably Pierre Bourdieu in the case of the Berber house in Algeria, describing the contrast between male and female space, between ‘the light-filled, noble, upper part of the house’ (the place of fire), and ‘the dark and nocturnal, lower part of the house (the place of objects that are moist, green or raw’).»y el tercer caso, la casa: Pierre Bourdieu lo ensayó con la casa bereber de Argelia, describiendo el contraste entre espacio masculino y femenino, entre la parte alta noble y llena de luz, lugar del fuego, y la parte baja oscura y nocturna, lugar de lo húmedo, verde o crudo

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«This term was coined by the great French historian Marc Bloch when he was studying rural history. He tried to read the history of the French peasantry from the fields they tilled and found that the evidence was relatively good for the eighteenth century (when field maps, for example, were common), but fragmentary before this.»y lo atribuye a Marc Bloch, que al estudiar historia rural quiso leer la historia del campesinado francés en los campos que labraba y halló la evidencia relativamente buena para el siglo XVIII y fragmentaria antes

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«Hence Bloch proposed to read history backwards. ‘Is it not inevitable that in general, the facts of the most distant past are also the most obscure? How can one escape from the necessity of working from the better- to the less well-known?’»y cita a Bloch: no es inevitable que en general los hechos del pasado más distante sean también los más oscuros, y cómo escapar de la necesidad de trabajar de lo mejor conocido a lo peor conocido

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«Suppose, for example, that we want to reconstruct the culture of the serfs in central and eastern Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, including their attitudes to their masters. It would surely be a mistake to neglect the folktales collected in Mecklenburg, for example, in the early twentieth century. The collection included a story collected in 1919 from a man of 75 who had it from his father, who was born in 1793.»con el ejemplo de los siervos de Europa central y oriental: sería un error desatender los cuentos recogidos en Mecklemburgo a principios del siglo XX, entre ellos uno recogido en 1919 de un hombre de setenta y cinco años que lo tenía de su padre, nacido en 1793; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«To study the folk music of early modern Europe, the regressive method is indispensable. Some nineteenth-century collectors took a serious interest in folk-tunes, among them Ludwig Lindeman in Norway and Pavel Rybnikov in Russia.»y declara el método indispensable para la música popular, con los recolectores decimonónicos que se tomaron en serio las tonadas: Ludwig Lindeman en Noruega y Pável Rybnikov en Rusia

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«However, it was only in the years around 1900 that an attempt was made to record songs as they were sung, and not to harmonize them. It was in 1903 that Cecil Sharp recorded his first folksong, ‘The seeds of love’, in a vicarage garden in Somerset.»y la fecha del giro: solo hacia 1900 se intentó registrar las canciones tal como se cantaban, sin armonizarlas, y en 1903 Cecil Sharp grabó su primera canción, *The seeds of love*, en el jardín de una casa parroquial de Somerset

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«A year later, at the other end of Europe, in Transylvania, Béla Bartók began collecting (in Hungary, he is remembered as a collector of traditional music as well as an avant-garde composer).»y el otro extremo: un año después, en Transilvania, Béla Bartók empezó a recoger, y en Hungría se le recuerda como recolector de música tradicional además de como compositor de vanguardia

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«It was just at this time that sound-recording devices were becoming available. Sharp disliked the cylinder phonograph because he thought that it made the singers self-conscious, but Bartók recorded a good deal of peasant music on cylinders, thus making it possible to compare performances.»y la técnica que lo hizo posible, con el desacuerdo entre los dos: Sharp desconfiaba del fonógrafo de cilindro porque creía que volvía autoconscientes a los cantores, y Bartók grabó mucha música campesina en cilindros, lo que permitió comparar ejecuciones

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«For this purpose, the tape-recordings of singers of tales made in Bosnia in the 1930s by the American scholar, Milman Parry, assisted by Albert Lord, mark a milestone.»y el hito siguiente: las grabaciones de cantores de relatos hechas en Bosnia en los años treinta por Milman Parry con la ayuda de Albert Lord

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«Parry's aim, incidentally, was to test hypotheses about the poetic techniques of Homer, an ambition which makes our attempt to get back no further than the sixteenth century appear quite faint-hearted!»con el fin que perseguía Parry: poner a prueba hipótesis sobre las técnicas poéticas de Homero, ambición ante la cual, dice Burke, el intento de no remontarse más allá del XVI parece pusilánime

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«It should be emphasized that the regressive method as advocated here is a great deal less ambitious than the approach of Wilhelm Mannhardt, James Frazer, and other nineteenth-century scholars who took the customs of the peasants of their own day, like the ritual of the last sheaf or the mock battles of the mummers, as the basis for the reconstruction of what they believed to be ‘the primitive religion of the Aryans’.»deslinda su método regresivo del de Wilhelm Mannhardt, James Frazer y otros decimonónicos, que tomaban las costumbres campesinas de su tiempo —el rito de la última gavilla, las batallas fingidas de los *mummers*— como base para reconstruir lo que creían la religión primitiva de los arios

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«Marc Bloch, a sharp critic of what he called ‘the idol of origins’, did not make this mistake. His aim was not to jump millennia but to work his way back, step by step, a century or two.»y contrapone a Bloch, crítico agudo de lo que llamó *el ídolo de los orígenes*, cuyo fin no era saltar milenios sino retroceder paso a paso un siglo o dos; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«His point was not that change was absent from the French countryside but that it was slow.»y precisa la tesis de Bloch: no que el cambio faltara en el campo francés, sino que era lento

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«As the British folklorists Iona and Peter Opie have shown, children are particularly faithful guardians of oral tradition – or at least they were until the middle of the twentieth century, before the spread of television and social media.»y añade a los folcloristas Iona y Peter Opie: los niños son guardianes especialmente fieles de la tradición oral, o lo eran hasta mediados del siglo XX, antes de la difusión de la televisión y las redes sociales

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«In their self-contained community their basic lore and language seems scarcely to alter from generation to generation. Boys … ask riddles which were posed when Henry VIII was a boy. Young girls … rebuke one of their number who seeks back a gift with a couplet used in Shakespeare's day.»cita en bloque a los Opie: en su comunidad autosuficiente el saber y la lengua básicos apenas parecen cambiar de generación en generación, y los niños plantean acertijos que se planteaban cuando Enrique VIII era niño, y las niñas reprenden a una de ellas que pide de vuelta un regalo con un pareado usado en tiempos de Shakespeare

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«A number of these texts have St George as the hero. In a letter written in Norfolk in 1473, a member of a local gentry family, Sir John Paston, referred to a man he had kept ‘this three year to play St George’.»y el ancla temprana: varios textos tienen a san Jorge por héroe, y en una carta escrita en Norfolk en 1473 Sir John Paston habla de un hombre que tuvo tres años para hacer de san Jorge

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«The earlier forms and the possible meaning of some of the English mummers’ plays have been illuminated by a comparison with the St George plays performed in Thrace at the beginning of this century.»con su primer uso: las formas tempranas y el posible significado de algunas piezas inglesas se han iluminado comparándolas con las piezas de san Jorge representadas en Tracia a principios de siglo

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«It may be useful to follow Marc Bloch still further and to distinguish two varieties of the comparative method. The first is the neighbourly comparison.»y distingue con Bloch dos variedades del método comparativo, la primera de ellas la comparación vecina

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«The British ballad, Lady Isabel and the Elf-Knight, is brief and cryptic. The versions collected in the Netherlands, where the ballad is called Heer Halewijn, are fuller and more numerous, and so serve to interpret the English variant.»con su ejemplo: la balada británica *Lady Isabel and the Elf-Knight* es breve y críptica, y las versiones neerlandesas de *Heer Halewijn*, más plenas y numerosas, sirven para interpretar la variante inglesa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 121»

«might not have dared to suggest that historians might analyse the houses of European peasants as systems of signs if the anthropologist Pierre Bourdieu had not already made an analysis of this kind.»y reconoce la deuda: no se habría atrevido a proponer que los historiadores analizaran las casas de los campesinos europeos como sistemas de signos si Bourdieu no hubiera hecho ya un análisis así; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 122»

«learn from social anthropologists working in another continent comes from recent research on witchcraft. Students of African witchcraft have consulted witchdoctors themselves and even (in the case of Edward Evans-Pritchard) become the apprentice of one of them as an aid to understanding witchcraft from the inside.»continuación: los estudiosos de la brujería africana consultaron a los propios brujos-médicos, y Evans-Pritchard llegó a hacerse aprendiz de uno de ellos para entender la brujería desde dentro

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«Anthropologists who have turned ethno-historians have also provided outstanding examples of the careful and self-conscious use of the regressive method, which one of them has christened ‘upstreaming’.»y el tercer préstamo: los antropólogos vueltos etnohistoriadores han dado ejemplos notables del uso cuidadoso y consciente del método regresivo, que uno de ellos bautizó *upstreaming*

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«To assess the influence of Spain on the culture of Latin America, George Foster attempted to reconstruct the culture of the sixteenth-century Spanish peasantry, and to do this he worked back from the twentieth century, carrying out his own fieldwork in Spain as well as drawing on the research of folklorists.»con el caso de George Foster, que para medir la influencia de España en la cultura de América Latina trató de reconstruir la cultura del campesinado español del siglo XVI trabajando hacia atrás desde el XX, con trabajo de campo propio en España y con la investigación de los folcloristas

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«The French anthropologist Georges Balandier wished to write a history of the kingdom of the Congo in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The documentary sources for this period are the work of white officials and missionaries, and naturally enough express their point of view.»y el de Georges Balandier, que quiso escribir la historia del reino del Congo en los siglos XVI y XVII con fuentes documentales que son obra de funcionarios y misioneros blancos y expresan su punto de vista

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«The analogy between the problems of historians of precolonial Africa such as Balandier and Jan Vansina on one side and the problems of a historian of European popular culture on the other will be obvious enough.»y la analogía que declara: los problemas de los historiadores del África precolonial como Balandier y Jan Vansina son los del historiador de la cultura popular europea

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«Dances too offer testimonies. The French historian Nathan Wachtel, attempting to reconstruct ‘the vision of the vanquished’ in a study of colonial Peru, studied the dances of the indigenous peoples who continued to re-enact the Spanish conquest more than four centuries earlier.»y añade las danzas como testimonio, con Nathan Wachtel, que al reconstruir la visión de los vencidos en el Perú colonial estudió las danzas de los pueblos indígenas que seguían representando la conquista española cuatro siglos después

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 123»

«W. F. Ryan, Russian Magic (London, 2005), pp. 83–90.»la nota 2 remite el caso de los registros rusos del XVII al *Russian Magic* de W. F. Ryan

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«M. Harris, Sacred Folly: A New History of the Feast of Fools (Ithaca, NY, 2011), pp. 3, 143–55, 285–8.»la nota 3 remite la Fiesta de los Locos al *Sacred Folly* de Max Harris

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«R. Berrong, Rabelais and Bakhtin (Lincoln, NE, 2006); P. Burke, ‘40 años después’, in T. Mantecón (ed.) Bajtin y la historia de la cultura popular (Santander, 2009), pp.»y la misma nota consigna el debate posterior: *Rabelais and Bakhtin* de Richard Berrong y el volumen de Tomás Mantecón sobre Bajtín y la historia de la cultura popular, con una contribución del propio Burke

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«B. Geremek, The Margins of Society in Late Medieval Paris (1972: English translation, Cambridge, 2006); P. Camporesi (ed.) Il libro dei vagabondi (Turin, 1973); R. Chartier, ‘The Literature of Roguery in the Bibliothèque Bleue’, The Cultural Uses of Print in Early Modern France (Princeton, NJ, 1987), pp. 265–342; P. Burke, ‘Perceiving a Counterculture’, Historical Anthropology of Early Modern Italy (Cambridge, 1987), ch.»la nota 15 reúne la bibliografía de los marginales: Bronisław Geremek sobre el París bajomedieval, el *Libro dei vagabondi* de Piero Camporesi, Chartier sobre la literatura de bribones en la *Bibliothèque Bleue* y el propio Burke sobre la percepción de una contracultura

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«To supplement these sources, Balandier therefore had recourse to oral traditions collected in the nineteenth»y su salida: recurrió a tradiciones orales recogidas en los siglos XIX y XX; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«and twentieth centuries. Oral traditions may not provide reliable narratives of events, but they are invaluable as evidence of responses to these events, for seeing them with ‘the vision of the vanquished’.»continuación: esas tradiciones pueden no dar narraciones fiables de los hechos y valen como evidencia de las respuestas a ellos, para verlos con la *visión de los vencidos*

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«B.H. Bronson, ‘Folksong and Live Recordings’, repr. in Bronson, The Ballad as Song (Berkeley, CA, 1969); A. B. Lord, The Singer of Tales (Cambridge, MA, 1960), pp. 19, 23, 79,»la nota 31 sostiene con Bertrand Bronson y con *The Singer of Tales* de Albert Lord el caso de las tradiciones orales aprendidas de fuentes impresas

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«K. V. Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (London, 1971), pp. 516f.»y la misma nota 36 a *Religion and the Decline of Magic* de Keith Thomas, Londres 1971

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«R. Mousnier, Fureurs Paysannes (Paris, 1967). Contrast É. Guillorel, D. Hopkin and W. G. Pooley (eds.) Rhythms of Revolt: European Traditions and Memories of Social Conflict in Oral Culture (Abingdon, 2017).»la nota 37 opone las *Fureurs Paysannes* de Roland Mousnier al volumen *Rhythms of Revolt* de Guillorel, Hopkin y Pooley

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«C. Ginzburg, The Night Battles (1966: English translation, London, 1983), p. 9.»la nota 43 da la plana exacta de los *benandanti* del Friuli en la traducción inglesa de *The Night Battles*

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«Thomas, Religion, ch. 17; A. D. Macfarlane, Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England (London, 1970) chs. 10–16.»la nota 44 remite el uso nuevo de las actas inglesas al capítulo 17 de Keith Thomas y al *Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England* de Alan Macfarlane

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«E. Panofsky, Meaning in the Visual Arts (New York, 1955), ch.»la nota 48 da la definición de iconografía en el *Meaning in the Visual Arts* de Panofsky

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«M. Bouteiller, Sorciers et Jeteurs de Sort (Paris, 1958); P. Kemp, Healing Ritual (London, 1935); C. H. Tillhagen, Folklig Läkekonst (2nd edn, Stockholm, 1962) and C. M. Edsman, Studies in Shamanism (Stockholm, 1967); E. De Martino, La»la nota 61 reúne la bibliografía de la adivinación y la medicina popular: *Sorciers et Jeteurs de Sort* de Marcelle Bouteiller, el *Healing Ritual* de Phyllis Kemp, el *Folklig Läkekonst* de Carl-Herman Tillhagen, los *Studies in Shamanism* de Carl-Martin Edsman y Ernesto De Martino; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«W. Mannhardt, Wald- und Feldkulte (2 vols., Berlin 1875–7); J. Frazer, The Golden Bough (London, 1890).»la nota 65 da las dos obras del comparatismo decimonónico que Burke deslinda de su método: los *Wald- und Feldkulte* de Wilhelm Mannhardt y *The Golden Bough* de James Frazer

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«E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande (Oxford, 1937), an inspiration to Thomas, Religion; M. Marwick, Sorcery»la nota 72 nombra el *Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande* de Evans-Pritchard como inspiración del libro de Keith Thomas, y añade el *Sorcery in its Social Setting* de Max Marwick; el tramo se corta ante el salto de renglón del troceo.

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«M. Gluckman, Customs and Conflict in Africa (Oxford, 1956); M. Marriott, ‘The Feast of Love’, in M. Singer (ed.) Krishna (Honolulu, 1966), pp. 201–31.»la nota 73 da la fuente de los *ritos de inversión*: las *Customs and Conflict in Africa* de Max Gluckman y *The Feast of Love* de McKim Marriott

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«I. Opie and P. Opie, The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren»la nota 67 da *The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren* de Iona y Peter Opie; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«E. K. Chambers, The English Folk-Play (Oxford, 1933): A. Brody (The English Mummers and Their Plays) (London,»la nota 68 remite las piezas de los *mummers* al *English Folk-Play* de E. K. Chambers y al *English Mummers and Their Plays* de Alan Brody

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«R.M. Dawkins, ‘The Modern Carnival in Thrace’, Journal of Hellenic Studies 6 (1906), pp. 191–206.»la nota 69 da la comparación tracia: *The Modern Carnival in Thrace* de R. M. Dawkins, 1906

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«G. Foster, Culture and Conquest (Chicago, IL, 1960); Vansina, Oral Tradition; G. Balandier, Daily Life in the Kingdom of the Kongo (1965: English translation, London, 1968).»la nota 76 da los tres etnohistoriadores: el *Culture and Conquest* de George Foster, la *Oral Tradition* de Jan Vansina y el *Daily Life in the Kingdom of the Kongo* de Georges Balandier

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«N. Wachtel, The Vision of the Vanquished (1971: English translation, Hassocks 1977).»la nota 77 da *The Vision of the Vanquished* de Nathan Wachtel por su traducción inglesa de 1977

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«Trevor-Roper, The European Witch Craze (Harmondsworth, 1969) pp. 42f.»la nota 36 remite la brujería europea al *European Witch Craze* de Hugh Trevor-Roper; el troceo imprime el nombre y el título en columna de una palabra por renglón

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«Among the Tiv of Nigeria, if a man carving a stick is called away, a bystander may pick up the knife and carry on the work.»con el ejemplo que cita: entre los tiv de Nigeria, si a un hombre que talla un bastón lo llaman, un espectador puede tomar el cuchillo y seguir el trabajo

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«This cultural stratification makes a more complex model more appropriate. Such a model was put forward in the 1930s by the anthropologist Robert Redfield, who carried out fieldwork in Mexico.»y por eso adopta el modelo más complejo que propuso en los años treinta el antropólogo Robert Redfield a partir de su trabajo de campo en México

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«Within some societies, he suggested, there were two cultural traditions, the ‘great tradition’ of the educated few, and the ‘little tradition’ of the rest (Redfield adopted, perhaps without knowing it, a term used by Erasmus and some seventeenth-century scholars: ‘little traditions’, traditiunculae).»y lo expone: dentro de algunas sociedades hay dos tradiciones culturales, la *gran tradición* de los pocos educados y la *pequeña tradición* del resto, con la observación de que Redfield adoptó, quizá sin saberlo, un término que usaban Erasmo y algunos eruditos del XVII, *traditiunculae*

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«is cultivated in schools or temples; the little tradition works itself out and keeps itself going in the lives of the unlettered in their village communities … The two traditions are interdependent. Great tradition and little tradition have long affected each other and continue to do so … Great epics have arisen out of elements of traditional taletelling by many people, and epics have returned again to the peasantry for modification and incorporation in local cultures.»cita en bloque a Redfield: la gran tradición se cultiva en escuelas o templos y la pequeña se hace y se mantiene en las vidas de los iletrados en sus comunidades aldeanas; las dos son interdependientes y se han afectado largamente, porque grandes epopeyas han nacido de elementos de la narración tradicional de mucha gente y han vuelto al campesinado para modificarse e incorporarse a las culturas locales

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«Carnival, for example, was for everyone. In Ferrara in the late fifteenth century, the duke joined in the fun, going masked in the streets and entering private houses to dance with the ladies.»con el primer caso: el carnaval era para todos, y en la Ferrara de fines del XV el duque se sumaba a la diversión, iba enmascarado por las calles y entraba en casas particulares a bailar con las damas

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«In Florence, Lorenzo de’ Medici and Niccolò Machiavelli took part in Carnival. In Paris in 1583, King Henri III and his suite ‘went about the streets masked, going from house to house and committing a thousand insolences’.»y los siguientes: en Florencia participaban del carnaval Lorenzo de Medici y Maquiavelo, y en el París de 1583 el rey Enrique III y su séquito andaban enmascarados por las calles, de casa en casa, cometiendo mil insolencias

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«In the carnivals of Nuremberg in the early sixteenth century, the patrician families played a prominent part.»y el alemán: en los carnavales de Núremberg de principios del XVI las familias patricias tenían papel destacado

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«Students of the ballad in Scotland or Serbia, Castile or Denmark have»consigna el uso del modelo tribal entre los estudiosos de la balada; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«sometimes described the ‘ballad community’, as they call it, in this way.»continuación: han descrito así a veces lo que llaman la *comunidad de la balada*

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«King Henry VIII went to the woods on May Day, just like other young men. The emperor Charles V took part in bullfights during festivals, while his great-grandson King Philip IV loved to watch them.»y los reyes: Enrique VIII iba al bosque el primero de mayo como los demás jóvenes, Carlos V participaba en corridas durante las fiestas y su bisnieto Felipe IV gustaba de mirarlas

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«Sixteenth-century Bern had two carnivals, a week apart, for the nobles and the peasants, but this separation seems to have been exceptional in that period.»con la excepción que consigna: la Berna del XVI tenía dos carnavales separados por una semana, uno para los nobles y otro para los campesinos, separación que parece excepcional en ese periodo

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«The humanist poets Angelo Poliziano and Giovanni Pontano stood in the piazza like everyone else to hear the singer of tales, the cantastorie, and enjoyed the performance.»con los humanistas: Angelo Poliziano y Giovanni Pontano se paraban en la plaza como todos para oír al *cantastorie* y disfrutaban del espectáculo

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«As for Ludovico Ariosto, his epic Orlando Furioso (‘the Madness of Roland’) drew on the repertoire of those cantastorie as well as on the classical tradition.»y con Ariosto, cuyo *Orlando Furioso* echa mano del repertorio de esos *cantastorie* además de la tradición clásica

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«In Denmark and Sweden, sixteenth- and seventeenth-century versions of ballads have survived because noblemen and noblewomen wrote them out in their manuscript songbooks or visböcker.»y da el mecanismo de conservación: en Dinamarca y Suecia sobreviven versiones de baladas de los siglos XVI y XVII porque nobles y nobles las copiaron en sus cancioneros manuscritos, los *visböcker*

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«One of these books was compiled by no less a man than Per Brahe the younger, a member of one of the greatest noble families of Sweden, who became Lord Chancellor and member of the Regency Council.»con el caso mayor: uno de esos libros lo compiló Per Brahe el joven, de una de las mayores familias nobles de Suecia, que llegó a canciller y a miembro del Consejo de Regencia

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«Noblewomen who compiled visböcker include Barbro Banér and Queen Sophia (the Swedish wife of a late sixteenth-century king of Denmark).»y las mujeres que los compilaron: Barbro Banér y la reina Sofía, la sueca casada con un rey de Dinamarca de fines del XVI

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«In similar fashion, a number of Gaelic songs have survived because they were collected, about the year 1500, by Sir James MacGregor, Dean of Lismore in Argyll.»y el caso gaélico: varias canciones sobreviven porque las recogió hacia 1500 Sir James MacGregor, deán de Lismore en Argyll

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«Members of the upper classes offered their patronage to distinguished traditional performers. In the sixteenth century, the blind Hungarian poet Sebastyen Tinódi lived in the households of the nobles András Báthory and Tamás Nádasdy, while the Stanley family supported the English minstrel Richard Sheale, and as late as the eighteenth century, Sir Watkin Williams Wynne became the patron of the Welsh harper John Parry.»y el mecenazgo: el poeta ciego húngaro Sebastyen Tinódi vivió en casa de los nobles András Báthory y Tamás Nádasdy, los Stanley sostuvieron al juglar inglés Richard Sheale y ya en el XVIII Sir Watkin Williams Wynne fue mecenas del arpista galés John Parry

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«Clowns were popular at courts as well as taverns, and often the same clowns. Zan Polo, the famous Venetian buffoon, performed before the Doge in 1523.»y los bufones: gustaban en las cortes tanto como en las tabernas, y a menudo eran los mismos, como Zan Polo, el bufón veneciano famoso, que actuó ante el dux en 1523

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«Richard Tarlton's clowning was much appreciated by Queen Elizabeth, who ‘bade them take away the knave for making her laugh so excessively’, and Latin elegies were written on his death.»y Tarlton, cuyas payasadas apreciaba tanto la reina Isabel que mandó llevarse al bellaco por hacerla reír con exceso, y a cuya muerte se escribieron elegías latinas

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«The French buffoon Tabarin played before Queen Marie of France in 1619, and the dedication to a collection of his jokes claims that the book is intended for courtiers, nobles, merchants, in fact for everyone, a point that might have been made about many jestbooks.»y el francés Tabarin, que actuó ante la reina María en 1619 y cuya colección de chistes se dedica a cortesanos, nobles, mercaderes y en realidad a todos, cosa que valdría para muchos libros de burlas

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«Ivan the Terrible was, as an English visitor noticed, extremely fond of ‘jesters and dwarfs, men and women that tumble before him and sing many songs after the Russe manner’.»y vuelve a Iván el Terrible: según notó un visitante inglés, era muy aficionado a bufones y enanos, hombres y mujeres que volteaban ante él y cantaban muchas canciones a la manera rusa

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«He was also addicted to bearbaiting, and he used to listen to blind men telling folktales before he went to sleep.»y añade su afición a las peleas de osos y su costumbre de oír a ciegos contar cuentos antes de dormir; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«In Russia, as late as the end of the eighteenth century, blind men advertised in the newspapers for the position of storyteller to gentry families.»con la continuidad del oficio: en Rusia, hasta fines del XVIII, los ciegos se anunciaban en los periódicos para plaza de narrador en casas de la nobleza

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«Festive societies like the Abbey»abre las sociedades festivas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«of the Conards at Rouen or the Compagnie de la Mère Folle at Dijon were dominated by nobles or merchants but still performed in the street for everyone.»continuación: la Abadía de los Conards de Ruan y la Compagnie de la Mère Folle de Dijon estaban dominadas por nobles o mercaderes y aun así actuaban en la calle para todos

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«seventeenth-century poets like François Malherbe in France and Pieter C. Hooft in the Netherlands enjoyed folksongs. Among the lovers of ballads were kings and queens like Isabella of Spain and Ivan the Terrible of Russia.»continuación: François Malherbe en Francia y Pieter C. Hooft en los Países Bajos gustaban de las canciones populares, y entre los aficionados a las baladas hubo reyes y reinas como Isabel de España e Iván el Terrible de Rusia

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«These examples fit the pattern of the ‘matriarchives’ compiled by early modern women, who have been described as ‘energetic»encuadra esos cancioneros en el patrón de los *matriarchives* compilados por mujeres de la época; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *genealogists, remembrancers and transmitters of religious and household wisdom*

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«Nobles and peasants seem to have shared the taste for romances of chivalry. In the sixteenth century, a Norman squire, the Sieur de Gouberville, read Amadis de Gaule aloud to his peasants when it rained.»y un gusto compartido: nobles y campesinos parecen haber compartido la afición a las novelas de caballerías, y en el siglo XVI el escudero normando señor de Gouberville leía el *Amadís de Gaula* en voz alta a sus campesinos cuando llovía

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«Copies of French almanacs have survived in leather bindings decorated with the arms of French nobles, suggesting that they were part of a common culture, ‘popular’ only in the sense of selling well.»y los almanaques: sobreviven ejemplares franceses en encuadernaciones de piel con las armas de nobles, lo que sugiere que eran parte de una cultura común, *populares* solo en el sentido de venderse bien

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«Folk-healers were patronized by the upper classes. In Sweden in 1663 there were only 20 physicians in the whole country, so the nobles had nowhere else to go for treatment.»y los curanderos: los patrocinaban las clases altas, y en la Suecia de 1663 había solo veinte médicos en todo el país, de modo que los nobles no tenían adónde ir

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«Nobles also made use of objects that are usually described today as the products of folk art, like Finnish kåsor, carved wooden buckets used for ceremonial drinking. Some surviving examples from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries have the arms of Swedish noblemen painted on them.»y los objetos: los nobles usaban también cosas que hoy se llaman productos de arte popular, como los *kåsor* finlandeses, cubos de madera tallada para beber ceremonialmente, algunos de los siglos XVI y XVII con las armas de nobles suecos pintadas

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«Men of the church are permitted to enjoy themselves. Friars play ball with each other, perform comedies an, dressed in costume, sing, dance, and play instruments. Even nuns are permitted to celebrate by dressing as men…»cita al florentino Antonfrancesco Grazzini sobre el carnaval: a los hombres de iglesia se les permite divertirse, los frailes juegan a la pelota, representan comedias y, disfrazados, cantan, bailan y tocan instrumentos, y hasta a las monjas se les permite celebrar vistiéndose de hombres

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«A somewhat eccentric case may make the point more vivid. When Richard Corbet was a Doctor of Divinity (so the biographer John Aubrey tells us)»anuncia un caso excéntrico que lo hace más vivo, tomado del biógrafo John Aubrey sobre Richard Corbet, doctor en teología

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«In eighteenth-century Sweden, the parson had the right to the first dance with the bride at rural weddings, carved the joint at the feast, and often lent the bridegroom his clerical clothes to be married in, thus revealing his participation in peasant culture.»y el caso sueco del XVIII: el párroco tenía derecho al primer baile con la novia en las bodas rurales, trinchaba el asado en el banquete y a menudo prestaba al novio su ropa clerical para casarse, lo que revela su participación en la cultura campesina

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«Indeed they did. ‘To speak of the people is really to speak of a mad beast’, wrote the Florentine historian Francesco Guicciardini.»y la concede con pruebas: el historiador florentino Francesco Guicciardini escribió que hablar del pueblo es hablar en realidad de una bestia loca; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«The German reformer Sebastian Franck wrote of ‘the unstable fickle rabble called the common man’. Such quotations can easily be multiplied.»y el reformador alemán Sebastian Franck, de la chusma inestable y voluble llamada el hombre común, con la advertencia de que esas citas se multiplican con facilidad

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«He sang ballads at the cross at Abingdon on a market-day … The ballad singer complained he had no custom, he could not put off his ballads. The jolly doctor puts off his gown, and puts on the ballad-singer's leathern jacket, and being a handsome»cita en bloque a Aubrey sobre Corbet: cantó baladas en la cruz de Abingdon un día de mercado y, como el cantor se quejaba de no dar salida a sus pliegos, el jovial doctor se quitó la toga y se puso la chaqueta de cuero del cantor; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«man, and had a rare full voice, he presently vended a great many and had a great audience.»continuación: siendo hombre apuesto y de voz plena y rara, despachó enseguida muchos pliegos y tuvo un gran auditorio

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«In the area of Cracow around the year 1565, more than 80 per cent of the poor nobles were illiterate.»con la cifra: en la región de Cracovia hacia 1565, más del ochenta por ciento de los nobles pobres era analfabeto

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«A recent analogy to their situation is or was that of the English-speaking elite of Nigeria, whose western-style education does not prevent them from participating in their traditional tribal culture.»con la analogía reciente que propone: la élite nigeriana angloparlante, cuya educación de estilo occidental no le impide participar de su cultura tribal tradicional

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«As the Italian thinker Antonio Gramsci once put it, the people ‘is not a culturally homogeneous unit, but culturally stratified in a complex way’.»y lo apoya en Gramsci: el pueblo no es una unidad culturalmente homogénea sino culturalmente estratificado de manera compleja

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«There were many popular cultures or many varieties of popular culture. It is difficult to choose between these phrases because a culture is a loosely bounded system, so that – as the historian Arnold Toynbee discovered when he tried to enumerate world civilizations – it is impossible to say where one of them ends and another begins.»y declara la dificultad de elegir entre *muchas culturas populares* y *muchas variedades*, porque una cultura es un sistema de límites laxos y, como descubrió Arnold Toynbee al enumerar civilizaciones, no se puede decir dónde acaba una y empieza otra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 141»

«Was their culture uniform? Looking back on the Hungarian peasants as he had known them about the year 1900, the composer and folksong collector Zoltán Kodály was sure that it was not: ‘Folk tradition should not be thought of as one uniform, homogeneous whole. It varies fundamentally according to age, social and material conditions, religion, education, district and gender’.»y responde con Zoltán Kodály, que miraba hacia atrás a los campesinos húngaros de hacia 1900: la tradición popular no debe pensarse como un todo uniforme y homogéneo, porque varía fundamentalmente según la edad, las condiciones sociales y materiales, la religión, la educación, la comarca y el sexo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 142»

«There were rich peasants and there were poor ones. In a relatively limited region, like the one surrounding Beauvais, rural society could be extremely stratified, with considerable differences in style of life between the rich laboureur (yeoman, not labourer) and the poor farm-hand or day-labourer, the journalier.»y la de la riqueza: en una región tan acotada como la de Beauvais la sociedad rural podía estar muy estratificada, con diferencias grandes de estilo de vida entre el rico *laboureur* y el jornalero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 143»

«Yet Kodály found that ‘the well-to-do like to distinguish themselves from the poorer even in their songs’.»y en contra recoge a Kodály: los acomodados gustan de distinguirse de los más pobres hasta en sus canciones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 143»

«Dr Johnson observed that ‘As mountains are long before they are conquered, they are likewise long before they are civilized’, retaining traditional habits longer than the plains.»y cita al doctor Johnson: como las montañas tardan en ser conquistadas, tardan igualmente en ser civilizadas, y conservan los hábitos tradicionales más que las llanuras

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«When the ‘cultivated parts’ (in both senses) change their language, the mountaineers may ‘become a distinct nation, cut off by dissimilitude of speech from conversation with their neighbours’, as in the case of the Scottish Highlanders, the Basques, and the ‘Dalecarlians’ (from Dalarna in Sweden).»y sigue con él: cuando las partes *cultivadas*, en los dos sentidos, cambian de lengua, los montañeses pueden volverse nación distinta, cortada por la disimilitud del habla del trato con sus vecinos, como los montañeses escoceses, los vascos y los *dalecarlianos* de Dalarna

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«Mountaineers, Johnson continued, are ‘warlike’ and also ‘thievish’, ‘because they are poor and having neither manufactures nor commerce, can grow richer only by robbery’; and in any case the arm of the law can hardly reach them.»y cierra la cita: los montañeses son guerreros y también ladrones, porque son pobres y sin manufacturas ni comercio solo pueden enriquecerse con el robo, y además el brazo de la ley apenas los alcanza

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«In Britain, archaeologists have stressed the difference between the lowland zones and the poorer and more conservative highland zones; a difference of language, of house-types, and many other features of culture.»con los arqueólogos británicos, que subrayan la diferencia entre las zonas bajas y las altas, más pobres y conservadoras, en lengua, tipos de casa y otros rasgos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«In Andalusia the mountaineers of the Alpujarras were the last to go over to Islam, and also the last to abandon it.»y con el caso andaluz: los montañeses de las Alpujarras fueron los últimos en pasarse al islam y también los últimos en abandonarlo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«The German intellectual who called himself ‘Otmar’ was right to look for traditional folktales, as we have seen, in the Harz Mountains.»y vuelve a Otmar: hacía bien en buscar cuentos tradicionales en el Harz

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 144»

«Perhaps this was, as an observer remarked in 1802, because ‘the cold climate does not allow them any other activity in wintertime’.»con la explicación que un observador dio en 1802: el clima frío no les permite otra actividad en invierno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 145»

«Shepherds were both poor and isolated. A Jesuit missionary who sought them out in their huts near Eboli in South Italy regarded them as so ignorant that they were scarcely human. ‘Asked how many gods there were, one said “a hundred”, another “a thousand”’.»y el testimonio de un misionero jesuita que los buscó en sus chozas cerca de Eboli, en el sur de Italia, y los tuvo por tan ignorantes que apenas eran humanos: preguntados cuántos dioses había, uno dijo cien y otro mil

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 146»

«As the Catalan proverb has it (perhaps expressing peasant envy), ‘Vida de pastor vida regalada/Cantant i sonant guanya la soldada’ (The shepherd's life is a pleasant one, he is paid for playing and singing).»y cita el proverbio catalán, con la reserva de que quizá expresa la envidia campesina: la vida del pastor es vida regalada, cantando y tocando gana el jornal

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 146»

«On this day the local shepherds converged on certain towns in South Germany, like Markgröningen, Rothenburg and Urach, to elect their king and queen, to feast, and to dance their special dances.»y el rito de ese día: los pastores locales convergían en ciertas ciudades del sur de Alemania —Markgröningen, Rothenburg, Urach— para elegir a su rey y su reina, banquetear y bailar sus danzas especiales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 147»

«At Christmas, too, they played a lively part. In Spain, for instance, they acted out the adoration of the shepherds in autos del nacimiento or nativity plays.»y su papel en Navidad: en España representaban la adoración de los pastores en autos del nacimiento

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«It is not surprising to find that shepherds often intermarried, as was the case in Hanover in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.»y el cierre endogámico: los pastores se casaban a menudo entre sí, como en el Hannover de los siglos XVII y XVIII

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«When, in the late seventeenth century, some shepherds of Brie were accused of maleficia, of doing harm by supernatural means, this looks like a persecution of outsiders, a miniature version of the witch-hunts of the Alps and Pyrenees.»y el caso que lee con esa clave: cuando a fines del XVII se acusó a unos pastores de Brie de *maleficia*, de hacer daño por medios sobrenaturales, aquello parece una persecución de forasteros, versión en miniatura de las cazas de brujas de los Alpes y los Pirineos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 147»

«Blacksmiths in particular seem to have enjoyed a certain prestige, and Novak Kovač, ‘Novak the smith’, was a hero of Serbian epic.»y destaca a los herreros, con cierto prestigio, y a Novak Kovač, *Novak el herrero*, héroe de la épica serbia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 147»

«In Russia, however (as in the Balkans), woodlanders’ culture was dominant. English visitors noticed with surprise that ‘their churches are built of timber’ or ‘No pewter to be had, cups cut out of birch are very good’.»y el reverso ruso: allí, como en los Balcanes, la cultura del bosque era dominante, y los visitantes ingleses notaban con sorpresa que las iglesias fueran de madera o que, a falta de peltre, las tazas talladas en abedul fueran muy buenas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 148»

«The hajduks of our time in Serbia usually wore bright blue cloth trousers … a silken embroidered cap from which silken tassels would hang down on one side over their chest- these were worn by few except hajduks. They particularly liked to wear silver discs on their breast.»y cita a Karadžić sobre su atuendo: los *hajduks* de su tiempo en Serbia llevaban calzones de paño azul brillante y un gorro bordado de seda del que colgaban borlas sobre el pecho, que pocos usaban salvo ellos, y gustaban en particular de llevar discos de plata en el pecho

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 148»

«They also had their own weapon-dances and their own songs, ‘mainly songs about hajduks’.»y su repertorio: tenían danzas de armas propias y canciones propias, principalmente canciones sobre *hajduks*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 148»

«Eric Hobsbawm's emphasis on what he called the ‘social bandit’, resisting the powers that be and supported by the people, has often been criticized, especially by anthropologists working in places such as the South of Italy, where a tradition of banditry was still strong after the Second World War.»y consigna la objeción sin arbitrarla: el énfasis de Eric Hobsbawm en el *bandido social*, que resiste a los poderes y cuenta con el apoyo del pueblo, ha recibido muchas objeciones, sobre todo de antropólogos que trabajaban en el sur de Italia, donde la tradición del bandidaje seguía fuerte tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 148»

«In Central Europe, the mines were prospering at the beginning of our period: Kutná Hora, a mining town in Bohemia, was the second city of the kingdom, and new towns were springing up near the mines, such as Jáchymov in Bohemia, known in German as Joachimstal, or the three Annabergs in Saxony, Silesia, and Styria.»y su prosperidad: en Europa central las minas prosperaban al principio del periodo, con Kutná Hora como segunda ciudad del reino de Bohemia y ciudades nuevas como Jáchymov —el Joachimstal alemán— y los tres Annaberg de Sajonia, Silesia y Estiria

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«They had their own dances, like the dance of the miners of Durrenberg which mimed their work, documented for the seventeenth century. Like many occupations, the miners had their own language or jargon.»y sus danzas, como la de los mineros de Durrenberg que imitaba su trabajo, documentada para el siglo XVII, además de lengua o jerga propia como en tantos oficios

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«Given the existence of this rich miners’ culture, it is not surprising to find that the Lutheran clergyman Johann Mathesius, pastor of Joachimsthal, wrote hymns and sermons especially for them.»y su efecto pastoral: dada esa cultura minera rica, no sorprende que el clérigo luterano Johann Mathesius, pastor de Joachimsthal, escribiera himnos y sermones especialmente para ellos

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«Seventeenth-century Scottish colliers were enserfed and despised. In Fife, they were not allowed to be buried in the same churchyards as free labourers.»y el caso escocés: los mineros del carbón del siglo XVII fueron reducidos a servidumbre y despreciados, y en Fife no se les permitía enterrarse en los mismos cementerios que los jornaleros libres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 150»

«Pobresitos los mineros Qué desgrasiados son, Pasan su vida en las minas, Y mueren sin confesión. (Unhappy the miners/How unfortunate they are/They spendtheir life in the mines/And die without making their confession).»y cierra con la copla española, que a su juicio suena paternalista: pobrecitos los mineros, qué desgraciados son, pasan su vida en las minas y mueren sin confesión; el troceo imprime la copla con seseo y la traducción inglesa en columna, con *spendtheir* pegado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 150»

«They were exposed to writing more than peasants were, whether to books, placards, or graffiti. Town pageants, whether in London, say, or Granada, often included figures carrying explanatory placards, which made the more unusual images intelligible.»y la exposición a la escritura: libros, carteles o pintadas, y los desfiles urbanos de Londres o Granada incluían a menudo figuras con carteles explicativos que volvían inteligibles las imágenes menos usuales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 151»

«In Rome, from the early sixteenth century onwards, the statue of ‘Pasquino’ was regularly plastered with satirical verses for passers-by to read and repeat.»y el caso romano: desde principios del XVI la estatua de *Pasquino* se empapelaba regularmente con versos satíricos para que los transeúntes los leyeran y repitieran

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 151»

«The importance of a specifically urban early modern culture has often been noted, and some scholars go so far as to claim that there were three cultures in Europe rather than two: those of elites, ordinary townspeople (sometimes described as ‘middle class’) and peasants.»y consigna la posición de quienes hablan de tres culturas en vez de dos: las de las élites, la de la gente común de las ciudades y la de los campesinos

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«The religious plays performed in many towns for the feast of Corpus Christi were often organized on a guild basis, and so were some secular pageants, like the London Lord Mayor's Show.»con los ejemplos: las piezas religiosas del Corpus se organizaban a menudo por gremios, y también algunos desfiles seculares como el del Lord Mayor de Londres

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«In some German carnivals the butchers’ guild played a prominent part, sometimes performing a weapon-dance with their carving-knives or making their apprentices jump into the river.»y el caso alemán: en algunos carnavales el gremio de los carniceros tenía papel destacado, a veces con una danza de armas con sus cuchillos de trinchar o haciendo saltar al río a sus aprendices

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 151»

«Religious fraternities were often recruited from specific guilds. Craftsmen had their own myths, like the London myth of Dick Whittington, the poor boy who became Lord Mayor, or the many stories about the founders of»y los mitos de oficio: las cofradías se reclutaban a menudo de gremios concretos, y los artesanos tenían mitos propios como el londinense de Dick Whittington, el muchacho pobre que llegó a Lord Mayor; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con los fundadores de cada oficio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 151»

«particular crafts, such as Saint Crispin in the case of the shoemakers.»continuación: y las muchas historias sobre los fundadores de oficios particulares, como san Crispín para los zapateros

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«Like shepherds, miners, may have developed their distinctive culture because they were rejected by the world around them. At least one medieval painting, in a manuscript in Vienna, suggests»y la explicación que propone para la cultura minera: como los pastores, pudieron desarrollarla por ser rechazados por el mundo de alrededor; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 149»

«that the outside world did not distinguish carefully between the miners, small and hooded as they were, and the dwarfs or gnomes who were supposed to live in the mines.»continuación: una pintura medieval de un manuscrito de Viena sugiere que fuera no se distinguía cuidadosamente entre los mineros, pequeños y encapuchados, y los enanos o gnomos que se suponía vivían en las minas

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«There were also rituals for laying the foundations of a new building. A well-known East European ballad (Kelémen or Manole the Mason) records the belief that this ritual sometimes included human sacrifice.»y el rito de fundación: había rituales para poner los cimientos de un edificio nuevo, y una balada de Europa oriental —*Kelémen* o *Manole el albañil*— registra la creencia de que ese rito incluía a veces sacrificio humano

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 152»

«Their literacy helps explain the prominence of weavers in heresy trials in England, France, or Italy. Lollardy appealed to clothworkers in late medieval Colchester, Newbury, and Tenterden, just as Protestant doctrines appealed to their colleagues in sixteenth-century Lucca.»y su consecuencia, que importa aquí: esa alfabetización ayuda a explicar la presencia destacada de tejedores en los procesos por herejía de Inglaterra, Francia e Italia, con el lolardismo atrayendo a los pañeros de Colchester, Newbury y Tenterden y las doctrinas protestantes a sus colegas de la Luca del XVI

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 153»

«Thomas Deloney, a silk-weaver turned professional writer, never lost his pride in his former craft and his writings preserve some of its folklore.»con el caso inglés: Thomas Deloney, sedero vuelto escritor profesional, nunca perdió el orgullo de su antiguo oficio y sus escritos conservan parte de su folclore

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 153»

«His famous story Jack of Newbury presented a weaver-hero, and the book was dedicated to cloth workers because it showed ‘the great worship and credit which men of this trade have in former time come unto’.»y su libro: *Jack of Newbury* presentaba un héroe tejedor y se dedicaba a los pañeros porque mostraba la gran honra y crédito que los de ese oficio tuvieron en otro tiempo

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«In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Deloney's stories were often reprinted, sometimes in the shorter and cheaper form of chapbooks.»y su difusión: los relatos de Deloney se reimprimieron a menudo en los siglos XVII y XVIII, a veces en la forma más corta y barata del pliego

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«The presbyterian divine John Collinges, for example, might be described as a spiritual Deloney. He was a minister at Norwich, and his Weavers’ Pocketbook was addressed to the numerous worstedweavers of that city.»y el paralelo espiritual: el presbiteriano John Collinges, ministro en Norwich, dirigió su *Weavers’ Pocketbook* a los muchos tejedores de estambre de la ciudad; el impreso parte *worsted-weavers* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *worstedweavers*

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«His aim was to ‘spiritualize’ the art of weaving by instructing his readers ‘how to raise heavenly meditations from the several parts of their work’.»y su propósito: *espiritualizar* el arte de tejer enseñando a sus lectores a alzar meditaciones celestiales desde las distintas partes de su trabajo; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«Special almanacs were printed for the use of weavers, and a poem, The Triumphant Weaver, published in chapbook form in the late seventeenth century, dealt in its three cantos with the antiquity, the utility and the excellence of the craft.»y el resto del corpus tejedor: almanaques especiales para su uso y el poema *The Triumphant Weaver*, publicado en pliego a fines del XVII, que trata en tres cantos de la antigüedad, la utilidad y la excelencia del oficio

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«Dass Gott sei ein Erheber Des Handwerks der Leinweber, Macht mir die Bibel kund. (The Bible tells me that God extols the craft of linen-weaver).»y la canción alemana impresa en 1737, con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: la Biblia me dice que Dios ensalza el oficio del tejedor de lino

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«Deloney appealed to this group with his panegyric, The Gentle Craft (1597–1598), which reads like an attempt to give literary form to oral traditions.»y su literatura: Deloney se dirigió a ellos con su panegírico *The Gentle Craft*, que se lee como un intento de dar forma literaria a tradiciones orales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 154»

«These traditions were turned into plays by Thomas Dekker, author of The Shoemaker's Holiday (1599) and William Rowley, who wrote A Shoemaker a Gentleman (c. 1608).»y su paso al teatro: Thomas Dekker con *The Shoemaker's Holiday* y William Rowley con *A Shoemaker a Gentleman*

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«Shoemakers also appear as heroes on the Continent. In the famous French folksong Le petit cordonnier, it is the shoemaker who wins the much sought-after girl.»y su fortuna continental: en la canción francesa *Le petit cordonnier* es el zapatero quien gana a la muchacha disputada

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«German songs and stories in praise of shoemaking have survived, like shoemakers’ work songs (skomakarvisa) in Scandinavia and a shoemaker's dance, the szewc, in Polish Pomerania.»y el resto: canciones y relatos alemanes en alabanza del oficio, canciones de trabajo escandinavas —*skomakarvisa*— y una danza de zapateros, el *szewc*, en la Pomerania polaca

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«Bandarra was not the only shoemaker in sixteenth-century Portugal to become notorious for his religious opinions. Luis Dias of Setúbal was tried for having proclaimed himself a messiah in 1542, while the ‘holy shoemaker’ Simão Gomes prophesied in the later sixteenth century.»y los otros portugueses: Luis Dias de Setúbal, procesado en 1542 por proclamarse mesías, y el *santo zapatero* Simão Gomes, que profetizó a fines del XVI

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«England too can contribute its share of examples, including John White, of Rayleigh, Essex, who claimed to be St John the Baptist; Samuel How, the shoemaker-preacher, who published The sufficiency of the spirit's teaching in 1639; Jacob Bauthumley of Leicestershire, who belonged to a dissenting group known as the ‘Ranters’; Nicholas Smith, of Petworth in Sussex, who published his Wonderful Prophecies in 1652; and of course George Fox the Quaker.»y la nómina inglesa: John White de Rayleigh, que decía ser san Juan Bautista; Samuel How, zapatero predicador que publicó en 1639 *The sufficiency of the spirit's teaching*; Jacob Bauthumley, del grupo disidente de los *Ranters*; Nicholas Smith de Petworth, que publicó sus *Wonderful Prophecies* en 1652, y por supuesto George Fox el cuáquero

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«Shoemakers may also be found in the vanguard of political movements, among them ‘Captain Cobbler’ (Nicholas Melton), a leader of the Lincolnshire rising in 1536, and the 41 cordonniers among the 514 militant sansculottes of 1793 who were studied by the French historian Albert Soboul.»y su presencia política: el *Capitán Zapatero* Nicholas Melton, cabecilla del alzamiento de Lincolnshire en 1536, y los cuarenta y un zapateros entre los quinientos catorce *sansculottes* militantes de 1793 que estudió Albert Soboul

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«Economic historians have long been interested in these groups, like the ‘Bold Defiance’ of the London weavers in 1768, as early trade unions who sometimes organized strikes.»y consigna la lectura de los historiadores económicos, que ven en esos grupos —como la *Bold Defiance* de los tejedores de Londres en 1768— sindicatos tempranos que a veces organizaban huelgas

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«For example, the printers’ journeymen in sixteenth-century Lyons belonged to the company of the Griffarins, which had a secret initiation rite, a handshake, a password, and oaths.»con el ejemplo: los oficiales impresores del Lyon del XVI pertenecían a la compañía de los Griffarins, que tenía rito de iniciación secreto, apretón de manos, contraseña y juramentos

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«In London, Thomas Gent, a printer's journeyman, recorded his initiation at an inn in Blackfriars about 1713, a ritual that involved ‘striking me kneeling, with a broadsword; and pouring ale upon my head’, as well as giving him the title of ‘earl of Fingall’.»y el testimonio directo: en Londres, el oficial impresor Thomas Gent dejó escrita su iniciación en una posada de Blackfriars hacia 1713, rito que consistió en golpearlo de rodillas con un espadón y verterle cerveza en la cabeza, además de darle el título de conde de Fingall

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«journeymen, for instance, had their compagnonnages or devoirs, whose active members were mainly unmarried men between 18 and 26.»continuación: los oficiales franceses tenían sus *compagnonnages* o *devoirs*, cuyos miembros activos eran sobre todo varones solteros de dieciocho a veintiséis años

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 156»

«Some English chapbooks seem to have been aimed at the apprentice market or at least gratified the fantasies of that group. For example, a ballad called The Honour of a London Prentice, current in the eighteenth century but probably long before, tells of an apprentice of Queen Elizabeth's time who fights in a tournament and marries a king's daughter.»y los pliegos que los buscaban: la balada *The Honour of a London Prentice*, corriente en el XVIII y probablemente mucho antes, cuenta de un aprendiz del tiempo de Isabel que pelea en un torneo y se casa con la hija de un rey

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 157»

«The journeyman poet Hans Sachs of Nuremberg, for example, went south to Innsbrück, west to Aachen, north as far as Lübeck, and then back to Nuremberg.»con el itinerario de Hans Sachs de Núremberg: al sur hasta Innsbruck, al oeste hasta Aquisgrán, al norte hasta Lübeck y de vuelta a Núremberg

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 157»

«Disbanded soldiers (genuine or fake) were recognized as a separate category of beggar, described by the French as Drilles and by the Italians as Formigotti. They might turn to robbery, like the bands of Rougets and Grisons who preyed on Parisians in the early 1620s.»y su lugar en la tipología de la mendicidad: los soldados licenciados, genuinos o fingidos, eran categoría aparte de mendigo —*Drilles* para los franceses, *Formigotti* para los italianos— y podían volverse al robo, como las bandas de Rougets y Grisons que acosaban a los parisinos a principios de los años veinte del XVII

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«When Calvinism spread in the Cévennes in the sixteenth century, it was carried by shoemakers.»y el primer caso que prueba que no todo se explica por el origen judeoconverso: el calvinismo se difundió en las Cévennes en el XVI llevado por zapateros

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«In Vienna in the 1790s, three shoemakers were members of a group which denied the divinity of Christ.»y el segundo: en la Viena de los años noventa del XVIII, tres zapateros formaban parte de un grupo que negaba la divinidad de Cristo

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«Vasárnap bort iszom, Hétfőn nem dolgozom Jó kedden lefeküdni, Szeredán felkelni, Czütörtök gyógyulni, Pénteken számolni,»cita el ejemplo húngaro del género: el domingo bebo vino, el lunes no trabajo, el martes conviene acostarse, el miércoles levantarse, el jueves reponerse, el viernes hacer cuentas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 156»

«Hej! Szombaton kérdezni, Mit fogunk dolgozni? (Sunday I drink wine/Monday I do no work/Tuesday it is good to lie down/Wednesday, to get up again/Thursday to recover/ Friday to reckon up/Hey! Saturday to ask/What work do we have to do?)»continuación con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: el sábado, preguntar qué trabajo hay que hacer

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 157»

«Think, for example, of the song of the sixteenth-century Landsknecht, ‘without booty and without pay’ (Es ging ein Landsknecht über Feld … Er hat kein Beutel noch kein Geld); or that of the Prussian hussars of the seventeenth century, with the same worries (and the same rhymes)»con dos ejemplos: la canción del *Landsknecht* del XVI, sin botín y sin paga, y la de los húsares prusianos del XVII, con las mismas inquietudes y las mismas rimas

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«Wir preussischen Hussaren, wann kriegen wir das Geld? Wir müssen ja marschieren ins weite, weite Feld… Und wer sich in preussische Dienst will begebn, Der soll sich sein Lebtag kein Weibel nicht nehmn… (We Prussian Hussars, when will we be paid? We have to march far, far, into the field … and whoever enters Prussian service cannot take a wife all his life long…).»y cita la de los húsares con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: nosotros, húsares prusianos, ¿cuándo cobraremos?, hemos de marchar al campo lejano, y quien entre al servicio prusiano no podrá tomar mujer en toda su vida

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«In the 1480s, the Dominican friar Felix Fabri described sailor songs as a dialogue ‘between one who sings and orders and the labourers who sing in»con el testimonio más antiguo que aduce: en los años ochenta del siglo XV el dominico Felix Fabri describió las canciones de marinero como diálogo entre quien canta y ordena y los trabajadores que cantan en respuesta; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 159»

«The anonymous author of the Complaynt of Scotland (1549) records seeing a galleass (a hybrid ship using both sails and oars) and hearing the master order the sailors to haul out the bowline. One of the sailors began to call and the rest responded ‘hou hou, pulpela pulpela, boulena boulena, darta darta, hard out steif, hard out steif, afoir the vynd, afoir the vynd, god send, god send, fayr vedthir, fayr vedthir’»y el segundo: el autor anónimo del *Complaynt of Scotland* de 1549 registra haber visto una galeaza y oído al maestre ordenar halar la bolina, con la respuesta a coro de los marineros; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«When the sixteenth-century Portuguese poet Luís de Camões describes the raising of the anchor (Lusiads 2. 18) it is ‘with the sailors’ usual shout’ (com a nautica grita costumada).»y el tercero: cuando Camões describe el levar del ancla en los *Lusíadas* lo hace *com a náutica grita costumada*

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«A grande nau Catharineta/ Tem os seus mastros de pino (The great ship Catharineta/Has its masts of pine) Chorus: Ai lé, lé, lé, Ai le, le, le, Marujinho bate o pé, (The sailor stamps his foot). Leader: O ladrão do dispenseiro/ Furtou a ração do vinho ((The thief of a steward/ Has stolen the wine ration) Chorus: Ai lé, lé, lé, Ai le, le, le, Marinheiro vira à ré. (The sailor turns astern)»y cita la saloma portuguesa de levar anclas con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: la gran nao *Catharineta* tiene los mástiles de pino, el marinerito golpea el pie, el ladrón del despensero robó la ración de vino, el marinero vira a popa; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«This private language tends to be presented by outsiders with a hint of mockery, as in the case of the eighteenth-century English satirist Ned Ward describing the old seadogs or ‘tarpaulins’ in London taverns as talking naval ‘dialect’ and complaining of a tankard that ‘there's no stowage in her hold’.»y cómo la presentan los de fuera: con burla, como el satírico inglés Ned Ward al describir a los viejos lobos de mar de las tabernas londinenses hablando *dialecto* naval y quejándose de una jarra en que no hay estiba en la bodega

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«Incidentally, it was a song written for the»abre el detalle de origen del *Wunderhorn*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 158»

«soldiers of the Württemberg regiment, ordered to South Africa in 1787, that inspired Achim von Arnim to compile the early folksong collection noted in Chapter 1, Das Knaben Wunderhorn.»continuación: fue una canción escrita para los soldados del regimiento de Wurtemberg, enviados a Sudáfrica en 1787, la que movió a Achim von Arnim a compilar el *Wunderhorn*

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«It is scarcely surprising to find clergymen making special efforts to penetrate the sailor culture, as they did in the case of the miners and weavers. John Ryther of Wapping, known as ‘the seaman's preacher’, took Jonah as his text and published his sermons as A plat for mariners (1675).»y el esfuerzo pastoral, como con mineros y tejedores: John Ryther de Wapping, llamado *el predicador de los marinos*, tomó a Jonás por texto y publicó sus sermones como *A plat for mariners*

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«John Flavel, a minister at Dartmouth, also concentrated on the maritime public with his Navigation spiritualised (1682), in which he compared the body to a ship, the soul to its merchandise, the world to the sea and heaven to the port to which the sailor needs direction.»y el segundo: John Flavel, ministro en Dartmouth, con su *Navigation spiritualised*, donde compara el cuerpo con un barco, el alma con su mercancía, el mundo con el mar y el cielo con el puerto al que el marinero necesita rumbo

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«During the British Civil War, sailors often took the initiative in supporting Parliament and attacking ‘Popery’, associated with the hostile navies of Catholic powers such as France and Spain.»y su política: durante la guerra civil británica los marineros tomaron a menudo la iniciativa de apoyar al Parlamento y atacar el *papismo*, asociado a las armadas hostiles de potencias católicas como Francia y España

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«The slang of the Vistula boatmen was recorded by a Polish poet in the seventeenth century. It had a rather Germanic flavour: ‘Fritz’ was the name for an»con su muestra: la jerga de los barqueros del Vístula la registró un poeta polaco del XVII y tenía regusto germánico, con *Fritz* por aprendiz de piloto; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *apprentice pilot, and ląd the term for the bank of the river*

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«Most distinctive of all popular cultures was that of the beggars and thieves, which was recognized and evoked in the literature of the picaresque, notably in Mateo Alemán's Guzman de Alfarache (1599–1604)and in the ‘exemplary novel’ by Miguel de Cervantes, Rinconete and Cortadillo (1613).»y declara la más distintiva de todas las culturas populares, la de mendigos y ladrones, reconocida y evocada en la literatura picaresca, con el *Guzmán de Alfarache* de Mateo Alemán y el *Rinconete y Cortadillo* de Cervantes

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«In the thieves’ slang of fifteenth-century Italy, recorded by the poet Luigi Pulci, a girl was pesce, ‘a fish’; the road was polverosa, ‘the dusty one’; florins were rughi, ‘wrinkles’; and so on.»con la muestra italiana que registró el poeta Luigi Pulci: la muchacha era *pesce*, pez; el camino, *polverosa*, la polvorienta; los florines, *rughi*, arrugas

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«In Spain, specialization seems to have gone even further, at least if we can trust the writer Carlos García, whose Desordenada codicia (‘Disorderly greed’, 1619) distinguished 13 kinds of thief, such as the devotos, who only raid churches, and the mayordomos, who only cheat innkeepers.»y la española, con reserva sobre la fuente: si cabe fiarse del escritor Carlos García, su *Desordenada codicia* distinguía trece clases de ladrón, como los *devotos*, que solo asaltan iglesias, y los *mayordomos*, que solo estafan a posaderos

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«Such division of labour, if it existed, suggests a high degree of organization, and García went on to describe what he called the ‘republic’ of robbers and thieves, their captain, their hierarchy and their laws.»y lo que de ahí se seguiría, dicho en condicional: tal división del trabajo, si existió, sugiere un grado alto de organización, y García pasó a describir lo que llamó la *república* de robadores y ladrones, con su capitán, su jerarquía y sus leyes

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«A story from seventeenth-century Paris described the way in which a boy ‘passes master’ among the cutpurses by carrying out a difficult operation set him by his seniors.»con el relato parisino del XVII en que un muchacho *pasa a maestro* entre los cortabolsas ejecutando una operación difícil que le ponen sus mayores

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«Indeed, in Elizabethan London, thieves really did have their own initiation rite, known as ‘stalling to the rogue’. Like other initiations of craftsmen, it involved pouring a quart of beer over the head of the candidate for admission.»con la prueba que aduce: en el Londres isabelino los ladrones tenían de veras rito de iniciación propio, llamado *stalling to the rogue*, que como otras iniciaciones de artesanos consistía en verter un cuartillo de cerveza sobre la cabeza del candidato

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«Thieves even had their own schools. Recorder Fleetwood of London wrote to William Cecil in 1585 about the discovery, near Billingsgate, of a ‘schoolhouse set up to learn young boys to cut purses’.»y hasta escuelas: el *recorder* Fleetwood de Londres escribió a William Cecil en 1585 sobre el descubrimiento, cerca de Billingsgate, de una escuela puesta para enseñar a muchachos a cortar bolsas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 164»

«thieves, while two folktales in the Grimm collection, numbers 129 and 192, refer to master thieves and their professional pride.»y dos cuentos de la colección Grimm, los números 129 y 192, hablan de maestros ladrones y de su orgullo profesional

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«The Muslims of Bosnia spoke a similar language to the Orthodox Serbs, and they sang similar heroic epics about the wars between Christians and Muslims, but, as Karadžić noticed when he collected these songs, ‘in their versions their own people usually win’.»y el caso bosnio: los musulmanes hablaban lengua semejante a la de los serbios ortodoxos y cantaban épicas heroicas semejantes sobre las guerras entre cristianos y musulmanes, pero, como notó Karadžić al recogerlas, en sus versiones gana por lo común su propia gente

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«In Spain they were both numerous and unpopular. ‘They do not know what the Church is, and do not enter it except to commit sacrilege. They do not know any prayers … they eat meat all the time, without respecting Friday or Lent’.»y cita el testimonio español: no saben qué es la Iglesia ni entran en ella sino para cometer sacrilegio, no saben ninguna oración y comen carne todo el tiempo, sin respetar viernes ni cuaresma; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«As a historian of early modern England has remarked, ‘Popular culture played a critical role in sustaining and shaping gender relations in early modern society, just as it was in its turn shaped by gender’.»y cita a un historiador de la Inglaterra moderna temprana: la cultura popular tuvo un papel crítico en sostener y modelar las relaciones de género, igual que el género la modelaba a ella

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«Karadžić made the same distinction for Serbia, although he pointed out that young men did sometimes sing what he called the ‘women's songs’.»y la misma distinción en Serbia según Karadžić, con la advertencia de que los mozos cantaban a veces las que él llamaba canciones de mujeres

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«such as the Italian Isabella Canale, later known as Isabella Andreini and fools, notably the Frenchwoman Mathurine, active at the courts of Henri IV and Louis XIII.»con los nombres: la italiana Isabella Canale, después conocida como Isabella Andreini, y bufonas como la francesa Mathurine, activa en las cortes de Enrique IV y Luis XIII; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«Other performers included the Swedish ballad-singer Ingierd Gunnarsdotter, the Liederweiber or ‘song-wives’ of Vienna and storytellers such as Dorothea, Frau Viehmännin, who (as we saw earlier) furnished the Grimm brothers with some of their best ‘folktales’.»y la lista sigue: la cantora de baladas sueca Ingierd Gunnarsdotter, las *Liederweiber* o *mujeres de canciones* de Viena y narradoras como Dorothea, Frau Viehmännin, que dio a los Grimm algunos de sus mejores cuentos; el troceo imprime la frase en columna de una palabra por renglón

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«Female cultural entrepreneurs included Mrs Mynn, a ‘show-woman’ at Bartholomew Fair in London, while many ‘cunning women’ were active as healers and sometimes condemned as witches.»y lo que más importa aquí: entre las empresarias culturales estuvo Mrs Mynn, *show-woman* en la feria de San Bartolomé de Londres, mientras muchas *cunning women* ejercían de sanadoras y a veces eran condenadas por brujas

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«The Swedish example of Catharina Fagerberg ‘the wise maid’ (Chapter 4) may stand for her colleagues in many parts of Europe.»y el ejemplo que da por representativo: la sueca Catharina Fagerberg, *la doncella sabia*, puede valer por sus colegas de muchas partes de Europa

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«In Russia, the church laws of 1551 (the Stoglav) condemned women who baked communion bread and cast spells over it.»con el caso ruso: las leyes eclesiásticas de 1551, el *Stoglav*, condenaron a las mujeres que horneaban pan de comunión y echaban conjuros sobre él

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«In Venice, some cunning women were interrogated by the Inquisition on the charge of using holy oil to cure their clients.»y el veneciano: la Inquisición interrogó a algunas *cunning women* por usar óleo bendito para curar a sus clientes

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«One of them was cunning enough to claim that she told her clients that the oil was holy, though it was not.»y la salida de una de ellas: fue lo bastante astuta para alegar que decía a sus clientes que el aceite era bendito sin serlo

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«Women also participated in rebellions, especially grain riots. Ann Carter was the suspected ringleader of a grain riot in Maldon in Essex in 1629, while Kaat Mossel became famous as a leader of riots during the Dutch ‘Patriot Revolution’ of 1782.»y su participación en las revueltas, sobre todo las del grano: Ann Carter fue la presunta cabecilla de un motín en Maldon, Essex, en 1629, y Kaat Mossel se hizo famosa como cabecilla en la revolución de los patriotas holandeses de 1782

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«In England, the Civil War offered new opportunities for women to participate in politics. ‘The first example of women on their own petitioning parliament’ occurred in January 1642.»y la guerra civil inglesa, que abrió oportunidades nuevas: el primer ejemplo de mujeres peticionando al parlamento por su cuenta se dio en enero de 1642

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«In the age of print there were also female writers. It was not uncommon for women to write autobiographies, as we have seen, and some of these texts were printed at the time, as in the case of the preacher's widow Isabella de Moerloose.»y las escritoras: en la edad de la imprenta no era raro que las mujeres escribieran autobiografías, algunas impresas entonces, como la de la viuda del predicador Isabella de Moerloose

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«Mary Collier, an eighteenth-century Sussex washerwoman from Sussex, published her poems.»y la lavandera de Sussex Mary Collier, que publicó sus poemas; el troceo repite *from Sussex* tras el gentilicio

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«The prophet Joanna Southcott, from rural Devon, who worked as a servant, became famous after she published her religious writings at the beginning of the nineteenth century.»y la profetisa Joanna Southcott, del Devon rural, que trabajaba de sirvienta y se hizo famosa tras publicar sus escritos religiosos a principios del siglo XIX; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«By this time, Protestantism offered women more opportunities for participation than Catholicism had done. The famous books of Protestant martyrs written by John Foxe and Jean Crespin included a number of women from the merchant and artisan classes.»y el protestante: para entonces ofrecía más oportunidades de participación que el catolicismo, y los libros famosos de mártires protestantes de John Foxe y Jean Crespin incluían a varias mujeres de las clases mercantil y artesana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 170»

«After the Reformation, female preachers could be found in sixteenth-century France (among the Calvinists), Germany (among the Anabaptists), and England, among the civil war sects such as the Baptists and Quakers, where women outnumbered men and their preaching and prophesying has been interpreted as expressing ‘the claims of women to be head in their own right’.»y las predicadoras: tras la Reforma las hubo en la Francia calvinista del XVI, en la Alemania anabaptista y en Inglaterra entre las sectas de la guerra civil, bautistas y cuáqueras, donde las mujeres superaban en número a los hombres y su predicación y profecía se ha leído como la reclamación de las mujeres de ser cabeza por derecho propio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 170»

«A well-known example is Anna Trapnel, the daughter of a shipwright, who became a leading Baptist visionary, itinerant preacher, and religious writer.»con el caso conocido: Anna Trapnel, hija de un carpintero de ribera, que llegó a visionaria bautista destacada, predicadora itinerante y escritora religiosa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 170»

«Female prophets, about a hundred of them, could also be found in the Protestant community of Languedoc in the age of persecution, especially from 1688 to 1710.»y el foco languedociano: hubo un centenar de profetisas en la comunidad protestante del Languedoc en la edad de la persecución, sobre todo entre 1688 y 1710

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«Isabeau Vincent, for instance, the teenage daughter of a shepherd from Dauphiné, preached in a trance as if possessed by a spirit.»con el caso que la ejemplifica: Isabeau Vincent, adolescente hija de un pastor del Delfinado, predicaba en trance como si la poseyera un espíritu

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 170»

«As was noted in Chapter 2, for instance, ‘song-books’ [visböcker], were not infrequently compiled by Scandinavian noblewomen, among them Anna Krabbe and Karen Brahe (two women with scholarly tastes), Barbro Banér, the daughter of a Swedish marshal, and not least, Queen Sophie of Denmark.»con los nombres: los *visböcker* los compilaban con frecuencia nobles escandinavas, entre ellas Anna Krabbe y Karen Brahe, de gustos eruditos, Barbro Banér, hija de un mariscal sueco, y no menos la reina Sofía de Dinamarca

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 170»

«the case of the Scottish ballads, an indispensable source, as we have seen, was a professor's daughter, Mrs Brown of Falkland.»y el caso escocés: una fuente indispensable de las baladas fue una hija de profesor, Mrs Brown of Falkland; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

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«They love only their own region (leur pays) … they are not interested in the news or the fashions of other parts but are quite detached from everything that happens in the rest of the world.»y cita al párroco de la Sologne a fines del XVII sobre sus feligreses: solo aman su propia región, no les interesan las noticias ni las modas de otras partes y están del todo desprendidos de cuanto ocurre en el resto del mundo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 171»

«In 1549, the imperial ambassador Sigismund von Herberstein remarked that in the Perm region of Russia, ‘Idolaters are still to be found in the forests’ and that the old god of thunder, Perun, was still reverenced.»y el ruso: en 1549 el embajador imperial Sigismund von Herberstein observó que en la región de Perm todavía se hallaban idólatras en los bosques y que se reverenciaba al viejo dios del trueno, Perun

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 172»

«Even in England, which was relatively centralized in this period, a number of scholars have stressed the importance of regional cultures (14 cultural provinces, according to one of them).»y el caso inglés: aun en la Inglaterra relativamente centralizada del periodo varios estudiosos han subrayado la importancia de las culturas regionales, catorce provincias culturales según uno de ellos

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«He argued that a given tradition will ‘undergo a process of unification within its own area through the mutual control and reciprocal influence of its bearers’, so that a folktale ecotype is formed.»y cita su tesis: una tradición dada sufre un proceso de unificación dentro de su área por el control mutuo y la influencia recíproca de quienes la portan, con lo que se forma un ecotipo de cuento; el troceo imprime la frase con salto de renglón a media cláusula

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 173»

«Sydow also emphasized the importance of the barriers to diffusion. There are linguistic barriers, which hinder the spread of verse in particular; and there are political barriers, frontiers which hinder the movement of the bearers of traditions.»y sus barreras: las lingüísticas, que estorban sobre todo la difusión del verso, y las políticas, fronteras que estorban el movimiento de los portadores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 173»

«Villagers, he remarked, do not learn from their neighbours, to whom they are often hostile, creating a third barrier to diffusion.»y la tercera: los aldeanos no aprenden de sus vecinos, a los que a menudo son hostiles

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 173»

«The importance of the region for the study of popular culture was given»abre la formulación de Carl von Sydow; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 172»

«its most precise and magisterial formulation by one of the great folklorists of the twentieth century, the Swede Carl von Sydow, who took over from the botanists the term ‘ecotype’, which referred to a variety of plant adapted to a certain milieu by natural selection) and made use of it in his studies of folktales.»continuación: la formulación más precisa y magistral la dio el folclorista sueco Carl von Sydow, que tomó de los botánicos el término *ecotipo* —variedad de planta adaptada a un medio por selección natural— y lo usó en sus estudios del cuento popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 173»

«If we look at Sweden more closely, however, it is possible to distinguish the painting of central Sweden (especially Dalarna and Hälsingland) from that of the south (especially Småland and Halland). To look more carefully at Dalarna is to find it dividing into two regions, Rättvik and Leksand.»y lo subdivide: mirando Suecia de cerca se distingue la pintura del centro —Dalarna y Hälsingland— de la del sur —Småland y Halland—, y Dalarna misma se divide en Rättvik y Leksand

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«In nineteenth-century Moravia, the costume of the peasants differed from that of neighbouring Slovakia. But Moravian Slovakia formed a unit of its own, subdivided into no less than 28 microregions or ‘costume districts’.»y el caso moravo: el traje campesino difería del de la Eslovaquia vecina, y la Eslovaquia morava formaba unidad propia subdividida en nada menos que veintiocho microrregiones o distritos de traje

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 174»

«On a very different scale, we have returned to the problem raised by Arnold Toynbee when he distinguished 21 ‘civilizations’ in world history. The difficulties his project faced revealed the impossibility of enumerating loosely bounded systems such as civilizations or cultures.»y vuelve a Toynbee: a escala muy distinta se ha vuelto al problema de sus veintiuna civilizaciones, cuyas dificultades revelaron la imposibilidad de enumerar sistemas de límites laxos como civilizaciones o culturas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 174»

«Da Adam reütet und Eva span Wer was die Zeit ein Edelman? Wie was doe de edelman Doe Adam graeff ende Eva span? Ho war tha een ädela man Tha Adam graff ok Eva span?»y cita las tres versiones germánicas del pareado, en alemán, neerlandés y sueco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 175»

«It was less well known in the Slav languages, into which it did not enter so easily; in Polish, for example, it became: Gdy Adam z Ewą kopał Kto komu na ów czas chłopał? 121 (When Adam and Eve were digging, Who was the peasant then?)»y la excepción eslava: menos conocido en esas lenguas, en las que no entraba con tanta facilidad, y en polaco se volvió: cuando Adán y Eva cavaban, ¿quién era entonces el campesino?

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«The people of Cava in the kingdom of Naples were represented as fools in a number of local stories, which one suspects to have been propagated by their rivals in nearby Salerno.»con el caso: la gente de Cava, en el reino de Nápoles, salía por tonta en varios relatos locales, que a su juicio propagaban sus rivales de la vecina Salerno

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«Indeed, it would be a mistake to stop at the edge of Europe. A distinguished American folklorist, Stith Thompson, claimed that ‘the lands from Ireland to India form an important tradition area where the same stories are found’.»y lleva el argumento fuera de Europa citando al folclorista estadounidense Stith Thompson: las tierras de Irlanda a la India forman un área de tradición importante donde se hallan los mismos relatos

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«It is tempting to follow the example of the early nineteenth-century linguists and of Jacob Grimm, and to think in terms of ‘Indo-European’ culture.»y la tentación que confiesa: seguir el ejemplo de los lingüistas de principios del XIX y de Jacob Grimm y pensar en términos de cultura *indoeuropea*

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«The most serious of these attempts so far has been the anthropologist G. P. Murdock's ‘world ethnographic sample’, which divided the world into six regions. Murdock grouped Europe, the Near East, and North Africa together as the ‘Circum-Mediterranean’ region but did not include India.»y el intento más serio hasta ahora, el *world ethnographic sample* del antropólogo G. P. Murdock, que dividió el mundo en seis regiones y agrupó Europa, el Próximo Oriente y el norte de África como *circunmediterránea* sin incluir la India

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«To be convincing, though, studies of Indo-European unity and variety will have to be as rigorous as the work of Carl von Sydow.»y la exigencia que pone: para convencer, los estudios de unidad y variedad indoeuropea tendrán que ser tan rigurosos como la obra de Carl von Sydow

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 177»

«Some of the same stories are current in these»y los relatos compartidos entre esas regiones; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con los ejemplos

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«different regions, including ‘four men carry the horse in order not to tramp up the field’, or ‘a rider takes the meal-sack on his shoulder to relieve the ass of his burden’.»continuación: los cuatro hombres que cargan el caballo para no pisar el campo, o el jinete que se echa el saco de harina al hombro para aliviar al asno de su carga

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«Folklorists have compiled atlases of popular culture at a national or regional level; students of the ballad have identified ‘ballad areas’ (Nordic, Romance, Balkan, and Russian); and anthropologists have divided Africa into ‘culture areas’.»y el estado del trabajo: los folcloristas han compilado atlas nacionales o regionales, los estudiosos de la balada han identificado *áreas de balada* —nórdica, románica, balcánica y rusa— y los antropólogos han dividido África en *áreas culturales*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 178»

«The pattern made by the interaction of all these contrasts has been summed up by the Hungarian historian Jenö Szücs as a distinction between three Europes: north-western, southern, and central or eastern.»y la síntesis que recoge: el historiador húngaro Jenö Szücs resumió el patrón de esos contrastes en la distinción entre tres Europas, la noroccidental, la meridional y la central u oriental

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 180»

«Southern Europe, for instance, was Romancespeaking, Catholic (with pockets of Huguenots, Muslims, etc.), with an outdoor culture, ‘the five hundred-ton stone house’ (as the French historian Pierre Chaunu has called it), low literacy (with pockets of high literacy in Northern Italy), and a value-system laying great stress on honour and shame.»y describe una de ellas, con una palabra que el troceo fabrica al unir *Romance-speaking* partido por el salto de renglón: la Europa meridional era de habla romance, católica con bolsas de hugonotes y musulmanes, de cultura al aire libre, con la *casa de piedra de quinientas toneladas* de Pierre Chaunu, de baja alfabetización salvo en el norte de Italia, y con un sistema de valores que subrayaba el honor y la vergüenza; el impreso parte *Romance-speaking* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *Romancespeaking*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 180»

«Jonathan Swift described ‘Opinions like Fashions’ as ‘always descending from those of Quality to the middle Sort, and thence to the Vulgar, where at length they are dropt and vanish’»y cita a Jonathan Swift: las opiniones, como las modas, descienden siempre de la gente de calidad a la clase media y de ahí al vulgo, donde al cabo se dejan caer y se desvanecen

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 182»

«The discoverers of popular culture, such as Herder and the Grimms, reversed this view, believing that creativity came from below, from the people.»y la posición contraria: los descubridores de la cultura popular, como Herder y los Grimm, invirtieron esa visión y creyeron que la creatividad venía de abajo, del pueblo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 182»

«Some folklorists in Germany early in the twentieth century, who discussed this question most fully and explicitly, returned to the earlier view. They held that the culture of the lower classes (Unterschicht) was an out-of-date imitation of the culture of the upper classes (Oberschicht). Images and themes, songs and stories gradually ‘sank’, as they put it, to the bottom of the social scale.»y el regreso a la primera: algunos folcloristas alemanes de principios del XX sostuvieron que la cultura de las clases bajas era una imitación pasada de moda de la de las altas, y que imágenes, temas, canciones y relatos *se hundían* gradualmente hasta el fondo de la escala social

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 182»

«As Redfield put it, ‘Great tradition and little tradition have long affected each other and continue to do so’. A few examples will make the point clear.»y lo apoya en Redfield: la gran tradición y la pequeña llevan mucho tiempo afectándose la una a la otra y siguen haciéndolo; el tramo cruza el salto de renglón del troceo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 182»

«The Florentine apothecary and author Antonfrancesco Grazzini wrote a madrigal on the death of an owl, beginning: Nel mezzo del cammin della sua vita Il mio bel gufo pien d’amore e fede Renduto ha l’alma»y la prueba: el boticario y autor florentino Antonfrancesco Grazzini escribió un madrigal sobre la muerte de un búho que abre parodiando el primer verso del *Infierno*

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«When Montaigne was in Tuscany, he met Divizia, an illiterate countrywoman who had learned how to compose verses by listening to her uncle reading Ariosto.»y el caso de Ariosto: Montaigne conoció en Toscana a Divizia, campesina iletrada que había aprendido a componer versos oyendo a su tío leer el *Orlando*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 183»

«When Joseph Addison visited Italy, he remarked ‘a custom at Venice, that they tell me is particular to the common people of this country, of singing stanzas out of Tasso. They are set to a pretty solemn tune, and when one begins in any part of the poet, ‘tis odds but he will be answered by somebody else that overhears him’.»y el de Tasso: Joseph Addison observó en Venecia una costumbre que le dijeron propia de la gente común del país, cantar estancias de Tasso con tonada solemne, de modo que quien empieza en cualquier punto del poeta será respondido por alguien que lo oye

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 183»

«In England, the mummers borrowed verses from more sophisticated drama. The Ampleforth Play contains fragments of Congreve's Love for Love, while the Mylor Play includes scraps from Addison's own Fair Rosamond.»y el préstamo teatral: los *mummers* ingleses tomaban versos de dramas más sofisticados, con la pieza de Ampleforth trayendo fragmentos del *Love for Love* de Congreve y la de Mylor retazos del propio *Fair Rosamond* de Addison

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 183»

«In similar fashion, nineteenth-century Russian folk plays contain verses from Lermontov and Pushkin.»y el ruso: las piezas populares del XIX contienen versos de Lérmontov y Pushkin

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«In France, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, some 10 per cent of the ‘Bibliothèque Bleue’ was made up of such books, with Pierre of Provence, Ogier the Dane and The Four Sons of Aymon among the most popular titles.»y mide el descenso de las caballerías en Francia: hacia el diez por ciento de la *Bibliothèque Bleue* eran libros así, con *Pierre de Provence*, *Ogier el danés* y *Los cuatro hijos de Aymón* entre los títulos más populares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 184»

«Pierre of Provence was also popular in Portugal, Ogier the Dane (it is scarcely surprising to learn) in Denmark, and The Four Sons of Aymon in the Netherlands.»y su reparto por países: *Pierre de Provence* en Portugal, *Ogier el danés* —cosa poco sorprendente— en Dinamarca y *Los cuatro hijos de Aymón* en los Países Bajos

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«In England, the adventures of Guy of Warwick and Bevis of Hampton were part of the minstrel repertoire in the sixteenth century, and they were still more widely available later in the form of broadside ballads and chapbook romances.»y el caso inglés: las aventuras de Guy of Warwick y Bevis of Hampton eran parte del repertorio juglaresco del XVI y después estuvieron más disponibles en baladas de pliego y novelas de cordel

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«In the case of religion, Edward Thompson made a similar point when he described ordinary Christians as ‘accepting from the church only so much doctrine as can be assimilated to the life-experience of the poor’.»y el religioso, con Edward Thompson: los cristianos comunes aceptaban de la Iglesia solo tanta doctrina como pudiera asimilarse a la experiencia vital de los pobres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 185»

«In the course of the sixteenth century, however, court festivals became more private, more elaborate, and more formal. They made use of more theatrical properties, they developed a greater unity of plot, and they came to require professional organizers, like the English Master of the Revels.»y su separación: en el curso del XVI las fiestas de corte se volvieron más privadas, elaboradas y formales, con más tramoya, más unidad de trama y organizadores profesionales como el *Master of the Revels* inglés; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 185»

«Zrínyi owned estates in Croatia (where he was known as Nikola Zrinski) and spoke Croat as well as Hungarian, Italian and Turkish.»y la base de esa doble pertenencia: Zrínyi tenía tierras en Croacia, donde se lo conocía como Nikola Zrinski, y hablaba croata además de húngaro, italiano y turco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 186»

«In the case of music, John Playford's Dancing Master was a collection of dances intended for ‘ingenious gentlemen’ and their ladies. Nevertheless, the titles of many pieces suggest a popular origin: ‘Gathering Peascods’, ‘Jack a Lent’, ‘Milkmaid's Bob’, or ‘Row ye well, mariners’.»y el caso musical: el *Dancing Master* de John Playford reunía danzas destinadas a *caballeros ingeniosos* y sus damas, y los títulos de muchas piezas delatan origen popular

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«When Handel was in Rome for Christmas 1709, he heard the shepherds of the Abruzzi playing the bagpipes. He wrote the music down and used it in his Messiah.»y el de Händel: en la Navidad romana de 1709 oyó a los pastores de los Abruzos tocar la gaita, anotó la música y la usó en el *Mesías*

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«Haydn, who was the son of a wheelwright and grew up in a village, is said to have collected folksongs and certainly made use of some of them in his symphonies.»y el de Haydn: hijo de un carretero y criado en una aldea, se dice que recogió canciones populares y sin duda usó algunas en sus sinfonías

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 186»

«Goethe's Faust borrowed something from the traditional puppet plays that told the same story.»y el de Goethe: su *Fausto* tomó algo de las piezas de títeres tradicionales que contaban la misma historia

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«The great Hungarian epic of the seventeenth century, Miklós»abre el caso de la épica húngara; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«Zrínyi's The Sziget Disaster (1651) belonged to two traditions: that of the literary epic in the manner of Tasso, whose poetry Zrínyi much admired, and that of the popular oral epic of the Croats.»continuación: *El desastre de Sziget* de Miklós Zrínyi pertenece a dos tradiciones, la épica literaria a la manera de Tasso, cuya poesía admiraba, y la épica oral popular de los croatas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 186»

«When the poet Luigi Pulci wrote to his patron Lorenzo de’ Medici in thieves’ jargon, he was just being playful and showing off his ingenuity.»con el primer caso: cuando Luigi Pulci escribió a su mecenas Lorenzo de Medici en jerga de ladrones, solo jugaba y lucía su ingenio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 186»

«When the poet François Villon, who had several brushes with the law, used the French version of this jargon, it may have expressed express his identification with the thieves.»y el segundo, dicho en condicional: cuando Villon, con varios roces con la ley, usó la versión francesa de esa jerga, pudo expresar su identificación con los ladrones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 186»

«This is also likely in the case of his sixteenth-century Spanish successor, Alonso Alvarez de Soria, the son of a rich merchant who turned pícaro and wrote poems about the picaresque world until he was hanged in 1603.»y el tercero: probablemente lo mismo en su sucesor español del XVI, Alonso Álvarez de Soria, hijo de un mercader rico que se hizo pícaro y escribió poemas del mundo picaresco hasta ser ahorcado en 1603

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 186»

«Alternatively, the borrower may have an ironic attitude to his material, as John Gay surely did in his Beggar's Opera (1728) which adapted some of the street songs of the day.»y la cuarta actitud, irónica: la de John Gay en su *Ópera del mendigo*, que adaptó canciones callejeras de la época

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 186»

«When an educated Venetian of the seventeenth century made use of Venetian dialect to write an anonymous political satire, he was probably suggesting that ordinary people were not happy with the policy of the government, leaving it to the reader to decide whether he agreed with the people or not.»y la quinta: el veneciano educado del XVII que usó el dialecto para una sátira política anónima sugería probablemente que la gente común no estaba contenta con la política del gobierno, dejando al lector decidir si coincidía con el pueblo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«When Charles Perrault drew on French folklore rather than classical mythology for his contes, what was he doing? Equating the common people with children? Or striking a blow for the moderns in their battle with the ancients?»y la sexta, que deja en pregunta: qué hacía Perrault al tirar del folclore francés en vez de la mitología clásica para sus *contes*, si equiparar al pueblo con los niños o dar un golpe por los modernos en su batalla con los antiguos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«popular culture. The early part of his Pantagruel, in particular, drew on the chapbook Grandes et Inestimables Chroniques de l’Enorme Geant Gargantua.»continuación: la primera parte de *Pantagruel* tiraba del pliego *Grandes et Inestimables Chroniques de l'Enorme Geant Gargantua*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«In their turn, the seventeenth-century clowns Bruscambille and Tabarin drew on Rabelais.»y el retorno: a su vez los bufones del XVII Bruscambille y Tabarin tiraron de Rabelais

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«In the nineteenth century, Breton oral traditions included many legends about Gargantua, and it has become impossible to tell whether these traditions go back before Rabelais or reflect the impact of his book.»y el nudo que declara irresoluble: en el siglo XIX las tradiciones orales bretonas incluían muchas leyendas sobre Gargantúa, y se ha vuelto imposible decir si esas tradiciones son anteriores a Rabelais o reflejan el impacto de su libro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«Ariosto offers another example of two-way traffic. He derived his story from the traditional oral epics of the Italian singers of tales and elaborated it in accordance with the ideas of the sophisticated.»y el segundo vaivén: Ariosto sacó su historia de las épicas orales tradicionales de los *cantastorie* italianos y la elaboró según las ideas de los refinados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«Cantos of his Orlando Furioso returned to popular culture in simplified form as chapbooks, while the popular poet Divizia, as we have seen, learned to compose from listening to the Furioso.»y el retorno: cantos del *Orlando Furioso* volvieron a la cultura popular en forma simplificada como pliegos, mientras la poeta popular Divizia aprendió a componer oyendo el *Furioso*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«In Britain, eighteenth-century broadside ballads about King Lear and Titus Andronicus popularized Shakespeare.»y el tercero: en Gran Bretaña las baladas de pliego del XVIII sobre el rey Lear y Tito Andrónico popularizaron a Shakespeare

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«In another nice example of circularity, Percy's Reliques (discussed in Chapter 1), printed popular ballads and so ‘disseminated texts back into the popular culture’.»y el cuarto, que llama bonito ejemplo de circularidad: las *Reliques* de Percy imprimieron baladas populares y con ello diseminaron los textos de vuelta en la cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«Gay's attitude to the beggars and thieves from whom he took his material seems to have been one of affectionate mockery – which is not to say that he was»y su matiz: la actitud de Gay hacia los mendigos y ladrones de quienes tomó el material parece de burla afectuosa; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *not mocking his own world as well*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 186»

«Elias Lönrott appropriated»abre el sexto vaivén, el del *Kalevala*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y el troceo imprime *Lönrott* con dos tes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 187»

«Finnish folksongs to create his famous epic Kalevala, but ‘folk appropriations of Lönrott's epic’ soon followed.»continuación: Lönnrot se apropió de las canciones populares finlandesas para crear el *Kalevala*, y pronto siguieron las apropiaciones populares de su épica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 188»

«Jacob Grimm thought that witch-beliefs came from the people. On the other hand, Joseph Hansen, later in the nineteenth century, argued that they had been elaborated by theologians out of material taken from the Christian and classical traditions.»y consigna las dos posiciones sin arbitrarlas: Jacob Grimm creía que las creencias sobre brujas venían del pueblo, y Joseph Hansen, más tarde en el siglo XIX, sostuvo que las habían elaborado los teólogos con material de las tradiciones cristiana y clásica

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 188»

«This chapbook culture might be regarded as an early form of what the mid-twentieth century American critic Dwight Macdonald called ‘midcult’, situated between the great and little traditions and drawing on both.»y el nombre prestado que le pone: esa cultura del pliego puede verse como forma temprana de lo que el crítico estadounidense Dwight Macdonald llamó *midcult*, situada entre las dos tradiciones y nutrida de ambas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 188»

«Indeed, the scholar Louis Wright called his study of popular literature Middle-Class Culture in Elizabethan England.»y el precedente: el estudioso Louis Wright tituló su estudio de la literatura popular *Middle-Class Culture in Elizabethan England*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 188»

«Just as Italian chapbooks presented cantos of Ariosto in simplified form, Spanish chapbooks offered short and simple versions of the plays of»con los ejemplos: como los pliegos italianos daban cantos de Ariosto en forma simplificada, los españoles ofrecían versiones cortas y sencillas de las comedias; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *Lope de Vega and Calderón*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 188»

«French chapbooks included plays by Corneille, adaptations of Ariosto, and popularizations of Rousseau.»y los franceses: obras de Corneille, adaptaciones de Ariosto y divulgaciones de Rousseau; el troceo imprime la enumeración en columna de una palabra por renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 189»

«English chapbooks included versions of Daniel Defoe's novels Moll Flanders and Robinson Crusoe, reduced to 24 pages each.»y los ingleses: versiones de *Moll Flanders* y *Robinson Crusoe* de Defoe reducidas a veinticuatro páginas cada una

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 189»

«Writers who swam between the learned or the popular traditions and appealed to the public in the middle included the Italian Giulio Cesare Croce, the Spaniard Juan Timoneda, the German Hans Sachs, and the Englishman Thomas Deloney.»y los escritores que nadaban entre las dos tradiciones dirigiéndose al público intermedio: el italiano Giulio Cesare Croce, el español Juan Timoneda, el alemán Hans Sachs y el inglés Thomas Deloney

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 189»

«On Ferrara, E. Welsford, The Court Masque (Cambridge,»la nota 4 documenta la participación de las élites en el carnaval ferrarés con *The Court Masque* de Enid Welsford; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 189»

«G. Fletcher, The Russe Commonwealth (1591: Ithaca, NY, 1966), p. 147. Cf. R. Jakobson, ‘On Russian Fairy Tales’»la nota 11 da la fuente del testimonio sobre Iván el Terrible, *The Russe Commonwealth* de Giles Fletcher, y el ensayo de Roman Jakobson sobre los cuentos rusos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 191»

«A. Gramsci, ‘Osservazioni sul Folclore’, in his Opere, vol. 6 (Turin, 1950), pp. 215f.»la nota 22 remite la estratificación del pueblo a las *Osservazioni sul Folclore* de Gramsci

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«J. M. Yinger, ‘Contra-Culture and Sub-Culture’, American Sociological Review 25 (1960), pp. 625–35; M. Clarke, ‘On the Concept of Sub-Culture’, British Journal of Sociology 25 (1974), pp. 428–41; D. Muggleton, Inside Subculture (Oxford,»la nota 23 da la bibliografía sociológica de *subcultura* y *contracultura*: Yinger, Michael Clarke y el *Inside Subculture* de David Muggleton

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 192»

«Z. Kodály, Folk Music of Hungary (1952: English translation, London 1971), p. 20.»la nota 24 da la plana exacta de la cita de Kodály en la traducción inglesa de su *Folk Music of Hungary*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 192»

«S. Johnson, A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland (1775: Oxford, 1970), pp. 38f.»la nota 28 remite las observaciones sobre los montañeses al *Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland* de Samuel Johnson

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 192»

«F. Braudel, The Mediterranean (1949: English translation, London, 1972), vol. 1, p. 35.»la nota 30 remite el caso de las Alpujarras al *Mediterráneo* de Fernand Braudel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 193»

«J. Hansen, Zauberwahn, Inquisition und Hexenprozess (Bonn, 1900), pp. 400f., followed by H. R. Trevor-Roper, The European Witch Craze (Harmondsworth, 1969) pp. 30f.; contrast N. Cohn, Europe's Inner Demons (London, 1975), p. 225.»la nota 32 pone el desacuerdo por escrito: el *Zauberwahn, Inquisition und Hexenprozess* de Joseph Hansen, seguido por el *European Witch Craze* de Trevor-Roper, frente al *Europe's Inner Demons* de Norman Cohn

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 193»

«On France, M. Louis, Le folklore et la danse (Paris, 1963), pp. 151f.; in central Europe, T. Hornberger, Der Schäfer (Stuttgart, 1955) and W. Jacobeit, Schafhaltung und Schäfer (Berlin, 1961); in Hungary, E. Fél and T. Hofer, Saints, Soldiers, Shepherds (Budapest, 1966), pp. 23f.; in Poland, W. Sobisiak in J. Burszta, Kultura Ludowa Wielkopolska (5 vols., Warsaw,»la nota 34 reúne la bibliografía de la cultura pastoril: Maurice Louis para Francia, Theodor Hornberger y Wolfgang Jacobeit para Europa central, *Saints, Soldiers, Shepherds* de Fél y Hofer para Hungría y Sobisiak para Polonia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 193»

«S. Paolucci, Missioni de’ Padri della Compagnia di Giesù nel Regno di Napoli (Naples, 1651), pp. 21f.»la nota 35 da la fuente del testimonio jesuita sobre los pastores de Eboli

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 193»

«Hornberger, Schäfer, pp. 38f.; Jacobeit, Schafhaltung, pp. 173f.; on Brie, R. Mandrou, Magistrats et sorciers en France»la nota 41 remite el proceso a los pastores de Brie a los *Magistrats et sorciers en France* de Robert Mandrou; el tramo se corta ante el salto de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 194»

«F.C.B. Avé-Lallemant, Das Deutsche Gaunerthum (4 vols, Leipzig 1858–62), 3, pp. 113f; G. Heilfurth (ed.) Bergreihen (Tübingen, 1959); G. Heilfurth (ed.), Bergbau und Bergmann (Marburg, 1967), G. Schreiber, Der Bergbau im Geschichte (Berlin and Opladen, 1962), P. Sébillot, Les travaux publics et les mines (Paris, 1894).»la nota 45 da la bibliografía de la cultura minera: Avé-Lallemant, las colecciones de *Bergreihen* y *Bergbau und Bergmann* de Gerhard Heilfurth, Georg Schreiber y *Les travaux publics et les mines* de Paul Sébillot

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 194»

«G. Tassoni, ‘Il Gergo dei Muratori di Viadana’, in Lares, 20 (1954); D. Knoop and G.P. Jones, The Genesis of Freemasonry, Manchester, 1947; J. M. Roberts, The Mythology of the Secret Societies, London, 1972, ch. 2; for Manole the Mason,»la nota 53 da la bibliografía de los canteros y su descendencia masónica: la jerga de los albañiles de Viadana según Tassoni, *The Genesis of Freemasonry* de Knoop y Jones y *The Mythology of the Secret Societies* de J. M. Roberts

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 195»

«J. L. d’Azevedo, A Evolução do Sebastianismo (Lisbon, 1918), pp. 19f., 27f., 36f.»la nota 59 remite los zapateros profetas portugueses a *A Evolução do Sebastianismo* de João Lúcio de Azevedo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 196»

«T. Gent, The Life of Mr T. Gent (London, 1832), p. 16.»la nota 66 da la fuente de la iniciación del oficial impresor, la vida de Thomas Gent publicada en 1832

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 197»

«F. W. Hasluck, Christianity and Islam under the Sultans (2 vols., Oxford, 1929); H. Henningsen, Crossing the Equator (Copenhagen, 1961).»la nota 78 da la bibliografía de los ritos de paso marineros: *Christianity and Islam under the Sultans* de Hasluck y *Crossing the Equator* de Henning Henningsen

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 198»

«Carlos García, La desordenada codicia de los bienes ajenos (1619: new edn, Barcelona, 1959), chs. 7, 8.»la nota 84 da los capítulos exactos de la *Desordenada codicia* de Carlos García en que se describe la *república* de los ladrones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 199»

«F. Aydelotte, Elizabethan Rogues and Vagabonds (Oxford, 1913), pp. 95f.»la nota 87 remite el rito del *stalling to the rogue* y la escuela de cortabolsas a *Elizabethan Rogues and Vagabonds* de Frank Aydelotte

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 199»

«T. V. Cohen, ‘The Case of the Mysterious Coil of Rope’, Sixteenth-Century Journal 19 (1988), pp. 209–21; David M. Gitlitz, Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews»la nota 88 da la bibliografía del Purim romano y de los criptojudíos, con el *Secrecy and Deceit* de David M. Gitlitz; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 199»

«E. J. Hobsbawm and J. W. Scott, ‘Political Shoemakers’, Past»la nota 63 remite la explicación del zapatero heterodoxo al ensayo *Political Shoemakers* de Hobsbawm y Joan Wallach Scott; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 196»

«J. Caro Baroja, Los Moriscos del Reino de Granada, Madrid, 1957, pp. 108f.; A. Gallego and A. Gámir, Los Moriscos de Granada (Granada, 1968), pp. 59f.; M. Ladero Quesada, Granada (Madrid, 1969), pp. 68f., 163f.; Leonard P. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614 (Chicago, IL, 2005).»la nota 90 reúne la bibliografía morisca: Caro Baroja, Gallego y Gámir, Ladero Quesada y *Muslims in Spain* de Leonard P. Harvey

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 199»

«J. de Quiñones, Discurso contra los Gitanos (Madrid, 1631), f. 11. Cf. C. Clavería, Estudios sobre los Gitanismos del Español»la nota 92 da la fuente del testimonio contra los roma: el *Discurso contra los gitanos* de Juan de Quiñones, Madrid 1631

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 200»

«W. F. Ryan, Russian Magic at the British Library (London, 2006), p. 53; Burke, Historical Anthropology, p. 214.»la nota 99 da las fuentes de las mujeres condenadas por mal uso de lo sagrado: el *Russian Magic at the British Library* de W. F. Ryan y la *Historical Anthropology* del propio Burke

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 200»

«D. Vidal, Le malheur et son prophète (Paris, 1983); C. Garrett, Spirit Possession and Popular Religion (Baltimore MD, 1987), 19–21. Cf. I. M. Lewis, Ecstatic Religion (Harmondsworth, 1971), pp. 75f.»la nota 109 da la bibliografía de las profetisas del Languedoc: Daniel Vidal, el *Spirit Possession and Popular Religion* de Clarke Garrett y el *Ecstatic Religion* de I. M. Lewis

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 202»

«G. Zarri, Le sante vive (Turin, 1990).»la nota 106 remite las *santas vivas* católicas al libro de Gabriella Zarri

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 201»

«C. von Sydow, Selected Papers on Folklore (Copenhagen, 1948), esp. pp. 11f., 44f.»la nota 116 da la fuente del *ecotipo*: los *Selected Papers on Folklore* de Carl von Sydow

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 202»

«A. Fortis, Viaggio in Dalmazia, vol. 1 (Venice, 1774), p.»la nota 124 remite el *zapis* dálmata al *Viaggio in Dalmazia* de Alberto Fortis; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 203»

«J. Meier, Kunstlied und Volkslied in Deutschland (Halle, 1906); H. Naumann, Primitive Gemeinschaftskultur (Jena, 1921). Cf. R. Bendix, In Search of Authenticity (Madison, WI, 1997), p. 113–»la nota 140 nombra a los folcloristas de la teoría del hundimiento: John Meier y la *Primitive Gemeinschaftskultur* de Hans Naumann, con el comentario de Regina Bendix

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 205»

«N. Cohn, Europe's Inner Demons (London, 1975); R. Kieckhefer, European Witch-Trials (London, 1976); C. Ginzburg, Ecstasies (1989: English translation, London, 1990).»la nota 165 da la bibliografía de la imagen de la bruja como mezcla de elementos doctos y populares: el *Europe's Inner Demons* de Norman Cohn, los *European Witch-Trials* de Richard Kieckhefer y las *Ecstasies* de Carlo Ginzburg

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 207»

«D. Macdonald, Against the American Grain (New York, 1972), pp. 3f.: L. B. Wright, Middle-Class Culture.»la nota 166 da la fuente del *midcult*: *Against the American Grain* de Dwight Macdonald, junto con el libro de Louis B. Wright

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 207»

«In short, it is useful to distinguish what Carl von Sydow called the ‘active bearers’ of popular traditions from the rest, who were relatively passive.»y la distinción que adopta de Carl von Sydow: los *portadores activos* de las tradiciones populares frente al resto, relativamente pasivo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 209»

«Carbonnier-Burkard, La réforme, 183, 188; K. V. Thomas, ‘Women and the Civil War Sects’, Past & Present 13 (1958),»la nota 108 remite las predicadoras de las sectas de la guerra civil al ensayo de Keith Thomas *Women and the Civil War Sects*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«On the other hand, prints by some famous artists, such as Romeyn de Hooghe in the Dutch Republic and James Gillray in England, circulated widely. By the eighteenth-century, anyone could view prints in the windows of a print-seller's shop.»y matiza: las estampas de artistas famosos como Romeyn de Hooghe en la República holandesa y James Gillray en Inglaterra circulaban ampliamente, y para el siglo XVIII cualquiera podía verlas en el escaparate de un vendedor de estampas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 209»

«We know the names of some families of French dealers in the rue St-Jacques in Paris who sold popular prints, such as the Basset family (active c.1700–1854), best known because one of them produced prints in favour of the French Revolution.»y nombra a los vendedores: la familia Basset de la rue Saint-Jacques de París, conocida sobre todo porque uno de ellos produjo estampas a favor de la Revolución francesa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 209»

«They include Clemet Håkansson from Småland and Corporal Gustaf Reuter from Hälsingland, two leading Swedish exponents of bonadmåleri (paintings on hangings); Kittil Rygg, of Hallingdal, and Ola Hansson, of Telemark, leading ‘rose-painters’ from east Norway; and Jakob Klukstad, of Gudbrandsdal, perhaps the greatest of the Norwegian woodcarvers of the eighteenth century.»y los nombra: Clemet Håkansson de Småland y el cabo Gustaf Reuter de Hälsingland en el *bonadmåleri*, Kittil Rygg de Hallingdal y Ola Hansson de Telemark entre los pintores de rosas del este de Noruega, y Jakob Klukstad de Gudbrandsdal, acaso el mayor tallador noruego del siglo

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«Clemet Håkansson's son and grandson were painters like him, while the Swedish painter Per Nilsson had not only sons but no less than five daughters following in his footsteps, suggesting that the family worked as a team and produced their paintings at home.»con el caso familiar: el hijo y el nieto de Håkansson fueron pintores como él, y el sueco Per Nilsson tuvo no solo hijos sino nada menos que cinco hijas siguiéndole los pasos, lo que sugiere que la familia trabajaba en equipo y pintaba en casa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 210»

«Performers needed to be masters of quickchange acts. English troupes of actors could make a success of continental tours because their appeal did not depend on language alone. In the words of a Danish document, the English players were ‘musicians and acrobats’ (instrumentister och springere).»y su consecuencia práctica, con una palabra que el troceo fabrica al unir *quick-change* partido por el salto de renglón: los intérpretes tenían que dominar el cambio rápido, y las compañías inglesas triunfaban de gira por el continente porque su atractivo no dependía solo de la lengua, siendo, según un documento danés, músicos y acróbatas; el impreso parte *quick-change* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *quickchange*

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«In the provinces, a well-known example of dealers in prints was the Didier»y en provincias la familia Didier de Épinal, en Lorena; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el fondo de más de cincuenta y seis mil imágenes de Jean-Charles Didier

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 209»

«Specific innovations can sometimes be traced back to individual artists. Erik»y las innovaciones atribuibles a artistas concretos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con Erik Eliasson de Rättvik y el *kurbits*

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«One of the few English minstrels of the sixteenth century whose name has come down to us, Richard Sheale (whose version of the ballad Chevy Chase was printed in Percy's Reliques), described himself as a ‘merry knave’, in other words a clown.»y el testimonio inglés: Richard Sheale, uno de los pocos juglares del XVI cuyo nombre ha llegado y cuya versión de *Chevy Chase* imprimió Percy, se describía como *merry knave*, es decir un payaso

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«Antoine Girard, known as ‘Tabarin’, who performed on the Place Dauphine in Paris, is a famous example. Another was his seventeenth-century contemporary Bertrand Hardouin, known as ‘Guillot-Gorju’, who also worked in Parisa and alternated between the roles of stagedoctor and genuine physician. A third was the Austrian comic actor Josef Anton Stranitzky, who doubled as a drawer of teeth.»y da tres ejemplos: Antoine Girard, *Tabarin*, en la Place Dauphine de París; su contemporáneo Bertrand Hardouin, *Guillot-Gorju*, que alternaba el papel de médico de escena con el de médico genuino, y el cómico austriaco Josef Anton Stranitzky, que doblaba de sacamuelas; el troceo imprime *Parisa*; el impreso parte *stage-doctor* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *stagedoctor*

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«The performing profession had its hierarchy of success. At the top were a few entertainers who worked in large cities, or were summoned to court, or had their works published, among them Tabarin in Paris and in London the clowns Richard Tarlton and William Kemp and the poet John Taylor.»y su jerarquía: arriba unos pocos que trabajaban en las ciudades grandes, eran llamados a la corte o veían publicadas sus obras, como Tabarin en París y en Londres los payasos Richard Tarlton y William Kemp y el poeta John Taylor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 214»

«In sixteenth-century Lisbon, Gil Vicente was active as a poet, actor, and musician, in other words a jogral, a minstrel. In sixteenth-century Hungary, the blind epic poet Sebestyén Tinódi was made a nobleman.»y los continentales: Gil Vicente en la Lisboa del XVI, activo como poeta, actor y músico, es decir *jogral*, y el poeta épico ciego Sebestyén Tinódi, hecho noble en la Hungría del XVI

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«In eighteenth-century Wales, the poet John Parry (to be distinguished from the blind harper of the same name) had his works published after his early death.»y el galés: el poeta John Parry, distinto del arpista ciego del mismo nombre, vio publicadas sus obras tras su muerte temprana; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«A few entrepreneurs also became well-known. In England, there was Martin Powell, who showed his puppets at Bath and moved to Covent Garden in 1710, and Mrs Mynn, a show woman with a company of actors who performed at Bartholomew Fair.»y los empresarios conocidos en Inglaterra: Martin Powell, que mostró sus títeres en Bath y se mudó a Covent Garden en 1710, y Mrs Mynn, feriante con una compañía de actores que actuaba en la feria de San Bartolomé

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«In France there was François Brioché, who had a puppet-stall at the Foire St-Germain. On a visit to Switzerland, Brioché was once arrested as a suspected magician, but he went on to be mentioned by the poet Nicolas Boileau and appointed opérateur de la maison du roi, which might be translated as ‘charlatan by appointment’.»y el francés: François Brioché, con puesto de títeres en la feria de Saint-Germain, a quien en un viaje a Suiza detuvieron por sospechoso de magia y que llegó a ser mencionado por Boileau y nombrado *opérateur de la maison du roi*, lo que podría traducirse como charlatán por nombramiento real

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«A new type of entertainer for the age of print was the professional ballad-writer. In Britain, they included the ex-attorney William Elderton and the ex-weaver Thomas Deloney, as well as individuals on the edge between learned and popular culture such as the poet and playwright Elkanah Settle.»y el tipo nuevo que trae la imprenta: el escritor profesional de baladas, con el exabogado William Elderton, el extejedor Thomas Deloney y figuras a caballo entre lo docto y lo popular como Elkanah Settle

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«Settle, an Oxford man who thought himself a worthy rival to the poet John Dryden and could once describe the Earls of Rochester, Norwich and Shaftesbury as his patrons, ended his career working for Mrs Mynn.»y la caída de Settle: hombre de Oxford que se creía rival digno de Dryden y pudo contar entre sus mecenas a los condes de Rochester, Norwich y Shaftesbury, acabó su carrera trabajando para Mrs Mynn

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«In one play, Settle was said to have been reduced to playing the dragon.»y el detalle con que la cierra: se dijo que en una pieza Settle quedó reducido a hacer de dragón

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«The puppet-showman J. B. Hilverding, for instance, was active in Prague in 1698, in Danzig in 1699, in Stockholm in 1700, in Nuremberg in 1701, and in Basel in 1702.»con el itinerario que lo prueba: el titiritero J. B. Hilverding estuvo activo en Praga en 1698, en Danzig en 1699, en Estocolmo en 1700, en Núremberg en 1701 y en Basilea en 1702

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«The Venetian clowns Zuan»abre las dinastías del oficio con los payasos venecianos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *Polo Liompardi and Zuan Cimador were a successful father-and-son team*

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«Itinerant entertainers might travel alone or in troupes. According to a sixteenth-century Russian church council, the skomorokhi wandered about ‘in bands of up to sixty, seventy or even one hundred men’.»y las formas de viaje: solos o en compañías, y según un concilio de la Iglesia rusa del XVI los *skomorokhi* vagaban en bandas de hasta sesenta, setenta o incluso cien hombres

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«In eighteenth-century England, troupes of strolling players could be seen on the road, too poor to travel by coach but still smartly dressed in order to attract attention. Two actors would be sent ahead of the rest to get permission to play in the towns and villages on their route. Their properties and costumes would be second-hand, even dilapidated, and they would perform in inns or barns (hence the nineteenth-century term of contempt for their ‘barnstorming’).»y la vida de las compañías inglesas del XVIII: demasiado pobres para viajar en coche y aun así bien vestidas para llamar la atención, con dos actores enviados por delante a pedir permiso para actuar, con tramoya y trajes de segunda mano y con función en posadas o graneros, de donde el término despectivo *barnstorming*

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«The French bateleurs lived a similar life and so did the Spanish farsantes. One of the latter, Agustín de Rojas, has left a lively description of the hard life of the players.»y los equivalentes: los *bateleurs* franceses y los *farsantes* españoles, uno de los cuales, Agustín de Rojas, dejó una descripción viva de la vida dura de los actores

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«He distinguished eight kinds of company according to the size of the group, its repertoire, its wealth, and the number of days it spent in a given place before taking to the road again.»y su clasificación: ocho clases de compañía según el tamaño del grupo, su repertorio, su riqueza y los días que pasaba en un sitio antes de volver al camino

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«The bottom four types described by Rojas might be described as ‘popular’. Of these the largest and highest in status was the cambaleo, defined as ‘a woman who sings and five men who weep’.»y las cuatro de abajo, que llama populares: la mayor y de más rango era el *cambaleo*, definido como una mujer que canta y cinco hombres que lloran

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«Rather less grand was the gangarilla, composed of three or four men, ‘one who can play the fool and a boy who plays the women's roles … they eat roast meat, sleep on the ground, drink their draught of wine, travel constantly, perform in every farmyard’.»y la siguiente: la *gangarilla*, de tres o cuatro hombres, uno que sabe hacer el gracioso y un muchacho que hace los papeles de mujer, que comen carne asada, duermen en el suelo, beben su trago de vino, viajan sin parar y actúan en todo corral

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«Next came the ñaque. ‘The ñaque is two men … they sleep in their clothes, go barefoot and don’t satisfy their hunger’. Their only props are a false beard and a tambourine.»y la penúltima: el *ñaque* son dos hombres, que duermen vestidos, van descalzos y no matan el hambre, con una barba postiza y un pandero por únicos avíos

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«At the very bottom of the scale came the bululú, ‘an actor by himself, who travels on foot. He enters a village, goes to the priest and tells him that he knows a play and a loa or two’. (A loa was a verse prologue to an auto.)»y la última: el *bululú*, actor solo que viaja a pie, entra en una aldea, va al cura y le dice que sabe una comedia y una loa o dos, siendo la loa un prólogo en verso de un auto

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«The skomorokhi wore short tunics in the western style, while Tabarin was famous for the unusual shape of his hat.»con los ejemplos: los *skomorokhi* llevaban túnicas cortas al modo occidental y Tabarin era famoso por la forma inusual de su sombrero

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«They had unusual nicknames like ‘Sourmilk’, a lute-player who turned up in Ochsenfurt in 1511, or ‘Brûle-Maison’, a noted singer from eighteenth-century Lille.»y sus apodos: *Leche Agria*, laudista aparecido en Ochsenfurt en 1511, o *Brûle-Maison*, cantor notable del Lille del XVIII

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«Among the vagrants recorded in Salisbury in the»abre el censo de vagabundos de Salisbury; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«early seventeenth century were a fortune-teller, a minstrel, a Morris dancer and two conjurors.»continuación: entre los vagabundos registrados a principios del XVII había un adivino, un juglar, un danzante de *morris* y dos *conjurors*

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«The bululú was only one of many nomadic individual entertainers. A vivid impression of one of them has been left by Georges de la»y lo generaliza: el *bululú* era uno entre muchos animadores nómadas individuales, de los que dejó una impresión viva Georges de La Tour; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«showmen, like Master Pedro in Don Quixote.»continuación: como maese Pedro en el *Quijote*

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«Others were from southern Italy, from Basilicata, for example, where the peasants ‘learn from their infancy to wield the mattock with one hand and the flageolet or bagpipe with the other’ and could be found travelling Italy, France and even Spain.»y otros del sur de Italia, de Basilicata, donde los campesinos aprenden desde la infancia a manejar el azadón con una mano y el flautín o la gaita con la otra, y se los hallaba recorriendo Italia, Francia y hasta España

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«Their attitudes are reflected in the notorious English Act for the ‘restraining of vagabonds’ passed in 1572, which lumped together ‘all fencers, bear-wards, common players in interludes and minstrels … all jugglers, pedlars, tinkers and petty chapmen’, and forbade them all to ‘wander abroad’ without a licence from two justices of the peace.»y la ley que lo prueba: el acta inglesa de 1572 para la represión de los vagabundos metía en el mismo saco a esgrimidores, osarios, actores de entremeses y juglares, malabaristas, buhoneros, caldereros y mercachifles, y les prohibía vagar sin licencia de dos jueces de paz

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«Vuk Stefanović Karadžić wrote that the heroic epics of Serbia owed their circulation in his day to blind singers: ‘The blind men go begging from house to house right round the country. In front of every house, they sing a song, and then ask for something to be given them; when something is offered, they will sing more’.»y el testimonio de Karadžić: las épicas heroicas de Serbia debían su circulación en su tiempo a los cantores ciegos, que iban mendigando de casa en casa por todo el país, cantaban una canción ante cada casa y pedían algo, y si se les ofrecía algo cantaban más; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«Filip Višnjić, one of the greatest of the guslari, told Karadžić that ‘he became blind as a young man as the result of smallpox and then went round the whole pashalik [district] of Bosnia and right down to Skadar, begging and singing to the gusle’.»y la biografía de Filip Višnjić, uno de los mayores *guslari*, que contó a Karadžić que quedó ciego de joven por la viruela y recorrió después todo el bajalato de Bosnia y hasta Skadar mendigando y cantando al *gusle*

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«He eventually prospered, acquired his own horse and cart and, according to Karadžić, became ‘a proper gentleman’.»y su desenlace: prosperó al cabo, se hizo con caballo y carro y, según Karadžić, llegó a ser todo un caballero

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«Višnjić was only one of a number of distinguished blind performers in the eighteenth century, including the Welsh harper John Parry and the Irish harpers Arthur O’Neill and Carolan.»y los otros ciegos distinguidos del XVIII: el arpista galés John Parry y los irlandeses Arthur O'Neill y Carolan

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«In the seventeenth century there was the ballad singer Philippot. In the sixteenth century, famous blind singers included the Portuguese Balthasar Dias, the Hungarian Sebestyén Tinódi, the Italian Niccolò d’Arezzo, and the German Jörg Graff, a former Landsknecht.»y los anteriores: el cantor de baladas Philippot en el XVII, y en el XVI el portugués Baltasar Dias, el húngaro Sebestyén Tinódi, el italiano Niccolò d'Arezzo y el alemán Jörg Graff, antiguo *Landsknecht*

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«Many were Roma, much in demand in central Europe as musicians and»y su origen: muchos eran roma, muy demandados en Europa central como músicos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *sometimes becoming famous like the Czinka family in eighteenth-century Hungary*

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«Itinerant schoolmasters were known in eighteenth-century Wales, where they were sometimes said to be converted harpers or fiddlers, and in eighteenth-century France, where they hired themselves out at fairs, wearing one, two or three feathers in their caps according to whether they taught reading; reading and writing; or reading, writing, and arithmetic.»con el detalle de los maestros itinerantes: en el Gales del XVIII se decía a veces que eran arpistas o violinistas convertidos, y en la Francia del XVIII se alquilaban en las ferias llevando una, dos o tres plumas en la gorra según enseñaran a leer, a leer y escribir, o a leer, escribir y contar

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«There were also wandering holy men – orthodox or unorthodox – like the prophet calling himself ‘Missus a Deo’, who arrived in Bologna in 1517 and preached against the religious orders until the authorities expelled him from the city.»y los santones errantes, ortodoxos o heterodoxos, como el profeta que se hacía llamar *Missus a Deo*, llegado a Bolonia en 1517, que predicó contra las órdenes religiosas hasta que las autoridades lo expulsaron de la ciudad

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«The friars seem to have learned a trick or two from the minstrels in whose steps they followed, for disapproving references can be found to preachers who, ‘in the manner of buffoons, tell silly stories and make the people roar with laughter’.»y lo que aprendieron de los juglares: hay referencias desaprobatorias a predicadores que, a la manera de los bufones, cuentan historias tontas y hacen rugir de risa a la gente

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«Bernardino da Feltre once took his sandal off and threw it at a man who was sleeping during his sermon. Bernardino of Siena sometimes imitated the sound of a trumpet or the buzzing of a fly.»con los ejemplos: Bernardino da Feltre se quitó una sandalia y se la tiró a un hombre que dormía durante su sermón, y Bernardino de Siena imitaba a veces el sonido de una trompeta o el zumbido de una mosca

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«Gabriele Barletta's sermon-notes frequently say ‘shout’ (clama). Olivier Maillard wrote himself the following stage-directions in the margin of a sermon: ‘sit down – stand up – mop yourself – ahem! ahem! – now shriek like a devil’.»y las acotaciones escritas: las notas de sermón de Gabriele Barletta dicen a menudo *grita*, y Olivier Maillard se escribió al margen de un sermón las indicaciones de sentarse, levantarse, secarse el sudor, carraspear y chillar como un demonio

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«The parallel – and the competition – between preachers and professional entertainers was noted by Denis Diderot, among others.»y quién notó el paralelo y la competencia entre predicadores y animadores profesionales: Denis Diderot, entre otros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 221»

«in a single square you can see on one side a stage with mountebanks performing merry but monstrously indecent farces, and on the other, another stage with priests performing farces of a different complexion and shouting out: ‘Take no notice of those wretches, gentlemen; the Pulcinello you are flocking to is a feeble fool; here (displaying the crucifix) is the genuine Pulcinello!’»y cita a Diderot sobre Venecia: en una misma plaza se ve de un lado un tablado con saltimbanquis dando farsas alegres y monstruosamente indecentes, y del otro otro tablado con sacerdotes dando farsas de otra índole y gritando que no se haga caso a esos miserables, que el Pulcinella al que acuden es un pobre necio y que aquí, mostrando el crucifijo, está el Pulcinella verdadero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 221»

«The story that the French Jesuit preacher Emond Auger had been a bearward in secular life was certainly ben trovato and may even have been true.»y una anécdota que consigna con su reserva: la historia de que el jesuita francés Emond Auger había sido osario en la vida seglar era desde luego *ben trovato* y pudo incluso ser cierta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 221»

«In North Wales in the mid-seventeenth century a notable figure was Vavasor Powell, ‘the metropolitan of the itinerants’, as his opponents called him. He preached in Welsh at markets and fairs.»y el galés: Vavasor Powell, a quien sus adversarios llamaban *el metropolitano de los itinerantes*, predicaba en galés en mercados y ferias

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 221»

«The greatest of these preachers, John Bunyan, was already familiar with the wandering life from his tinker's trade.»y el mayor de ellos: John Bunyan, ya familiarizado con la vida errante por su oficio de calderero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 221»

«Roberto Caracciolo, preaching a crusade, was said to have thrown off his»y Roberto Caracciolo, del que se decía que predicando una cruzada se quitó el hábito a media prédica; el troceo imprime el nombre solo en su renglón y el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 220»

«Amateur popular painters are sometimes recorded. Among the church painters of seventeenth-century Norway were several village clergymen.»con el caso registrado: entre los pintores de iglesia de la Noruega del XVII hubo varios clérigos de aldea

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 222»

«Unlike Herder, who, as we have seen (Chapter 1) rejected the idea of an urban popular culture, a number of scholars have described and analyzed the culture of early modern cities, including the reading habits of artisans as well as urban performances.»y el desacuerdo que consigna: a diferencia de Herder, que rechazaba la idea de una cultura popular urbana, varios estudiosos han descrito y analizado la cultura de las ciudades modernas tempranas, incluidos los hábitos de lectura de los artesanos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 222»

«The English mystery plays were performed by guilds such as the butchers or carpenters of York, or the shearmen or the tailors of Coventry, sometimes with the help of professional actors who took the leading parts.»y los ejemplos ingleses: los misterios los representaban gremios como los carniceros o carpinteros de York o los tundidores y sastres de Coventry, a veces con ayuda de actores profesionales en los papeles principales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 222»

«In Florence, the guilds, or guild-based clubs such as the so-called ‘powers’ (Potenze), played an important part in mystery plays and pageants, especially for the feast of the patron of the city, St John the Baptist.»y el florentino: los gremios y los clubes gremiales llamados *Potenze* tenían papel importante en misterios y desfiles, sobre todo en la fiesta de san Juan Bautista, patrono de la ciudad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 223»

«In sixteenth-century Siena, plays were written by members of a club called the ‘Rustics’ (Rozzi), from which people of high status were formally excluded.»y el sienés: las piezas las escribían miembros de un club llamado los *Rozzi*, del que se excluía formalmente a la gente de alto estatus

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 223»

«It was said that in eighteenth-century Flanders, every village had its club, often run by the local schoolmaster or by a professional singer [liedzanger], performing at fairs or on Sunday evenings.»y su alcance: se decía que en la Flandes del XVIII cada aldea tenía su club, dirigido a menudo por el maestro local o por un cantor profesional, que actuaba en las ferias o los domingos por la tarde

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 223»

«Towns might compete with one another to compose and perform the best play. These competitions were particularly important in the Netherlands; 19 dramatic societies or ‘chambers of rhetoric’ took part in the competition in 1539.»y la competencia entre ciudades: podían competir por componer y representar la mejor pieza, sobre todo en los Países Bajos, donde diecinueve cámaras de retórica participaron en la de 1539; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 224»

«preacher was described as one who ‘acts much with his hands,»y la histrionia de los disidentes: un predicador disidente del XVII se describe como quien actúa mucho con las manos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *striking them together or beating his breast, or flinging them about in a rapturous manner*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 221»

«In similar fashion the Spanish guilds mounted pageants for the feast of Corpus Christi. In Paris, the Confrérie de la Passion, which put on many plays in the fifteenth and sixteenth»y los continentales: los gremios españoles montaban los desfiles del Corpus y en París la Confrérie de la Passion puso muchas piezas en los siglos XV y XVI; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 222»

«In Nuremberg in particular, craftsmen achieved fame for writing plays, notably the tinsmith Hans»y los de Núremberg: el hojalatero Hans Rosenplüt entre ellos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el barbero Hans Folz y el zapatero Hans Sachs

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 223»

«Artisans and peasants did not have the monopoly of festive organizations. Noblemen belonged to some of the societies that organized street entertainments, like the Abbey of the Conards in sixteenth-century Rouen or the Infanterie de la Mère Folle in seventeenth-century Dijon.»y la contrapartida: artesanos y campesinos no tenían el monopolio de las organizaciones festivas, porque había nobles en sociedades como la Abadía de los Conards de Ruan o la Infanterie de la Mère Folle de Dijon

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 224»

«In Paris, some of the farces played during Carnival were the work of the Basoche, a club of lawyers’ clerks.»y los letrados: en París algunas farsas de carnaval eran obra de la Basoche, club de escribientes de abogados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 224»

«Lorenzo also composed songs for Carnival, as did his younger contemporary Niccolò Machiavelli. The sixteenth-century Piedmontese nobleman Gian Giorgio Alione wrote farces in the dialects of Asti and Milan.»y los demás: Lorenzo compuso también canciones de carnaval, como Maquiavelo, y el noble piamontés Gian Giorgio Alione escribió farsas en los dialectos de Asti y Milán

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 225»

«Among the known composers of ballads that circulated on broadsheets we find Fray Ambrosio Montesino, who was confessor to Queen Isabella of Spain; and in England, Andrew Marvell, Jonathan Swift and Thomas Wharton (most famous as the author of the satirical song Lilliburlero).»y los autores conocidos de baladas de pliego: fray Ambrosio Montesino, confesor de Isabel de España, y en Inglaterra Andrew Marvell, Jonathan Swift y Thomas Wharton, famoso sobre todo por la canción satírica *Lilliburlero*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 225»

«After the upper-class amateurs, we know most about the lower-class semi-professionals. John Graeme of Sowport in Cumberland was described by Walter Scott as ‘by profession an itinerant cleaner of clocks and watches’.»y pasa a los semiprofesionales de clase baja: John Graeme de Sowport, en Cumberland, a quien Walter Scott describió como limpiador itinerante de relojes de profesión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 225»

«Of the chanteurs-chansonniers of eighteenth-century France, who composed, sang and sold songs in the street, Alexandre was a mason, Hayez a weaver [mulquinier], while Bazolle, known as ‘La Joie’, was, or had been, a soldier.»y los *chanteurs-chansonniers* franceses del XVIII, que componían, cantaban y vendían canciones en la calle: Alexandre era albañil, Hayez tejedor y Bazolle, apodado *La Joie*, era o había sido soldado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 225»

«Some of them seem to have made money and the story was that a famous female performer known as ‘Fanchon’ bought a substantial house on the proceeds of her singing.»y su fortuna: algunos parecen haber hecho dinero, y se contaba que una intérprete famosa llamada *Fanchon* compró una casa sustancial con lo que ganó cantando

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 225»

«Adam Ferguson once recorded a heroic poem from a travelling tailor working in his father's house.»con los casos: Adam Ferguson registró un poema heroico de un sastre ambulante que trabajaba en casa de su padre; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 225»

«Adam Puschman, a sixteenth-century German Meistersinger, was also a tailor.»y Adam Puschman, *Meistersinger* alemán del XVI, era también sastre

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 225»

«In nineteenth-century Russia, an important informant for Pavel Nikolayevich Rybnikov, an official who collected ballads or byliny, was the tailor Leonty Bogdanovich.»y en la Rusia del XIX un informante importante de Pável Nikoláievich Rybnikov, funcionario que recogía *byliny*, fue el sastre Leonti Bogdánovich

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 225»

«Stephen Duck, a Wiltshire thresher who learned the poet's craft by studying Milton, was taken up by Queen Caroline and became a clergyman.»con el primero: Stephen Duck, trillador de Wiltshire que aprendió el oficio de poeta estudiando a Milton, fue acogido por la reina Carolina y se hizo clérigo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 226»

«Giovan Domenico Pèri began as a shepherd who improvised songs while he looked after his sheep, learning his craft from reading Ariosto and Tasso. Pèri attracted the attention of Archduke Cosimo II of Tuscany and was enabled to publish his poems – and also to abandon the popular style.»y el segundo: Giovan Domenico Pèri empezó como pastor que improvisaba canciones cuidando ovejas y aprendió el oficio leyendo a Ariosto y a Tasso, y al llamar la atención del archiduque Cosme II de Toscana pudo publicar sus poemas y abandonar el estilo popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 226»

«Pietro Fullone, a miner from seventeenth-century Palermo, became a legend in his lifetime for the facility with which he improvised verses, but there is a curious gap between this legend and the sophisticated style of the published poetry attributed to him.»y el tercero, con la discrepancia que consigna: Pietro Fullone, minero del Palermo del XVII, fue leyenda en vida por la facilidad con que improvisaba versos, y hay un hueco curioso entre esa leyenda y el estilo sofisticado de la poesía publicada que se le atribuye

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 226»

«Other poets seem to have remained within the popular tradition after they became well-known, like Giulio Cesare Croce, who worked as a blacksmith in Bologna before turning professional.»y los que se quedaron en la tradición popular tras hacerse conocidos, como Giulio Cesare Croce, herrero en Bolonia antes de hacerse profesional

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 226»

«From his autobiography we learn that he was inspired to write verses after a neighbour had given him a damaged copy of Ovid's Metamorphoses.»con el detalle de su autobiografía: se inspiró para escribir versos después de que un vecino le diera un ejemplar estropeado de las *Metamorfosis* de Ovidio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 226»

«Among the leading members of the Rozzi were a paper-seller called Silvestro, who took the nickname ‘Smoky’ (Fumoso)»con sus miembros destacados: un vendedor de papel llamado Silvestro, que tomó el apodo de *Fumoso*; el tramo sigue con el sastre Gianbattista, apodado *Falatico*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 223»

«It is hardly surprising, then, to find some well-known individuals helping to create these popular forms. The authors of French mystery plays include one»y los individuos conocidos que ayudaron a crear esas formas populares, empezando por los autores de misterios franceses; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con Marguerite de Navarre

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 224»

«A literally amphibious figure was that of John Taylor ‘the water poet’, a seventeenth-century London waterman, ferrying customers across the Thames, who became celebrated for his verses.»y la figura que llama literalmente anfibia: John Taylor *el poeta del agua*, barquero londinense del XVII que cruzaba clientes por el Támesis y se hizo célebre por sus versos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 226»

«Taylor was acquainted with learned culture (his reading included Chaucer, Spenser, Montaigne, and Cervantes), but his poems also drew, like Croce's, on popular traditions of the carnivalesque and they appealed both to the gentry and to his own class of urban craftsmen (he despised the culture of the illiterate poor, both urban and rural).»y su doble pertenencia: conocía la cultura docta —leía a Chaucer, Spenser, Montaigne y Cervantes— y sus poemas tiraban también, como los de Croce, de las tradiciones populares de lo carnavalesco, y gustaban a la gentry y a su propia clase de artesanos urbanos, aunque él despreciaba la cultura de los pobres iletrados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 226»

«How many storytellers of the calibre of Dorothea Viehmänn existed before 1800? Were traditions of storytelling of equal importance all over Europe?»y las preguntas que deja sin responder: cuántos narradores del calibre de Dorothea Viehmänn existieron antes de 1800, y si las tradiciones de narrar tenían igual importancia en toda Europa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 226»

«The shanachie was an ordinary countryman with extraordinary skills as a raconteur. He told his stories in Irish and learned his repertoire either in the family or from travelling entertainers. His Welsh equivalent, the cyfarwydd, was also active in the eighteenth century.»y quién era: un campesino común con destrezas extraordinarias de narrador, que contaba en irlandés y aprendía su repertorio en la familia o de animadores itinerantes, con su equivalente galés, el *cyfarwydd*, activo también en el XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 227»

«Foreign tourists allow us a few precious glimpses of Italian storytellers at the end of the eighteenth century. An English clergyman recalled – with some distaste – having seen ‘on the quay at Naples … a thin emaciated object reading with infinite gesticulation and emphasis the Orlando Furioso and translating»y los vislumbres que dan los viajeros extranjeros: un clérigo inglés recordaba, con algún asco, haber visto en el muelle de Nápoles a un objeto flaco y demacrado leyendo con infinita gesticulación y énfasis el *Orlando Furioso* y traduciéndolo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *it into the Neapolitan dialect*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 227»

«On the quay at Venice, Goethe saw a man telling stories in dialect to a mainly lower-class audience and admired the variety and the force of his gestures.»y el segundo: en el muelle de Venecia, Goethe vio a un hombre contando historias en dialecto a un público sobre todo de clase baja y admiró la variedad y la fuerza de sus gestos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 227»

«Gianfrancesco ‘Straparola’ (whose nickname means ‘babbler’), who published a collection of tales in the sixteenth century, may have been a storyteller like these.»y la hipótesis que propone: Gianfrancesco *Straparola*, cuyo apodo significa parlanchín y que publicó una colección de cuentos en el siglo XVI, pudo ser un narrador como esos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 227»

«In Sweden in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, musicians were attached to a particular hundred or parish and had to be furnished with a permit to work in this way.»con el caso sueco: en los siglos XVII y XVIII los músicos estaban adscritos a un distrito o parroquia y debían tener permiso para trabajar así

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 227»

«In French Switzerland, the players (ménétriers) were subject to regulation by Calvinist consistories and from the record it emerges that they were rarely full-time professionals, but worked as servants, shoemakers, tailors, masons, or carpenters.»y el suizo: los *ménétriers* de la Suiza francesa estaban sujetos a la regulación de los consistorios calvinistas, y de esos registros se desprende que rara vez eran profesionales a tiempo completo, sino sirvientes, zapateros, sastres, albañiles o carpinteros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 227»

«It may well be significant that these were all itinerant occupations. Other parttimers, in all probability, were the ‘old women that are hired in Calabria to howl at burials’, as an English visitor so unkindly put it.»y lo que de ahí saca: puede ser significativo que todos fueran oficios itinerantes, y entre los de tiempo parcial estarían con toda probabilidad las viejas contratadas en Calabria para aullar en los entierros, según lo puso con poca amabilidad un visitante inglés; el impreso parte *part-timers* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *parttimers*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 227»

«One was Hans Böhm, ‘the drummer of Niklashausen’, a shepherd from the Würzbürg area (and a drummer on holidays), who was inspired to preach the egalitarian millennium in 1476.»con el primero: Hans Böhm, *el tamborilero de Niklashausen*, pastor de la zona de Wurzburgo y tamborilero en días de fiesta, inspirado en 1476 a predicar el milenio igualitario

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«Another was Pietro Bernardo, a Florentine goldsmith who began to preach and prophesy in the style of the Dominican friar Savonarola about the year 1496 and was executed (as Savonarola had been) six years later.»y el segundo: Pietro Bernardo, orfebre florentino que empezó a predicar y profetizar al estilo de Savonarola hacia 1496 y fue ejecutado, como Savonarola, seis años después

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«In Portugal, Gonzalo Anes Bandarra, a shoemaker turned poet and prophet, fell into the hands of the Inquisition.»y el tercero: en Portugal, Gonçalo Anes Bandarra, zapatero vuelto poeta y profeta, cayó en manos de la Inquisición; el troceo imprime el nombre *Gonzalo* con zeta, frente al *Gonçalo* de la plana 155

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 228»

«In Ireland the shanachies (seanchaidhthe) seem to have played a particularly important»y el caso irlandés de los *shanachies*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *role between the mid-seventeenth century*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 226»

«An occupational hazard for the cunning folk was to be accused of sorcery, on the grounds that ‘whoever knows how to heal knows how to harm’ (qui scit sanare scit destruere), as a witness remarked at a trial in Modena in 1499.»y el riesgo del oficio: ser acusado de hechicería, por el argumento de que quien sabe curar sabe dañar, como dijo un testigo en un proceso de Módena en 1499

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 229»

«Another exceptionally well-documented case is that of Catharina Fagerberg, ‘the wise maid’, a tailor's daughter from Småland in Sweden, who was tried for sorcery in 1732 – and acquitted.»y el segundo caso bien documentado: Catharina Fagerberg, *la doncella sabia*, hija de un sastre de Småland, procesada por hechicería en 1732 y absuelta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 230»

«The impression is confirmed if we look at studies of folk-healers today, in Mexico for instance, for these curanderos, like her, encourage the patients to ‘confess’ their problems, and work first by inducing and then by relieving anxiety and guilt.»y el cotejo que la sostiene: los estudios de curanderos de hoy, en México por ejemplo, muestran que también ellos animan a los pacientes a *confesar* sus problemas y trabajan induciendo primero y aliviando después la angustia y la culpa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 230»

«Thanks to such accusations, historians have been able to discover something about individual practitioners. Román Ramírez, a»y la paradoja documental: gracias a esas acusaciones se sabe algo de practicantes concretos, como Román Ramírez; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el curandero y narrador morisco detenido por la Inquisición en 1595

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 229»

«Alehouses were a setting for popular art. ‘In these houses’, we are told, ‘you shall see the history of Judith, Susanna, Daniel in the lion's den, or Dives and Lazarus painted upon the wall’.»y su decoración: las cervecerías eran escenario de arte popular, y en ellas se veía pintada en la pared la historia de Judit, Susana, Daniel en el foso de los leones o el rico Epulón y Lázaro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«In London in particular, certain inns – and their yards – were important cultural centres, with the innkeeper acting as impresario or animateur. If you wanted to see bearbaiting, clowns, cockfights, fencers, or a performing horse, not to mention plays, the places to go, in the late sixteenth century, were the Bell, the Cross Keys, and the Bel Sauvage, all in Gracechurch Street.»y el caso londinense: ciertas posadas y sus patios eran centros culturales importantes, con el posadero de empresario, y para ver hostigamiento de osos, payasos, peleas de gallos, esgrimidores, un caballo amaestrado o comedias había que ir a fines del XVI al Bell, el Cross Keys y el Bel Sauvage, todos en Gracechurch Street

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 232»

«Leading figures from the entertainment world kept taverns, among them Richard Tarlton the clown or, in the eighteenth century, Daniel Mendoza the pugilist (who had fought in inn-yards), and Thomas Topham the strong man.»y quiénes las regentaban: figuras destacadas del mundo del espectáculo, entre ellas el payaso Richard Tarlton y, en el XVIII, el púgil Daniel Mendoza —que había peleado en patios de posada— y el forzudo Thomas Topham; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 232»

«Certain inns near Covent Garden, like the Harlequin in Drury Lane, were the haunts of eighteenth-century actors, employed or unemployed. Plays were still performed in the yard of the Queen's Arms at Southwark in the eighteenth century.»y su continuidad: ciertas posadas cerca de Covent Garden, como el Harlequin de Drury Lane, eran refugio de actores del XVIII, empleados o desempleados, y aún se representaban piezas en el patio del Queen's Arms de Southwark

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 232»

«Probably not, for the French cabaretier has been described as ‘a key figure in popular culture, a centre of information … an organizer of collective rejoicing’.»y su respuesta provisional: probablemente no, porque al *cabaretier* francés se lo ha descrito como figura clave de la cultura popular, centro de información y organizador del regocijo colectivo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 232»

«Paintings by Pieter Brueghel and David Teniers remind us of the importance of the tavern as a place to dance – inside or outside. So does the Hungarian term csárdas, derived from the word for a country inn (csárda).»y el testimonio pictórico y lingüístico: los cuadros de Brueghel y Teniers recuerdan la importancia de la taberna como sitio de baile, dentro o fuera, y también el término húngaro *csárdas*, derivado de la palabra para posada de campo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 232»

«In eighteenth-century France, singers performed in inns (cabarets) and one of them in Paris, the Tambour Royal, was a well-known haunt of actors.»y el caso francés: en el XVIII los cantores actuaban en los *cabarets*, y uno de ellos en París, el Tambour Royal, era refugio conocido de actores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 233»

«In Spain, wandering puppet-showmen used to perform in inns, while plays were mounted in their courtyards (corrales), as in the case of the Corral de la Pacheca in Madrid in the days before it was replaced by a permanent theatre.»y el español: los titiriteros errantes actuaban en las posadas y las comedias se montaban en sus corrales, como el Corral de la Pacheca de Madrid antes de sustituirse por un teatro permanente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 233»

«Taverns were also places for groups to play cards, dice, and other games. In exile on his country estate, Machiavelli wrote to a friend describing how he visited the local hosteria and played cricca and trich-trach (a kind of backgammon) with the miller and the baker.»y su función lúdica, con el testimonio de Maquiavelo: desterrado en su finca, escribió a un amigo contando que visitaba la hostería local y jugaba a la *cricca* y al *trich-trach* con el molinero y el panadero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 233»

«There were puppet-shows in the marketplace in seventeenth-century Seville, while in Madrid you could watch plays, bullfights, races, and tournaments in the Plaza Mayor, and listen to ballads, if the sound of singing was not drowned by the cries of the knifegrinders and the chestnut women.»con los ejemplos: títeres en el mercado de la Sevilla del XVII, y en Madrid comedias, corridas, carreras y torneos en la Plaza Mayor, y baladas si el canto no quedaba ahogado por los gritos de los afiladores y las castañeras; el impreso parte *knife-grinders* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *knifegrinders*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 233»

«In Rome, people went to Piazza Navona to watch the charlatans and fire-eaters, or to Piazza Pasquino for the latest ‘pasquinades’, anonymous verses criticizing the authorities.»y el romano: a la plaza Navona a ver charlatanes y tragafuegos, o a la plaza de Pasquino por las últimas *pasquinadas*, versos anónimos que criticaban a las autoridades

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 233»

«In Florence, Piazza Signoria was the place for official spectacles, Piazza Santa Croce the place to watch buffaloraces, bullfights or football, and Piazza San Martino (near Or San Michele) the place to listen to the singers of tales.»y el florentino, con su reparto: la plaza de la Señoría para los espectáculos oficiales, la de Santa Croce para carreras de búfalos, corridas o fútbol, y la de San Martino para oír a los *cantastorie*; el impreso parte *buffalo-races* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *buffaloraces*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 233»

«In Venice, it was Piazza San Marco where the leading charlatans set up their benches, made their jests, and sold their medicines. They were vividly described by Thomas Coryate, an English traveller who visited the city in 1608.»y el veneciano: en la plaza de San Marcos montaban su banco los charlatanes principales, hacían sus chanzas y vendían sus medicinas, descritos vivamente por el viajero inglés Thomas Coryate en 1608

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 233»

«Piazza culture extended to Paris, for Place de Grève was the centre for public spectacles such as executions – the bandit Cartouche was broken on the wheel there in 1721 – or the bonfires on St John's Eve.»y su extensión al norte: la cultura de plaza llegaba a París, con la Place de Grève por centro de espectáculos públicos como las ejecuciones —allí se desmembró al bandido Cartouche en 1721— o las hogueras de la noche de San Juan

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 233»

«Bridges as well as squares were cultural centres. In Paris after 1600, the Pont-Neuf became the haunt of players and puppet-masters, charlatans and tooth-drawers, ballad-singers and hawkers of pamphlets, not to mention recruitingsergeants, orange-sellers and cutpurses.»y los puentes como centros culturales: en el París posterior a 1600 el Pont-Neuf se volvió refugio de actores y titiriteros, charlatanes y sacamuelas, cantores de baladas y vendedores de panfletos, además de sargentos de recluta, vendedoras de naranjas y cortabolsas; el impreso parte *recruiting-sergeants* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *recruitingsergeants*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 234»

«A man nicknamed ‘le Rhingrave’, sold both songs and onions there. So celebrated were the singers on this bridge that the term pont-neuf came to mean ‘song’.»y su fama: un hombre apodado *le Rhingrave* vendía allí canciones y cebollas, y tan célebres eran los cantores de ese puente que *pont-neuf* pasó a significar canción

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 234»

«Fairs would be timed to coincide with a major local festival: the feast of the Ascension at Venice (a 15-day fair), the feast of St Anthony at Padua (another 15-day fair), and so on.»y su calendario: las ferias se hacían coincidir con una fiesta local mayor, como la de la Ascensión en Venecia, de quince días, o la de san Antonio en Padua, de otros quince

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 234»

«A printed folktale about a spirit, Robin»y el testimonio de ficción: un cuento impreso sobre un espíritu, Robin Goodfellow; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la cervecería de Kent y la posadera que cuenta la historia a sus clientes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 231»

«Sixteenth-century Sweden was a small enough country for the king to go to the marknadsmöten or ‘market-meetings’ to explain his policies to the people and discover what they were thinking.»con el caso sueco: la Suecia del XVI era país bastante pequeño para que el rey acudiera a los *marknadsmöten* a explicar su política al pueblo y averiguar qué pensaba

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 234»

«Around the year 1600, troupes of English and French actors used to go to Frankfurt twice a year, at Easter and in the autumn, to entertain the crowds at the fairs.»y el alemán: hacia 1600 las compañías inglesas y francesas iban a Fráncfort dos veces al año, en Pascua y en otoño, a entretener a las multitudes de las ferias

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 234»

«In England, Bartholomew Fair and Stourbridge Fair were leading centres of entertainment. Bartholomew Fair was held at Smithfield on 25 August, the feast of St Bartholomew, the patron of butchers.»y el inglés: las ferias de San Bartolomé y de Stourbridge eran centros principales de entretenimiento, la primera en Smithfield el 25 de agosto, fiesta de san Bartolomé, patrono de los carniceros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 235»

«There, in the seventeenth century, you could see plays, puppet-shows, clowns, rope-dancers, and waxworks, introduced by showmen dressed as fools or as wild men of the woods, while your ears were assaulted by drums and penny trumpets and your nose by what the satirist Ned Ward described as ‘the odoriferous effluvia that arose from the singeing of pigs’, since roast pork was an essential part of the occasion.»y qué se veía allí en el XVII: comedias, títeres, payasos, danzantes de cuerda y figuras de cera, presentados por feriantes vestidos de locos o de hombres salvajes del bosque, con los oídos asaltados por tambores y trompetas de a penique y la nariz por lo que el satírico Ned Ward llamó los efluvios odoríferos del chamuscado de los cerdos, porque el cerdo asado era parte esencial de la ocasión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 235»

«The fair held at Stourbridge, near Cambridge, lasted three weeks from 8 September onwards. When James I issued orders against the ‘unprofitable games’ at»y la de Stourbridge, cerca de Cambridge, que duraba tres semanas desde el 8 de septiembre y contra cuyos *juegos improductivos* dictó órdenes Jacobo I; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 235»

«Stourbridge, he mentioned ‘bull-baiting, bear-baiting, common plays, public shows, interludes, comedies, and tragedies in the English tongue, games at loggets (throwing pieces of wood at a stake), nine-holes (a form of golf)’.»y lo que la orden enumeraba: hostigamiento de toros y de osos, comedias comunes, espectáculos públicos, entremeses, comedias y tragedias en lengua inglesa, y juegos de *loggets* y de *nine-holes*, una forma de golf

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 235»

«Such was the convenience of meeting at the fair that it even attracted the godly. The Presbyterians held a synod at Stourbridge Fair about 1588, and in 1678 the Muggletonians met there.»y la conveniencia del sitio: era tal que atraía hasta a los piadosos, con un sínodo presbiteriano en la feria de Stourbridge hacia 1588 y una reunión de *muggletonianos* en 1678

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 235»

«The traditional performer has often been presented, from the Grimm brothers onwards, as no more than the mouthpiece of the community, a spokesperson for popular tradition.»y las dos posiciones sin arbitrarlas: desde los Grimm se ha presentado al intérprete tradicional como mera boca de la comunidad, portavoz de la tradición popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«Other scholars and critics, from the time of August Wilhelm Schlegel and Walter Scott, have emphasized the importance of individual ‘tradition-bearers’, with their own ways of singing their songs or telling their tales.»y la contraria: desde August Wilhelm Schlegel y Walter Scott otros han subrayado la importancia de los *portadores de tradición* individuales, con sus modos propios de cantar sus canciones y contar sus cuentos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«Richard Tarlton, for example, has been described as ‘the first actor to achieve stardom’.»y el ejemplo: a Richard Tarlton se lo ha descrito como el primer actor en alcanzar el estrellato

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«John Parry had a famous playing-contest with a fellow-harper, Hugh Shan Prys, while another famous harper, the Irishman Carolan, had what was described as a ‘scalding match’ with his rival MacCabe.»con los casos: John Parry tuvo un certamen famoso de arpa con Hugh Shan Prys, y el irlandés Carolan lo que se describió como un *duelo abrasador* con su rival MacCabe

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«In Sicily in the seventeenth century, the sfida or challenge from one popular poet to another to improvise the best verses seems to have been a custom or even an institution.»y el siciliano: en el siglo XVII la *sfida*, el reto de un poeta popular a otro a improvisar los mejores versos, parece haber sido costumbre o incluso institución

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«as the American folklorist Phillips Barry put it, ‘there are texts, but no text; tunes, but no tune’.»con la fórmula del folclorista estadounidense Phillips Barry: hay textos, pero no un texto; tonadas, pero no una tonada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 237»

«Outside Paris, a distinctive form of theatre grew up in the later seventeenth century at the Foire St-Germain, which ran from 3 February till Easter, and the Foire St-Laurent, which lasted from the end of June till about 1 October. Here, among the coffee-shops and»y el parisino: en las ferias de Saint-Germain y Saint-Laurent creció a fines del XVII una forma de teatro distintiva; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con los actores italianos y sus pantomimas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 234»

«Modern studies of tradition-bearers suggest that some are ‘faithful unto incomprehension’, preserving phrases they do not understand,»y lo que muestran los estudios modernos: unos portadores de tradición son fieles hasta la incomprensión y conservan frases que no entienden; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con los que reinterpretan según sus preferencias

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 236»

«One collector of the late eighteenth century, ‘Otmar’, pointed out that the singers he knew told their stories differently every time they performed according to their audience or even the weather.»con el testimonio de Otmar: los cantores que conocía contaban sus historias de modo distinto cada vez que actuaban, según el público o incluso el tiempo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 237»

«In the case of a few singers at the end of the period, such as Filip Višnjić, whose performances were recorded in detail by Karadžić, or Arhippa Perttunen, a major source for Lönrott, it has even proved possible to study their idiosyncrasies and innovations in some detail.»y los casos que permiten medirlo: Filip Višnjić, cuyas ejecuciones registró Karadžić en detalle, y Arhippa Perttunen, fuente mayor de Lönnrot, cuyas idiosincrasias e innovaciones se han podido estudiar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 237»

«In other cases, we have to be content with vaguer contemporary or sub-contemporary comment. The Italian actor Silvio Fiorillo was given the credit for inventing the character of Pulcinella»y donde no se puede: hay que conformarse con comentarios contemporáneos vagos, como el crédito dado al actor italiano Silvio Fiorillo por inventar el personaje de Pulcinella

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 237»

«while Josef Anton Stranitzky's transformation of the traditional clown's role of Hanswurst, which he played in Salzburg peasant costume, has led him to be described as the creator of the Viennese popular drama – although his own performances were principally for the court.»y el segundo, con su reserva: la transformación que Josef Anton Stranitzky hizo del papel tradicional de Hanswurst, al que daba traje de campesino de Salzburgo, le ha valido ser llamado creador del drama popular vienés, aunque sus funciones fueran principalmente para la corte

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 237»

«Scottish examples include The auld man's mare's dead, attributed to Patrick Birnie, a seventeenth-century fiddler, and Macpherson's Rant, which another fiddler, James Macpherson, is said to have both composed and played on the scaffold immediately before his execution, for cattle theft, in 1700.»con los ejemplos escoceses: *The auld man's mare's dead*, atribuida al violinista del XVII Patrick Birnie, y *Macpherson's Rant*, que otro violinista, James Macpherson, habría compuesto y tocado en el cadalso justo antes de su ejecución por robo de ganado en 1700

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 237»

«Some urban popular poets such as Hans Sachs signed off at the end of their verses, as if to make sure that they got the credit for their inventiveness»y el contraste: algunos poetas populares urbanos como Hans Sachs firmaban al final de sus versos, como para asegurarse el crédito de su inventiva

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«Dass aus dem Schwank kein Unrat wachs, bitt und begehrt mit Fleiss Hans Sachs. (Hans Sachs begs and fervently hopes that his joke will not give rise to anything untoward).»y cita esa firma con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: Hans Sachs ruega y espera fervientemente que su chanza no dé lugar a nada inconveniente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«However, Sachs was on the margin of traditional popular culture. The more traditional attitude was the one that Karadžić noticed on his travels through Serbia.»y lo sitúa: Sachs estaba en el margen de la cultura popular tradicional, y la actitud más tradicional era la que Karadžić observó en sus viajes por Serbia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«There, no performer would admit to having composed a new song. ‘Everyone denies responsibility, even the true composer, and says that he heard it from someone else’.»y en qué consistía: allí ningún intérprete admitiría haber compuesto una canción nueva, porque todos declinan la responsabilidad, aun el compositor verdadero, y dicen haberla oído de otro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«The individual may invent, but in an oral culture, as the English folksong-collector Cecil Sharp emphasized, ‘the community selects’.»y la fórmula con que reparte los papeles, tomada de Cecil Sharp: el individuo puede inventar, y en una cultura oral la comunidad selecciona

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 238»

«J. Delumeau, La religion de ma mère: les femmes et la transmission de la foi (Paris, 1992), pp. 11–14.»la nota 1 remite la transmisión materna de la fe a *La religion de ma mère* de Jean Delumeau

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 239»

«E. Pócs, Between the Living and the Dead: A Perspective on Witches and Seers in the Early Modern Age (1997: English translation Budapest, 1999), p. 8.»la nota 2 da la fuente de la definición de la *cunning folk*: *Between the Living and the Dead*, de Éva Pócs, sobre brujas y videntes en la edad moderna temprana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 239»

«V. Turner, The Forest of Symbols (Ithaca, NY, 1967), esp. chs. 6, 10; G. Levi, Inheriting Power (1985: English translation, Chicago, IL, 1988); G. Tomlinson, Music in Renaissance Magic (Chicago, IL, 1993).»la nota 9 apoya la lectura de la cura como drama social en *The Forest of Symbols* de Victor Turner, *Inheriting Power* de Giovanni Levi y *Music in Renaissance Magic* de Gary Tomlinson

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 240»

«T. Garzoni, La Piazza Universale (Venice, 1585), chs. 103–4; D. Gentilcore, Healers and Healing in Early Modern Italy (Manchester, 1998); D. Gentilcore, ‘Was there a “popular medicine” in Early Modern Europe?’, Folklore 115 (2004), pp. 151–66.»la nota 10 da la fuente del charlatán y el *mountebank*: *La Piazza Universale* de Tomaso Garzoni, Venecia 1585, y los trabajos de David Gentilcore sobre la curación en la Italia moderna temprana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 240»

«In the visual arts, significant innovations have been attributed to peasant painters»y en las artes visuales: se han atribuido innovaciones significativas a pintores y talladores campesinos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con Malar Erik Eliasson y Jakob Klukstad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 237»

«A. Cronia (ed.) Poesia Popolare Serbo-Croata (Padua, 1949), introduction; A. B. Lord, The Singer of Tales (Cambridge, MA, 1960); A. Rambaud, La Russie Epique (Paris, 1876), p.»la nota 21 da la bibliografía de los cantores de tradición eslavos: la antología de Cronia, *The Singer of Tales* de Albert Lord y *La Russie Epique* de Alfred Rambaud

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 241»

«R. Suggett, ‘Vagabonds and Minstrels in Sixteenth-Century Wales’, in A, Fox and D. Woolf (eds.) The Spoken Word: Oral Culture in Britain, 1500–1850 (Manchester, 2002), pp. 138–72; J. Caro Baroja, Ensayo sobre la literatura del cordel (Madrid, 1969), pp. 46f., 179f.; J. E. Varey, Historia de los títeres en España (Madrid, 1957), pp. 109f., 232f.»la nota 22 reúne la bibliografía de juglares y titiriteros: Richard Suggett sobre el Gales del XVI, el *Ensayo sobre la literatura de cordel* de Caro Baroja y la *Historia de los títeres en España* de J. E. Varey

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 242»

«O. Niccoli, Prophecy and People in Renaissance Italy (1987: English translation, Princeton, NJ, 1990); G. Zarri, Le sante vive (Turin, 1990), pp. 87–163.»la nota 28 da las fuentes de los profetas y las *santas vivas*: *Prophecy and People in Renaissance Italy* de Ottavia Niccoli y *Le sante vive* de Gabriella Zarri

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 242»

«N. Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium (London, 1957), p. 226f.; D. Weinstein, Savonarola and Florence (Princeton, NJ, 1970), p. 324f. Cf. Niccoli, Prophecy and People.»la nota 52 remite el tamborilero de Niklashausen y Pietro Bernardo a *The Pursuit of the Millennium* de Norman Cohn y al *Savonarola and Florence* de Donald Weinstein

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 245»

«L. P. Harvey, ‘Oral Composition and the Performance of Novels of Chivalry in Spain’, in J. J. Duggan (ed.) Oral Literature (Edinburgh, 1974), pp. 84–100.»la nota 59 remite el caso del morisco Román Ramírez al ensayo de Leonard P. Harvey sobre composición oral y ejecución de novelas de caballerías en España; el mismo título se reimprime en la bibliografía selecta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 246»

«C.-M. Edsman, ‘A Female Swedish Folk Healer’, rpr in Edsman (ed.) Studies in Shamanism (Stockholm, 1967), pp. 120–65. Cf. A. Kiev, Curanderismo (New York and London, 1968), ch.»la nota 60 da las fuentes de Catharina Fagerberg y del cotejo con los curanderos mexicanos: el ensayo de Carl-Martin Edsman en sus *Studies in Shamanism* y el *Curanderismo* de Ari Kiev

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 246»

«P. Clark, The English Alehouse (London, 1983).»la nota 62 remite la taberna inglesa al *English Alehouse* de Peter Clark

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 246»

«T. Coryate, Crudities (1611: 2nd edn, 2 vols., Glasgow, 1905), 1, p. 409f.»la nota 68 da la fuente de la descripción de los charlatanes de San Marcos: las *Crudities* de Thomas Coryate

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 247»

«C. Sharp, English Folksong (London, 1907), p. 13f.; R. Jakobson and P. Bogatyrev, ‘Folklore as a Special Form of Creation’ (1929: English translation https://archive.org/ details/roman-jakobson).»la nota 83 da las fuentes de la selección comunitaria y la *censura preventiva*: el *English Folksong* de Cecil Sharp y el ensayo de Jakobson y Bogatyrev

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 248»

«1971), ch. 8; A. D. Macfarlane, Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England (London, 1970), ch. 8.»la nota 54 remite las técnicas de la *cunning folk* al capítulo 8 de *Religion and the Decline of Magic* de Keith Thomas y al capítulo 8 del *Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England* de Macfarlane

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 245»

«London, 1983), pp. 45f., 56f., 82f., 96, 151, 123f.»la nota 55 da las planas exactas de *The Night Battles* de Ginzburg para los sanadores del norte de Italia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 245»

«H. Tillhagen, ‘Finnen und Lappen als Zauberkundige’, Festschrift G. Heilfurth (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 129–44.»la nota 56 remite los *kloka* suecos y los lapones al ensayo de Tillhagen *Finnen und Lappen als Zauberkundige*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 245»

«Superstitious Remedies in 16th-Century Italy’, in S. L. Kaplan (ed.) Understanding Popular Culture (Berlin, 1984), pp. 53–»la nota 57 remite el dicho de que quien sabe curar sabe dañar al ensayo de Mary O'Neil sobre los remedios eclesiásticos y supersticiosos en la Italia del XVI

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 246»

«The first paradox is that in oral tradition, the same tune is different. As Zoltán Kodály (who was, like his compatriot Béla Bartók, an ethnomusicologist as well as a composer) once remarked, ‘In folk music … a variation is produced by the lips of the singer on every occasion’.»y la primera paradoja: en la tradición oral la misma tonada es distinta, porque, como observó Kodály, en la música popular los labios del cantor producen una variación en cada ocasión

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 250»

«For example, an Englishman who listened to some itinerant musicians at Otranto in the late eighteenth century commented that they were ‘wont to embellish the common tune with variations out of their own fancy’.»con el testimonio: un inglés que escuchó a unos músicos itinerantes en Otranto a fines del XVIII comentó que solían adornar la tonada común con variaciones de su propia invención

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 251»

«Two manuscript collections of violin melodies from Slovakia in the 1730s record the tunes in schematic and abbreviated form, as if they were no more than a framework for improvisation.»y la evidencia manuscrita: dos colecciones eslovacas de melodías de violín de los años treinta del XVIII registran las tonadas en forma esquemática y abreviada, como si no fueran más que un marco para improvisar

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 251»

«All the dancers, men and women, join hands, form a circle and begin to turn slowly … the circle keeps changing its shape and becomes now an ellipse, now a square, as the dance goes faster; finally, it turns into great leaps into the air.»y cita la descripción del *kolo* dálmata por un visitante italiano de fines del XVIII: todos los danzantes, hombres y mujeres, se dan la mano, forman un círculo y empiezan a girar despacio, el círculo va cambiando de forma y se vuelve elipse o cuadrado a medida que la danza acelera, y al final se convierte en grandes saltos al aire

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 252»

«Sword dances seem to have been particularly common in towns in the German-speaking world in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and were often associated with particular guilds or occupations. In Cologne it was the smiths who danced the sword dance; in Lübeck the bakers and the soldiers; in Zwickau in Bohemia, the butchers; in Leipzig, the shoemakers; in Breslau (now Wrocław, in Poland), and in Danzig the skinners; in Danzig (now Gdańsk), the sailors.»y su reparto gremial: las danzas de espadas parecen haber sido especialmente comunes en las ciudades germanohablantes de los siglos XVI y XVII y se asociaban a menudo a gremios concretos, con los herreros en Colonia, los panaderos y los soldados en Lübeck, los carniceros en Zwickau, los zapateros en Leipzig, los peleteros en Breslavia y Danzig y los marineros en Danzig

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 253»

«In England, the jig, often performed at the end of plays in sixteenth-century London, combined dancing, repartee, and comic business. Richard Tarlton and Will Kemp were masters of that art.»y el caso inglés: la giga, ejecutada a menudo al final de las comedias en el Londres del XVI, combinaba danza, réplica y juego cómico, y Richard Tarlton y Will Kemp eran maestros de ese arte

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 253»

«Another dance of this kind was the sarabande, described by a modern writer as ‘a sexual pantomime of unparalleled suggestiveness’. It was introduced into Spain, possibly from the Arab world, in the late sixteenth century, and quickly condemned by moralists.»y la zarabanda, que un autor moderno describe como pantomima sexual de sugestión sin par, introducida en España a fines del XVI acaso desde el mundo árabe y condenada pronto por los moralistas; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 253»

«Braccio valente vince omni gente. Papa Martino Non vale un quattrino (Brave Braccio conquers everyone/Pope Martin is not worth a farthing).»y cita una italiana del siglo XV contra el papa Martín V y el condotiero Braccio da Montone, con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: el bravo Braccio vence a todos, el papa Martín no vale un cuarto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 255»

«Woe be unto Kendal that ever he was born, He keeps his wife so lustily, she makes him wear a horn, But what is he the better or what is he the worse? She keeps him like a cuckold with money in his purse.»y la copla: ay de Kendal que naciera nunca, que tiene a su mujer tan lozana que le hace llevar cuernos, aunque ni mejor ni peor le va, porque ella lo mantiene de cornudo con dinero en la bolsa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 256»

«Ah qu’il est lamentable, le sort des matelots, Il mangent des gourganes, ils boivent que l’eau, Ils font triste figure quand ils ont pas d’argent, Ils couchent sur la dure, comme les pauvres gens. (How unhappy is the fate of sailors/they eat dried beans and drink only water/they are a sorry sight when they have no money/they sleep rough, like poor people).»y cita el ejemplo francés de marineros con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: qué lamentable es la suerte de los marineros, que comen habas secas y solo beben agua, que hacen triste figura cuando no tienen dinero y que duermen en duro como los pobres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 256»

«Innsbruck, ich muss dich lassen Ich fahr dahin mein Strassen In fremde Land dahin. (Innsbruck, I must leave thee/I am going my way/To a strange place).»y cita el ejemplo alemán con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: Innsbruck, he de dejarte, sigo mi camino a tierra extraña

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 256»

«It was succeeded by the fandango, which came to Spain from the Americas about 1700 and provoked a»y su sucesor, el fandango, llegado a España desde América hacia 1700; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el testigo que lo comentó

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 253»

«A study of the German popular lyric of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries lists scores of verse phrases which can be found in one song after another, whether the lover is describing his beloved as ‘pretty’ (hübsch und fein); the time of their meeting, ‘late one evening’ (an einem abend spät); the place, ‘deep in the greenwood’ (so fern in grönem walde); or his reaction to»con el estudio que lo mide: un trabajo sobre la lírica popular alemana de los siglos XV y XVI enumera decenas de frases de verso que reaparecen de una canción a otra; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *rejection, ‘my heart will break’*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 254»

«Moving from Italy to a village in Essex, this comment on the behaviour of a neighbour has survived in writing, though it is not»y otra inglesa, de una aldea de Essex, que sobrevivió por escrito; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *difficult to imagine people singing it in the hearing of the victim*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 255»

«Young Bekie was as brave a knight As ever sailed the sea An he's doen him to the court of France, To serve for meat and fee. (Child 53)»cita el ejemplo británico del *common measure*, la balada 53 de Child: el joven Bekie era caballero tan bravo como el que más navegó el mar, y se fue a la corte de Francia a servir por comida y paga

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 257»

«Es reit der Herr von Falkenstein Wohl über ein breite Heide. Was sieht er an dem Wege stehn? Ein Mädel mit weissem Kleide. (The Lord of Falkenstein is riding over a wide heath. What does he see standing in his path? A girl dressed in white.)»y el alemán, con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: el señor de Falkenstein cabalga por un ancho brezal y ve en su camino a una muchacha vestida de blanco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 257»

«Vino pije/Kraljeviću Marko, Sa staricam/Jevrosimom majkam. (Marko Kraljević was drinking wine/with old mother Euphrosina.)»y cita el ejemplo serbio con su traducción inglesa: Marko Kraljević bebía vino con su vieja madre Eufrosina

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 257»

«In Italy, the standard form was ottava rima, the tightest of all these forms, a twelve-syllable line in an eight-line stanza rhyming a b a b a b c c: O bona gente che avete ascoltato el bel contrasto del vivo e del morto Iddio vi guardi di male e peccato E diavi pace e ogni bon conforto Christo del cielo re glorificato alla fin vi conduca nel buon porto nel paradiso in quella summa gloria al vostro onore e finita questa historia. (O good people who have listened to the fine debate between the living and the dead, God keep you from evil and sin and give you peace and every good comfort; may Christ the glorious king of Heaven lead you in the end to the good harbour, to the height of glory in Heaven; in your honour this story is finished.)»y la italiana, la más ceñida de todas: la octava rima, estrofa de ocho versos de doce sílabas rimados a b a b a b c c, con el cierre en que se despide a la buena gente que ha escuchado el debate entre el vivo y el muerto

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 258»

«Per oggi son le mie imprese finite: Ritornate domane e hor partite. (I have finished for today: go away now and come back tomorrow),»y el italiano, que cierra su primer canto anunciando que por hoy terminan sus hazañas y que vuelvan mañana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 259»

«In oral tradition, texts behave like tunes. The same text is different and different texts are the same, as the committee of the Highland Society discovered when they were investigating the authenticity of Macpherson's Ossian and found a multitude of ‘compositions which had never been fixed by publication but floated … in the oral recitation of senachies or bards’.»y la tesis que traslada de las tonadas a los textos: en la tradición oral el mismo texto es distinto y textos distintos son el mismo, como descubrió el comité de la Highland Society al investigar la autenticidad del Ossian de Macpherson y hallar una multitud de composiciones que nunca se habían fijado por publicación y flotaban en la recitación oral de *senachies* o bardos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 259»

«Child 117, A Gest of Robin Hood, lasts for 1,824 lines, enough to be described as an epic. The motif of the feast or dinner, recurrent but sketchy in the ballads, can therefore be developed much more fully.»con el ejemplo: el *Gest of Robin Hood* dura mil ochocientos veinticuatro versos, bastantes para llamarlo épica, y en él el motivo del banquete, recurrente pero esquemático en las baladas, puede desarrollarse mucho más

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 259»

«Two points about formulae and motifs deserve emphasis. The first is their frequency. An analysis of 237 traditional Spanish ballads showed that on average 35 per cent of their lines were formulaic, the proportion varying between 2 per cent and 68 per cent in different ballads.»y la primera de las dos cosas que subraya, su frecuencia: un análisis de doscientas treinta y siete baladas españolas tradicionales mostró que en promedio el treinta y cinco por ciento de sus versos eran formulaicos, con una proporción que varía entre el dos y el sesenta y ocho por ciento

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 260»

«Los vientos eran contrarios, la luna estaba crecida, los peces daban gemidos por el mal tempo que hacía. (The winds were contrary/the moon was full/the fish were groaning/because of the bad weather).»y cita el romance con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: los vientos eran contrarios, la luna estaba crecida, los peces daban gemidos por el mal tiempo que hacía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 258»

«This was the practice of singers of tales in Yugoslavia in the early twentieth century.»con la evidencia: esa era la práctica de los cantores yugoslavos de principios del siglo XX; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con los poemas narrativos divididos en cantos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 258»

«Two of these episodes, in the first and the fourth ‘fits’ of the poem, are particularly close in structure. In each»y el cotejo detallado de dos de esos episodios, en el primero y el cuarto *fit*, especialmente próximos en estructura; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con Little John y la cena en el bosque

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 259»

«If we were listing examples of this motif among the British ballads, it would be odd to include Child 17, Hind Horn, where the hero turns up at his love's wedding, and not Child 53, Young Beichan, which reverses the situation and makes the hero's first true love return just when young Beichan is marrying someone else.»y la dificultad de contarlos: al listar ejemplos de ese motivo entre las baladas británicas sería raro incluir la 17 de Child, *Hind Horn*, donde el héroe aparece en la boda de su amada, y no la 53, *Young Beichan*, que invierte la situación y hace volver a la primera amada justo cuando el héroe se casa con otra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 262»

«A variation on this theme is the return of ghosts. In Child 74, Fair Margaret and Sweet William, the first true love returns from the dead to visit the hero after his wedding. If this is to be included, so should Child 47, also built around a return from the dead, but in this case by a brother, not a lover.»y una variación del tema: el regreso de los fantasmas, con la balada 74, *Fair Margaret and Sweet William*, en que la primera amada vuelve de entre los muertos a visitar al héroe tras su boda, y la 47, construida también sobre un regreso de la muerte, esta vez de un hermano y no de un amante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 262»

«In four large volumes, The French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss presented a corpus of Amerindian myths as transformations of one another.»y el modelo que invoca: en cuatro tomos grandes Claude Lévi-Strauss presentó un corpus de mitos amerindios como transformaciones unos de otros; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido; el troceo imprime *The French anthropologist* con mayúscula a media frase

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 262»

«The reasons for this choice are obvious. The corpus of 300-odd ballads is accessible in an exemplary edition, the work of Francis Child, the sailmaker's son who became a professor at Harvard. The many studies of these ballads include some from a formal point of view, and the subject lends itself to discussion in English.»y sus razones: el corpus de unas trescientas baladas está accesible en una edición ejemplar, la de Francis Child, hijo de un velero que llegó a profesor en Harvard; hay estudios formales, y el asunto se presta a discutirse en inglés

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 262»

«That the same ballad is often different is clear to anyone who leafs through the Child collection, where the variants are conveniently laid out. Like the tunes, the words have their grace notes, their ornaments, their amplifications, according to the performer's skill.»y la primera paradoja aplicada a la balada: que la misma balada sea a menudo distinta resulta claro a quien hojee la colección Child, donde las variantes están convenientemente dispuestas, porque las palabras tienen sus notas de gracia, sus ornamentos y sus amplificaciones según la destreza del intérprete

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 263»

«It was in and about the Martinmas time, When the green leaves were a falling, That Sir John Graeme, in the West Country, Fell in love with Barbara Allen.»y cita una versión dieciochesca de *Barbara Allen*: fue por el tiempo de San Martín, cuando caían las hojas verdes, cuando Sir John Graeme, del país del oeste, se enamoró de Barbara Allen

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 263»

«In Scarlet town, where I was bound, There was a fair maid dwelling, Whom I had chosen to be my own, And her name it was Barbara Allen. (Child 84)»y otra versión dieciochesca cuyo cuarteto de apertura solo tiene en común con la primera el nombre de la muchacha: en la ciudad de Escarlata, adonde iba, vivía una bella doncella a quien había elegido por suya, y se llamaba Barbara Allen

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 263»

«If one version of Barbara Allen begins, ‘It was in and about the Martinmas time’, other ballads in the Child collection begin ‘It fell about the Martinmas time’ or ‘It fell about the Martinmas’. The opening formula wanders from one ballad to another.»con la prueba: si una versión de *Barbara Allen* empieza por el tiempo de San Martín, otras baladas de la colección Child empiezan de modo casi idéntico, de manera que la fórmula de apertura vaga de una balada a otra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 263»

«More recently, one scholar has identified 150 different formulae or commonplaces in the 300-odd ballads of the Child collection.»y la cuenta moderna: un estudioso ha identificado ciento cincuenta fórmulas o lugares comunes distintos en las trescientas y pico baladas de la colección Child

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 264»

«This point was not lost on the early editors. Walter Scott once remarked of traditional minstrels that ‘the collections of rhymes, accumulated by the earliest of the craft, appear to have been»y consigna que los primeros editores lo vieron: Walter Scott observó que las colecciones de rimas acumuladas por los más antiguos del oficio parecen haber sido tenidas de cierto modo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *considered as forming a joint stock for the common use of the profession*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 263»

«Scott's contemporary John Pinkerton drew attention to ‘the frequent returns of the same sentences and descriptions expressed in the very same words’, for example, ‘the delivery of messages, the description of battles’.»y su contemporáneo John Pinkerton llamó la atención sobre los retornos frecuentes de las mismas sentencias y descripciones expresadas con las mismas palabras, como la entrega de mensajes o la descripción de batallas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 264»

«Other formulae include verbs. A favourite Serbian formula for the first half of a line is vino pije, ‘is drinking wine’, leaving the second half of the line to be filled in with the proper name required; Vino pije/Kraljeviću Marko, as it might be, or Vino pije/Aga Asanaga.»y las fórmulas verbales: la serbia favorita para el primer hemistiquio es *vino pije*, *bebe vino*, y deja el segundo para el nombre propio que haga falta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 264»

«Young Johnstone and the young Colonel Sat drinking at the wine: O gin ye wad marry my sister, It's I wad marry thine. (Child 88)»y la 88: el joven Johnstone y el joven coronel bebían vino, y uno propone al otro casarse cada cual con la hermana del otro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 265»

«Lord Thomas was buried without kirk-wa, Fair Annet within the quiere, And o the tane thair grew a birk, The other a bonny briar. (Child 73)»con la balada 73 de Child: a Lord Thomas lo enterraron fuera del muro de la iglesia y a la bella Annet en el coro, y del uno creció un abedul y de la otra un hermoso escaramujo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 265»

«Other British lovers end in this way, and so do Kádár Kata and Gyula Márton in Hungary: Egyiköt temették ótár eleibe Másikot temették ótár háta mögi A kettőből kinőt két kápóna-virág Az ótár tetejin esszekapcsolódtak. (The one was buried in front of the altar/The other was buried behind the altar/From the two of them sprang two chapelflowers/On top of the altar they intertwined).»y el paralelo húngaro: Kádár Kata y Gyula Márton acaban igual, con uno enterrado delante del altar y la otra detrás, y de los dos brotando dos flores de capilla que se entrelazan sobre el altar; el impreso parte *chapel-flowers* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *chapelflowers*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 265»

«In the case of prose, the most important genre was the story (the famous distinction drawn by Jacob Grimm between historical stories (Sagen) and poetical stories (Märchen) was not made explicitly by the tellers).»y pasa a la prosa: el género más importante era el relato, con la advertencia de que la distinción famosa de Jacob Grimm entre relatos históricos, *Sagen*, y poéticos, *Märchen*, no la hacían explícitamente los narradores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 266»

«In the case of the folktale, we return to the multiplicity of variants of the ‘same’ tale. Cinderella offers an obvious example. An Italian, a Swedish, and two French versions are known to have existed before the Grimms published their ‘Aschenputtel’ in 1812, and since then, hundreds of variants have been found, in the Romance, Germanic, Slavic, and Celtic language-groups (38 variants in French alone).»y la multiplicidad de variantes: de *Cenicienta* se conocían versiones italiana, sueca y dos francesas antes de que los Grimm publicaran su *Aschenputtel* en 1812, y desde entonces se han hallado cientos en las lenguas romances, germánicas, eslavas y celtas, treinta y ocho solo en francés

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 266»

«In prose, there is not the same need for formulae of this kind to help the performer along. It is also possible that the folktales from the early modern period which have come down to us in collections like those of Straparola or Timoneda lost their formulae in the course of preparation for the printer.»y su explicación, con una alternativa: en prosa no hay la misma necesidad de fórmulas que ayuden al ejecutante, y es posible además que los cuentos que han llegado en colecciones como las de Straparola o Timoneda perdieran sus fórmulas al prepararse para la imprenta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 266»

«If we take the tales that Straparola published in 1550 and look them up in Thompson's Motif-Index, it soon becomes clear that they contain many well-known themes. For example, the theme of the animal, bird, or fish that helps the hero and often has the power of speech; or the theme of the testing of the suitor, who may have to bridle wild horses, kill a dragon, or go on a quest for the water of life.»y lo aplica: los cuentos que Straparola publicó en 1550, buscados en el *Motif-Index* de Thompson, contienen temas bien conocidos, como el animal, ave o pez que ayuda al héroe y a menudo habla, o la prueba del pretendiente, que ha de embridar caballos salvajes, matar un dragón o buscar el agua de la vida

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 267»

«The king sits in Dumferling toune, Drinking the blude-reid wine;»y cita la balada 58 de Child, que hace lo mismo: el rey está sentado en Dunfermline bebiendo vino rojo como la sangre; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la pregunta por un buen marinero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 264»

«In order to track them down, a massive motif-index to the folktale was compiled by the American folklorist Stith Thompson, while his Russian colleague Vladimir»y los instrumentos para rastrear los motivos: el índice masivo que compiló Stith Thompson; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con Vladimir Propp y sus treinta y una funciones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 266»

«One handbook for preachers recommends an animal story as an effective means of stirring up a sleeping audience.»con la recomendación de un manual: un cuento de animales como medio eficaz de despabilar a un auditorio dormido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 268»

«Stephen Marshall, for instance, was the son of a poor glovemaker. His sermons attracted large audiences in England in the 1640s, gaining him the reputation of the best preacher in England.»con el caso: Stephen Marshall, hijo de un guantero pobre, atrajo grandes auditorios en la Inglaterra de los años cuarenta del XVII y ganó fama de mejor predicador de Inglaterra

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«One reason for his success was his use of ‘vulgar proverbs and odd country-phrases and by-words, which … captivated the people at a strange rate’.»y una razón de su éxito: el uso de proverbios vulgares y frases y dichos raros de campo, que cautivaban a la gente de modo extraño

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 268»

«In the late seventeenth century, Dissenters were said to ‘think they hear a very powerful preacher, if his voice be sharp and quavering, and near to singing: if he draws out some words with. a mournful accent’.»y el testimonio de fines del XVII: se decía que los disidentes creían oír a un predicador muy poderoso si su voz era aguda y trémula y cercana al canto, y si alargaba algunas palabras con acento lastimero; el troceo imprime un punto suelto en *with. a*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 268»

«This skeleton structure fitted all sermons but could easily be made more specific by taking a particular biblical text, or, if the preacher were lazy or unimaginative, by consulting a book of sermon outlines like the famous ‘Sleep Well Sermons’ (Sermones Dormi Secure), a text with at least 25 editions between 1484 and 1520.»y su uso: ese esqueleto valía para todo sermón y podía concretarse tomando un texto bíblico particular o, si el predicador era perezoso o poco imaginativo, consultando un libro de esquemas como los famosos *Sermones Dormi Secure*, con al menos veinticinco ediciones entre 1484 y 1520

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«Another standard method of holding the sermon together and keeping the attention of the audience was the use of an extended metaphor. The sixteenth-century bishop Hugh Latimer, another famous preacher, gave two sermons ‘on the card’, taking his imagery from the popular game of ‘triumph’.»y el segundo método estándar: la metáfora extendida, como los dos sermones *sobre la carta* del obispo Hugh Latimer, con imaginería tomada del juego popular del *triunfo*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 269»

«Another sermon was based on a comparison of the preacher to God's ploughman. The card image went back at least as far as the fourteenth century, while both themes were still in use by some twentieth-century American popular preachers.»y su continuidad: otro sermón comparaba al predicador con el labrador de Dios, la imagen de la carta se remonta al menos al siglo XIV, y los dos temas seguían en uso entre predicadores populares estadounidenses del siglo XX

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 269»

«John Bunyan built sermons round the image of Christ the advocate or the waters of life. John Flavel, who preached to sailors, organized sermons around the image of spiritual navigation. The famous eighteenth-century Methodist preacher George Whitefield, also preaching to sailors, chose the theme of spiritual shipwreck.»y los demás: Bunyan construyó sermones en torno a Cristo abogado o a las aguas de la vida, John Flavel, que predicaba a marineros, en torno a la navegación espiritual, y el metodista George Whitefield, también con marineros, sobre el naufragio espiritual

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 269»

«Some sermons were chanted. For example, the seventeenth-century Wiltshire antiquary and gossip John Aubrey recorded that ‘our old vicar of Kington St Michael, Mr Hynd, did sing his sermons rather than read them’»y los sermones cantados: el anticuario y chismoso de Wiltshire John Aubrey dejó escrito que su viejo vicario de Kington St Michael, Mr Hynd, más cantaba sus sermones que los leía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 268»

«In Russia, the most popular of the folk plays, Tsar»y el paralelo ruso: la pieza popular más difundida, *Zar Maximiliano*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *Maximilian, is recorded in more than 200 variants*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 270»

«and also that ‘In Herefordshire they have a touch of this singing; our old divines had’.»y añade que en Herefordshire tienen un asomo de ese canto, como lo tenían los viejos teólogos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 268»

«Mock sermons were a traditional part of the clown's repertoire and a few have survived, like the Sermon joyeux de M. Saint Hareng, that ‘glorious martyr’ who was fished out of the sea and brought to Dieppe, or the Sermon in praise of thieves, which a certain Parson Haberdyne is said to have ‘made at the commandment of certain thieves after they had robbed him besides Hartley Row in Hampshire’.»con los sermones burlescos: parte tradicional del repertorio del payaso, de los que sobreviven unos pocos, como el *Sermon joyeux de M. Saint Hareng*, aquel glorioso mártir pescado del mar y llevado a Dieppe, o el *Sermon in praise of thieves*, que un tal parson Haberdyne habría hecho por mandato de unos ladrones después de que lo robaran cerca de Hartley Row

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 272»

«A single example will have to stand for many. The following was addressed by the Netherlanders in 1633 to the Marquis of Santa Cruz, the Commander of the Spanish forces»y da un solo ejemplo por muchos: el que los neerlandeses dirigieron en 1633 al marqués de Santa Cruz, comandante de las fuerzas españolas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 272»

«Onsen Vader die te Brussel sijt, Uwen Name is hier vermalendijt, Uwen Wille is nerghens van waerden, Noch in den Hemel noch op der Aerden. (Our Father who art in Brussels, Thy name is accursed here, Thy will is not done at all, Neither in heaven nor on earth.)»y cita la parodia con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: Padre nuestro que estás en Bruselas, maldito sea aquí tu nombre, no se haga tu voluntad en absoluto, ni en el cielo ni en la tierra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 272»

«There were also mock battles, mock weddings, and mock funerals, which might be enacted, described, or portrayed in popular prints, like the Dutch Burial of Transsubstantiation (1613), the English Funeral Procession of Madam Geneva (1736, a comment on the Gin Act), or the Russian print of the mice burying the cat (Figure 10), which is probably a reference to the relief of his subjects on the death of Peter the Great.»y los demás: batallas, bodas y funerales burlescos, que podían representarse, describirse o retratarse en estampas populares, como el *Entierro de la transubstanciación* holandés de 1613, la *Procesión fúnebre de Madame Ginebra* inglesa de 1736 o la estampa rusa de los ratones que entierran al gato, probablemente una alusión al alivio de los súbditos por la muerte de Pedro el Grande

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 273»

«Lévi-Strauss once described mythical thought as ‘a sort of intellectual bricolage’, in other words a new construction out of preexisting elements.»y el término que toma prestado: Lévi-Strauss describió el pensamiento mítico como una especie de *bricolaje* intelectual, construcción nueva a partir de elementos preexistentes; el impreso parte *pre-existing* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *preexisting*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 273»

«From all the media discussed so far, it is a considerable jump to the visual arts. They are not oral, they are not performances in the normal sense of the term, and as the German critic Gotthold Ephraim Lessing pointed out in a famous discussion of analogies between the arts, they are extended in space rather than in time.»abre el apartado de las artes visuales: hay un salto considerable desde los medios discutidos, porque no son orales, no son ejecuciones en el sentido normal y, como señaló Lessing, se extienden en el espacio y no en el tiempo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 274»

«In one printing shop in eighteenth-century Catalonia, an image of St James was made to do duty for St George and St Martin as well – after all, they were all soldiers.»con el ejemplo: en una imprenta catalana del XVIII una imagen de Santiago hacía además de san Jorge y de san Martín, porque al fin y al cabo los tres eran soldados; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 275»

«From the time of the Danish folklorist Axel Olrik, whose essay ‘Epic laws of folk narrative’ was published in 1909, to that of late twentieth-century structuralists, some scholars have argued that this these laws can be discovered.»y quiénes han sostenido que sí: desde el folclorista danés Axel Olrik, cuyo ensayo sobre las leyes épicas de la narrativa popular se publicó en 1909, hasta los estructuralistas de fines del siglo XX; el troceo imprime *that this these laws* con un *this* de más

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 276»

«For example, the Russian critic Viktor Shklovsky suggested that ‘folktales constantly disintegrate and are put together on the basis of special, as yet unknown laws of plot formation’.»con el ejemplo: el crítico ruso Víktor Shklovski sugirió que los cuentos populares se desintegran y se rearman constantemente según leyes especiales, aún desconocidas, de formación de trama

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 276»

«In Lutheran propaganda, Christ and the Pope (who was, of course, regarded as Antichrist) were often represented in this way, whether in a single print or a series of prints like Lukas Cranach's Passional Christi und Antichristi. The Hogarth prints of the idle and industrious apprentices offer another famous example of this type of ‘antithesis’, as Luther called it.»y su uso polémico: en la propaganda luterana Cristo y el papa, tenido por Anticristo, se representaban así, en una estampa sola o en series como el *Passional Christi und Antichristi* de Lucas Cranach, y los grabados de Hogarth del aprendiz ocioso y el industrioso son otro ejemplo famoso de esa *antítesis*, como la llamaba Lutero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 276»

«Some pat on the gay green robes, And some pat on the brown But Janet put on the scarlet robes, To shine foremost throw the town. (Child 64)»y cita la balada 64 de Child: unas se pusieron alegres ropas verdes y otras las pardas, y Janet se puso las escarlatas para brillar la primera por la ciudad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 277»

«At the level of the story, the Danish folklorist Axel Olrik drew attention to what he called the ‘law of two to a scene’ – only two people appear at any one time in traditional popular literature – and also to the ‘law of contrast’, the habit of juxtaposing opposites such as large and small, rich and poor, Goliath and David, Dives and Lazarus, St George and the dragon, and Christ and the Devil.»y en el nivel del relato: Olrik llamó la atención sobre la *ley de dos por escena* —solo dos personas aparecen a la vez en la literatura popular tradicional— y sobre la *ley del contraste*, el hábito de yuxtaponer opuestos como grande y pequeño, rico y pobre, Goliat y David, el rico Epulón y Lázaro, san Jorge y el dragón, y Cristo y el diablo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 277»

«For example, an eighteenth-century Swedish artist, Clemet Håkansson, painted the Three Magi as three horsemen galloping in a row, where the Renaissance artist Gentile da Fabriano incorporated them into a more complex, unified composition.»con el cotejo que lo ilustra: el sueco Clemet Håkansson pintó a los tres Reyes Magos como tres jinetes galopando en fila, donde Gentile da Fabriano los incorporó a una composición más compleja y unificada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 277»

«He was a braw gallant, And he rid at the ring And the bonny Earl of Murray Oh he might have been a king! He was a braw gallant, And he played at the ba [ball] And the bonny Earl of Murray Was the flower amang them a’. He was a braw gallant, And he played at the glove And the bonny Earl of Murray Oh he was the Queen's love!»y cita la balada 181 de Child en tres estrofas paralelas: era un galán apuesto, corría la sortija, y el hermoso conde de Murray bien pudo haber sido rey; jugaba a la pelota y era la flor entre todos; jugaba al guante y era el amor de la reina; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 278»

«All these examples illustrate what Olrik called ‘the Law of Three’, another of his ‘laws of folk narrative’. Of course, a trinary structure is not confined to popular literature, but it is interesting to find that when the story of David and Goliath was taken from the Bible to become a Spanish ballad, David was made to shoot at the giant three times before striking him down.»y el nombre que Olrik le dio, la *ley del tres*, con la observación de que la estructura ternaria no es exclusiva de la literatura popular y de que, al pasar de la Biblia a romance español, se hizo que David tirara tres veces al gigante antes de derribarlo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 278»

«In the ballad Lord Randal (Child 12), the dying hero is asked what he will leave to his mother, his sister, his brother – and finally, what he will bequeath to his ‘true-love’, who has, it is now revealed, poisoned him.»con el ejemplo: en *Lord Randal* se pregunta al héroe moribundo qué dejará a su madre, a su hermana, a su hermano, y por fin qué legará a su *amada verdadera*, que, se revela entonces, lo ha envenenado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 279»

«A similar use of incremental repetition within the mock-testament motif can be found in one of the finest Catalan ballads, Amalia sta malalta; the dying Amalia leaves bequests to the poor, to her brother, and to the Virgin Mary»y el paralelo catalán: la misma repetición incremental dentro del motivo del testamento burlesco se halla en *Amàlia sta malalta*, donde la moribunda deja mandas a los pobres, a su hermano y a la Virgen

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 279»

«I a vós, la meva mare us deixo el marit meu perqué el tingueu en cambra com fa molt temps que feu. (And to you, my mother/I leave my husband/so that you can embrace him in your chamber/as you have long been doing).»y cita la última manda con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: y a vos, madre mía, os dejo a mi marido para que lo tengáis en la cámara como hace mucho que hacéis

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 279»

«A number of scholars, including Lévi-Strauss and Propp, often described as ‘structuralists’, were convinced that there are rules governing the combination of motifs and that the grammar or the ‘algebra’ of the Russian folktale or the myths of the American Indians can be discovered. They are concerned with motifs at a high level of generality: ‘A gives X to B’ rather than ‘the queen gives a ring to Ivan’.»y quiénes sostienen que hay reglas: varios estudiosos llamados estructuralistas, entre ellos Lévi-Strauss y Propp, convencidos de que puede descubrirse la gramática o el *álgebra* del cuento ruso o de los mitos amerindios, y que trabajan con motivos muy generales, *A da X a B* antes que *la reina da un anillo a Iván*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 279»

«There can be little doubt that narrative schemata of this kind (including some of the very schemata just mentioned) can be found in stories told in early modern Europe. To return to Straparola and his Piacevoli Notti: the first tale in the collection takes the common form of interdiction/violation/consequences; the second tale is the inverse of the first – challenge/acceptance/consequences; the third takes the form of deceit/revenge; the fourth returns to the interdiction/violation form of the first; and the fifth returns to the deceit/revenge schema of the third.»y lo aplica a la Europa moderna temprana con Straparola: el primer cuento toma la forma interdicción, violación, consecuencias; el segundo es su inverso, reto, aceptación, consecuencias; el tercero, engaño y venganza; el cuarto vuelve a la forma del primero y el quinto a la del tercero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 280»

«The heroine may be persecuted for her faith and rewarded in heaven, as in the case of Saints Barbara, Margherita, Orsola, or Teodora; or, like Saints Guglielma and Uliva, she may be persecuted for more worldly reasons and rewarded on earth.»y sus dos variantes: la heroína puede ser perseguida por su fe y recompensada en el cielo, como santa Bárbara, santa Margarita, santa Úrsula o santa Teodora, o perseguida por razones más mundanas y recompensada en la tierra, como santa Guglielma y santa Uliva

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«A well-known collection of Italian religious dramas from the sixteenth century comprises 43 plays, of which eight include saintly women. Of these eight, six take this form.»y la medida: una colección conocida de dramas religiosos italianos del XVI comprende cuarenta y tres piezas, ocho de ellas con mujeres santas, y seis de esas ocho toman esa forma

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«These scholars have also identified recurrent narrative schemata»y los esquemas narrativos recurrentes que han identificado; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la enumeración que el troceo imprime en columna

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 279»

«One collection comprises 64 plays of which 24 centre on married»y la medida de la comedia francesa: una colección comprende sesenta y cuatro piezas, veinticuatro centradas en matrimonios; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 280»

«The first scenario in Scala's famous collection is typical enough to make an appropriate example: ‘the two old twins’, Li due vecchi gemelli.»y el ejemplo que toma: el primer escenario de la colección famosa de Scala, *Li due vecchi gemelli*, bastante típico para servir de muestra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 281»

«In this case, Orazio loves the widow Flaminia; Capitano appears and pursues her; he is driven off, and Orazio marries Flaminia.»y su encarnación: Orazio ama a la viuda Flaminia, aparece el Capitano y la persigue, se lo expulsa y Orazio se casa con Flaminia

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«This sequence is complicated by duplication and by addition. By ‘duplication’, I mean the insertion of one or more sub-plots that echo the first. In this case, the servant Pedrolino loves the servant-girl Franceschina; Gratiano appears and pursues her; he is driven off, and Pedrolino marries Franceschina.»y su complicación por duplicación: el criado Pedrolino ama a la criada Franceschina, aparece Gratiano y la persigue, se lo expulsa y Pedrolino se casa con Franceschina

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 281»

«Even this is not enough, and the main hero and heroine are doubled up by Orazio's cousin Flavio and a second widow, Isabella, who also fall in love and marry.»y su duplicación mayor: el héroe y la heroína principales se doblan con el primo de Orazio, Flavio, y una segunda viuda, Isabella, que también se enamoran y se casan

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 281»

«Finally, the play takes its name from the addition of another motif, the ‘return motif’, common in ballads and folktales as well as in plays; the fathers of Orazio and Flavio are twins who had been captured and sold into slavery but return in time for the weddings.»y el motivo que da título a la pieza: el del regreso, común en baladas, cuentos y piezas, porque los padres de Orazio y Flavio son gemelos que habían sido capturados y vendidos como esclavos y vuelven a tiempo para las bodas; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 281»

«In its most elaborate form it involves chiastic structuring, the pattern a, b, c, c, b, a. For example, The Lass of Loch Royal (Child 76) offers a sequence of three motifs that are repeated in reverse; plaint/journey/rebuff, followed by rebuff discovered/journey/plaint.»y su forma más elaborada: la estructura quiástica, el patrón a, b, c, c, b, a, como en *The Lass of Loch Royal*, que ofrece una secuencia de tres motivos repetidos en orden inverso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 282»

«That he could improvise songs at short notice was shown by the experiment of reading him a text and then asking him to sing the story in his own way, a test that he triumphantly passed.»y la prueba de su improvisación: el experimento de leerle un texto y pedirle luego que cantara la historia a su manera, prueba que pasó triunfalmente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 283»

«To begin with an example not far from Avdo's own region, Alberto Fortis, on his visit to Dalmatia in the late eighteenth century, listened carefully to ‘the heroic song of the Morlaks’ and noted that ‘there is more than one Morlak who improvises his song (che canta improvvisando) from beginning to end’.»con el testimonio de Alberto Fortis en Dalmacia a fines del XVIII: hay más de un morlaco que improvisa su canción de principio a fin; el tramo cruza el salto de renglón del troceo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 283»

«In another remote, rocky and pastoral society at the other end of Europe – the Western Isles of Scotland – a late seventeenth-century traveller recorded the fact that ‘several of both sexes have a gift of poesy and are able to form a satire or panegyric extempore, without the assistance of any stronger liquor than water to raise their fancy’.»y el testimonio escocés: un viajero de fines del XVII registró en las islas occidentales que varios de ambos sexos tienen don de poesía y pueden hacer una sátira o un panegírico de improviso, sin más licor que el agua para levantar la fantasía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 283»

«One eighteenth-century Highlander must have had Avdo's stamina, if not his creative powers, for a Scots clergyman told the Committee of the Highland Society of an old man who ‘continued, for three successive days, and during several hours in each day, to repeat, without hesitation, with the utmost rapidity … many thousand lines of ancient poetry’.»y el segundo: un clérigo escocés contó al comité de la Highland Society de un anciano que durante tres días seguidos y varias horas cada día repitió sin vacilar y a toda velocidad muchos miles de versos de poesía antigua

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 283»

«A person conversant in this art will produce a pennyll approximate to the last which was sung … like nightingales they support the contest throughout the night … parishes often contend against parishes; and every hill is vocal with the chorus.»y cita su descripción: quien domina ese arte producirá un *pennyll* próximo al último que se cantó, y como ruiseñores sostienen el certamen toda la noche, con parroquias que compiten contra parroquias y cada colina vocal con el coro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 283»

«In Norway in the early nineteenth century, in Telemark and Setesdal, it was common to improvise the stev, a four-line stanza composed of two rhymed couplets, and to engage in the stevleik, a debate or competition in which alternate stanzas were composed by»y el noruego: a principios del XIX era común en Telemark y Setesdal improvisar el *stev*, estrofa de cuatro versos en dos pareados rimados, y participar en el *stevleik*, debate o certamen de estrofas alternas; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«In Yugoslavia in the 1930s, for example, some singers of tales, like Avdo Medeđović, could sing ten to twenty decasyllabic lines to the minute for two hours at a stretch,»con las cifras: en la Yugoslavia de los años treinta algunos cantores, como Avdo Medeđović, podían cantar de diez a veinte versos decasílabos por minuto durante dos horas seguidas; el troceo imprime aquí *Medeđović*, frente al *Međedović* de la plana 81, y el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 282»

«The fullest evidence of improvised poetry in our period comes from Italy. Montaigne describes meeting an illiterate peasant woman in Tuscany who was able to compose verses ‘at extraordinary speed’.»y dónde está la evidencia más plena de la poesía improvisada: en Italia, con Montaigne describiendo el encuentro con una campesina iletrada de Toscana capaz de componer versos a velocidad extraordinaria

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 284»

«Provisanti, ‘improvisers’, was a common term for popular poets. One of the best known of these provisanti in Tuscany, about the year 1500, was Cristoforo, called ‘Altissimo’ (possibly because of his predilection for this adjective in his poetic formulae).»y el término corriente para los poetas populares, *provisanti*, improvisadores, con uno de los más conocidos en la Toscana de hacia 1500, Cristoforo llamado *Altissimo*, quizá por su predilección por ese adjetivo en sus fórmulas poéticas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 284»

«When the first book of his Reali di Francia was published (after his death) in 1534, it was described on the title page as a poem ‘sung by him extempore’ (cantato da lui all’improvviso), and the first canto begins with an apology in case this method of composition has led to bad verses.»y la prueba impresa: cuando el primer libro de sus *Reali di Francia* se publicó tras su muerte en 1534, la portada lo describía como poema cantado por él de improviso, y el primer canto abre disculpándose por si ese método de composición ha dado malos versos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 284»

«Clowns like Tarlton or Tabarin probably improvised their turns, but we cannot be sure of this.»y la reserva: payasos como Tarlton o Tabarin probablemente improvisaban sus números, y no puede asegurarse

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 285»

«John Bunyan apparently did not write his sermons out before delivery, although it was said to be ‘customary with him to commit his sermons to writing after he had preached them’.»y el caso de Bunyan: al parecer no escribía sus sermones antes de darlos, aunque se decía que acostumbraba ponerlos por escrito después de haberlos predicado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 285»

«The eighteenth-century Methodist George Whitefield also preached extempore with great success.»y el del metodista George Whitefield, que predicaba igualmente de improviso y con gran éxito

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«The eighteenth-century Scottish ballad singer Mrs Brown of Falkland has already been quoted, like some preachers, as an example of the improvising performer.»y vuelve a Mrs Brown of Falkland, ya citada como ejemplo de intérprete que improvisa, igual que algunos predicadores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 285»

«As for storytellers, evidence of their methods has rarely survived, but a certain Román Ramírez, who recited romances of chivalry in public, explained to the Inquisition that he did not know the texts by heart but only ‘the substance’, and that he would amplify or shorten the stories as appropriate during the performance.»y el testimonio de narrador que sí sobrevive: Román Ramírez, que recitaba en público novelas de caballerías, explicó a la Inquisición que no sabía los textos de memoria sino solo *la sustancia*, y que ampliaba o acortaba las historias según conviniera durante la función

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«As one nineteenth-century Sicilian storyteller explained, ‘the things come into my head as if I was looking at them, and before one word is finished, the next is there in order’.»con lo que explicó un narrador siciliano del XIX: las cosas se le vienen a la cabeza como si las estuviera viendo, y antes de acabar una palabra la siguiente ya está en su sitio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 286»

«There were other aids to performance. Vuk Stefanović Karadžić remarked of one singer of tales, a certain Milija, that ‘he couldn’t recite the ballads in proper order, but only sing them. And not only that; without spirits he wouldn’t even sing’.»y los demás auxilios: Karadžić observó de un cantor llamado Milija que no sabía recitar las baladas en orden sino solo cantarlas, y que sin licor ni siquiera cantaba; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 286»

«Román Ramírez told the Inquisition that he ‘read’ his stories from a blank sheet of paper, or ‘a book that was not the same as what he read, and kept his eyes on it without turning the pages, and this he did so as not to distract his memory and attend better to what he was reading’.»y el ardid de Román Ramírez, dicho ante la Inquisición: *leía* sus historias de una hoja en blanco, o de un libro que no era lo que leía, con los ojos puestos en él y sin pasar las páginas, y lo hacía para no distraer su memoria y atender mejor a lo que leía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 286»

«The same devices would also have helped performers learn texts by heart, as in some known cases (like that of the Irish bards) they certainly did. These forms are necessary in an oral culture, but they do not tell us about the prevalence of extemporization.»y el saldo que hace: esos mismos recursos habrían ayudado igualmente a aprender textos de memoria, como en el caso de los bardos irlandeses, de modo que son necesarios en una cultura oral y no dicen nada sobre cuán extendida estaba la improvisación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 287»

«Formulaic phrases can be (as one American folk preacher admitted) ‘a rest on the highway’»con lo que admitió un predicador popular estadounidense: las frases formulaicas pueden ser un descanso en el camino; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el otro predicador y el *ganar tiempo*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 285»

«Seventeenth-century preachers, like modern lecturers, often spoke from notes. The poet ‘Altissimo’ was described as writing his ideas down on pieces of paper; and some Italian actors kept commonplace books of material that they could use in their performances, so skilfully that ‘what had long been premeditated seemed to come out extempore’.»y lo que muestra ese espectro: los predicadores del XVII, como los conferenciantes modernos, hablaban a menudo con notas; a *Altissimo* se lo describió apuntando sus ideas en papeles, y algunos actores italianos llevaban cuadernos de lugares comunes que usaban con tal destreza que lo largamente premeditado parecía salir de improviso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 287»

«as in the case of Ingierd Gunnarsdotter, whose version of ‘Essbiörn Prude och Ormen Stark’ was recorded several times in the 1670s. On one occasion this Swedish female ballad singer began with the heroes drinking wine in hall, while on another it was mead that they were drinking.»con el caso medido: la versión de Ingierd Gunnarsdotter de *Essbiörn Prude och Ormen Stark* se registró varias veces en los años setenta del XVII, y en una ocasión esa cantora sueca empezó con los héroes bebiendo vino en la sala y en otra con hidromiel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 288»

«In popular culture, individual variation, like regional variation, should be seen primarily in terms of selection and combination. Combining formulae and motifs and adapting them to new contexts is not a mechanical process. On the contrary, ‘every good improvisation is a creative act’.»y la fórmula que lo cierra: en la cultura popular la variación individual, como la regional, debe verse ante todo en términos de selección y combinación, y combinar fórmulas y motivos y adaptarlos a contextos nuevos no es proceso mecánico, porque toda buena improvisación es un acto creativo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 288»

«‘Ballads resemble gossip’, according to one American folklorist, Tristram Coffin. ‘Their variation comes about in much the same way gossip variation occurs’.»con la fórmula del folclorista estadounidense Tristram Coffin: las baladas se parecen al chisme, y su variación ocurre de manera muy semejante a la del chisme

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 288»

«It may of course be argued that the points made in this chapter are applicable to all works of art and not just to popular culture. All works of art may be analysed in terms of repetition, commonplaces, motifs, schemata, and variations, as scholars such as Aby Warburg, Ernst Curtius, and Ernst Gombrich have all demonstrated.»y la objeción que se hace a sí mismo: cabe argumentar que lo dicho en el capítulo vale para toda obra de arte y no solo para la cultura popular, porque toda obra puede analizarse en términos de repetición, lugares comunes, motivos, esquemas y variaciones, como demostraron Aby Warburg, Ernst Curtius y Ernst Gombrich

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«Treatises on rhetoric gave instruction in the use of formulae and schemata. There is no great difficulty in identifying a folktale motif in a story by Cervantes such as ‘The illustrious kitchen-maid’.»y los demás casos: los tratados de retórica instruían en el uso de fórmulas y esquemas, y no cuesta identificar un motivo de cuento popular en una novela de Cervantes como *La ilustre fregona*

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«In similar fashion, it is easy to spot stock characters, like the Zanni-figure Sganarelle, in plays by Molière.»y el teatral: es fácil localizar tipos fijos, como el Sganarelle a la manera de Zanni, en las piezas de Molière

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 289»

«It may not be an accident that several pioneer structuralists were also students of folklore, notably Roman»y una coincidencia que consigna: puede no ser accidente que varios estructuralistas pioneros fueran también estudiosos del folclore, señaladamente Roman Jakobson y Vladimir Propp; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

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«There is a traditional Spanish ballad about King Juan of Navarre which cannot be earlier than the early sixteenth century, when Juan lost his kingdom to Ferdinand the Catholic. The ballad tells of the king dreaming that Lady Fortune is warning him of the disaster which is about to happen.»con el ejemplo español: un romance sobre el rey Juan de Navarra, que no puede ser anterior a principios del XVI, cuenta que el rey sueña que la Fortuna le advierte del desastre que se avecina

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«In similar fashion, the ballads about Peter the Great assimilated him to Ivan the Terrible or even to the medieval hero Ilya of Murom.»y el ruso: las baladas sobre Pedro el Grande lo asimilaban a Iván el Terrible o aun al héroe medieval Iliá de Múrom

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 290»

«In eighteenth-century France, a print of the famous criminal Cartouche was adapted to serve for his successor Mandrin. For the printer, this may have been no more than a way of cutting his costs, but it surely helped the public to see one man in terms of the other.»y el francés: una estampa del criminal famoso Cartouche se adaptó para servir a su sucesor Mandrin, lo que para el impresor pudo no ser más que abaratar costos y sin duda ayudó al público a ver a uno en términos del otro

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«O. Elschek, ‘The Problem of Variation in 18th-Century Slovak Folk Music’, Studia Musicologica 7 (1965), pp. 47–59.»la nota 5 da la fuente de las colecciones eslovacas de melodías de violín: el ensayo de Oskár Elschek sobre la variación en la música popular eslovaca del XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 291»

«A. Fortis, Viaggio in Dalmazia (2 vols., Venice, 1774), 1, p. 93f.»la nota 7 remite la descripción del *kolo* dálmata al *Viaggio in Dalmazia* de Alberto Fortis; el troceo imprime la frase en columna

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 291»

«C. Sachs, World History of the Dance (1933: English translation, London, 1938); M. Guilcher, La tradition populaire de danse en Basse-Bretagne (Paris, 1963); M. Louis, Le folklore et la danse (Paris, 1963).»la nota 6 da la bibliografía de la danza: la *World History of the Dance* de Curt Sachs, Guilcher sobre la Baja Bretaña y Maurice Louis

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 291»

«R. H. Webber, Formulistic Diction in the Spanish Ballad (Berkeley, CA, 1951), appendix 2.»la nota 24 da la fuente del recuento de fórmulas en las baladas españolas: la *Formulistic Diction in the Spanish Ballad* de Ruth House Webber

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 292»

«C. Lévi-Strauss, Mythologies (1964–70: English translation, 4 vols., Chicago, IL, 1969–81).»la nota 25 da los cuatro tomos de las *Mitológicas* de Lévi-Strauss por su traducción inglesa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 293»

«V. Propp, Morphology of the Folktale (1928: English translation, Austin, TX, 1968), p. 31f; Motif-Index, passim.»la nota 31 da la *Morfología del cuento* de Propp por su traducción inglesa de 1968 y el *Motif-Index* de Thompson

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 293»

«G. F. Straparola, Le Piacevoli Notti (2 vols., Venice, 1550–55); J. Timoneda, El Sobremesa y Alivio de Caminantes (Valencia, 1564). Cf. J. W. Childers, Motif-Index of the Cuentos of Juan Timoneda (Bloomington, IN, 1948).»la nota 30 da las ediciones de *Le Piacevoli Notti* de Straparola y de *El sobremesa y alivio de caminantes* de Juan Timoneda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 293»

«A. Olrik, ‘Epic Laws of Folk Narrative’ (1908: English translation), in A. Dundes (ed.) The Study of Folklore (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1965). Shklovsky quoted in J. Oinas and S. Soudakoff (eds.) The Study of Russian Folklore (The Hague, 1975), p. 156.»la nota 50 da la fuente de las *leyes épicas* de Olrik y de la cita de Shklovski sobre las leyes de formación de trama

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«Coupe, Broadsheet, p. 204f; G. Fleming, ‘On the Origin of the Passional Christi und Antichristi’, Gutenberg Jahrbuch (1973), pp. 351–67; Cf. R. W. Scribner, For the Sake of Simple Folk (Cambridge, 1981), pp. 148–89.»la nota 51 remite la antítesis luterana al *Passional Christi und Antichristi* y al *For the Sake of Simple Folk* de Bob Scribner

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 295»

«C. Lévi-Strauss, La Pensée Sauvage (Paris, 1962), p. 26.»la nota 46 da la plana exacta del *bricolaje* en *La pensée sauvage* de Lévi-Strauss

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 295»

«O. Bacci, Prosa e Prosatori (Milan, c. 1907), p. 99f; F. Yates, The Art of Memory (London, 1966).»la nota 73 remite el *arte de la memoria* al libro de Frances Yates de 1966

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«A. Warburg, Gesammelte Schriften (2 vols., Leipzig and Berlin, 1932), index, ‘Antike: Bildmotive’; E. R. Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages (1947; English translation, New York, 1953); E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion (London, 1960), chs. 2 and 5.»la nota 79 da los tres estudiosos que llevaron el análisis de esquemas a toda obra de arte: las *Gesammelte Schriften* de Aby Warburg, la *European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages* de Ernst Curtius y el *Art and Illusion* de Gombrich

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«W. J. Ong, ‘Oral Residue in Tudor Prose Style’, Publications of the Modern Language Association 80 (1965), pp. 145–54.»la nota 81 da la fuente del *residuo oral*: el ensayo de Walter J. Ong sobre el estilo de la prosa Tudor

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«(Oxford, 1970), p. 169; Ramírez quoted in Harvey, ‘Oral»la nota 72 da las fuentes del cantor Milija y del ardid de Román Ramírez: la vida de Karadžić de Duncan Wilson y el ensayo de Harvey sobre composición oral

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«The heroes of the romances of chivalry were also international figures. The knight we know in England as ‘Bevis of Hampton’ was a hero to the Italians as Buovo d’ Antone, while he is just about recognizable in Russian dress as Bova Korolevitch.»y los héroes caballerescos como figuras internacionales: el que en Inglaterra se llama Bevis of Hampton era héroe para los italianos como Buovo d'Antone y apenas se reconoce en ruso como Bova Korolévich

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«The story of Pierre de Provence was known not only in France but in Portugal, the Netherlands, Germany and Denmark.»y el segundo caso: la historia de Pierre de Provence se conocía no solo en Francia sino en Portugal, los Países Bajos, Alemania y Dinamarca

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«According to travellers such as the French naturalist Pierre Belon, the Turks were devoted to Roland, whom they declared to be a Turk, and even to St George, whom they declared to be a Turkish knight (spahi).»y el testimonio que lo lleva más lejos: según viajeros como el naturalista francés Pierre Belon, los turcos eran devotos de Roldán, a quien declaraban turco, y aun de san Jorge, a quien declaraban caballero turco, un *spahi*

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«It seems best to discuss types rather than individuals, since stories so often wander from one popular hero to others, while The Golden Legend, no less than the Child ballads, might be viewed as a corpus of stories that are transformations of one another.»y por qué trata tipos y no individuos: porque los relatos vagan tan a menudo de un héroe popular a otros que *La leyenda dorada*, no menos que las baladas de Child, puede verse como un corpus de historias que son transformaciones unas de otras

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«Protestants did not believe in saints but they adopted, and adapted, the martyr, starting as early as 1523, when Luther wrote a broadside ballad about two of his followers who had been burned in Brussels.»y la adaptación protestante: no creían en los santos y adoptaron y adaptaron al mártir, ya en 1523, cuando Lutero escribió una balada de pliego sobre dos seguidores suyos quemados en Bruselas

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«Jean Crespin's Histoire des vrais témoins (1554) celebrated the heroism of the French Calvinists.7 John Foxe's Acts and Monuments (1563), popularly known as his ‘book of martyrs’, which was ordered to be placed in all English churches, played a central role in the making of the Anglican tradition.»y sus dos libros mayores: la *Histoire des vrais témoins* de Jean Crespin celebró el heroísmo de los calvinistas franceses, y los *Acts and Monuments* de John Foxe, su *libro de los mártires*, que se mandó poner en todas las iglesias inglesas, tuvo papel central en la hechura de la tradición anglicana

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«The figure of the martyr also became politicized, and men as diverse and as remote from the original conception as King Gustav Adolf of Sweden, who was killed on the field of battle, and Dr Henry Sacheverell, who was tried and suspended following his inflammatory political sermons, were presented in terms of this stereotype.»y su politización: la figura del mártir se politizó, y hombres tan diversos y tan lejanos de la concepción original como el rey Gustavo Adolfo de Suecia, muerto en el campo de batalla, y el doctor Henry Sacheverell, procesado y suspendido por sus sermones políticos inflamatorios, se presentaron según ese estereotipo

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«His enemies included Saracens (Charlemagne and Richard I, still popular in the early modern period); Moors (Sebastian of Portugal, a hero despite his defeat in North Africa); Turks (Mátyás of Hungary, Jan Sobieski of Poland); Tartars (Ivan the Terrible, conqueror of Kazan and Astrakhan); or Papists (Gustav Adolf, William III).»y sus enemigos: sarracenos para Carlomagno y Ricardo I, moros para Sebastián de Portugal —héroe pese a su derrota en el norte de África—, turcos para Matías de Hungría y Juan Sobieski, tártaros para Iván el Terrible y papistas para Gustavo Adolfo y Guillermo III

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«Whilst conquering William with laurels is crowned His fame and his name through the world shall go round. The conquering sword does King William proclaim And crown him with trophies of honour and fame.»y cita esos versos: mientras al conquistador Guillermo lo coronan de laureles, su fama y su nombre darán la vuelta al mundo, y la espada conquistadora proclama al rey Guillermo y lo corona con trofeos de honor y fama

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«Among the conquering heroes of the eighteenth century, two rulers stand out. One was Charles XII, the ‘brave and renowned’ king of Sweden, as an English chapbook called him. The painter and former corporal Gustav Reuter inscribed a portrait of the king on horseback, ‘You must remember Carolus, the best soldier in the world’»y los dos conquistadores del XVIII que destacan: Carlos XII de Suecia, *bravo y renombrado* según un pliego inglés, del que el pintor y excabo Gustav Reuter inscribió un retrato ecuestre con la leyenda de que hay que recordar a Carolus, el mejor soldado del mundo

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«Friederikus ist ein Held Allzeit siegreich in dem Feld. (Frederick is a hero/always victorious in the field).»y el segundo, Federico el Grande, que las baladas de pliego alemanas presentan en términos igual de gloriosos: Federico es un héroe siempre victorioso en el campo

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«William III was assimilated to William the Conqueror and pictured galloping across prints and»y su asimilación: Guillermo III se asimiló a Guillermo el Conquistador y se lo pintó galopando por las estampas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con los frontispicios del Ulster

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«St Louis (Louis IX of France) was a popular figure of this kind, traditionally portrayed dispensing justice under an oak.»con su encarnación: san Luis, retratado tradicionalmente impartiendo justicia bajo un roble

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«His successor Louis XII of France seems to have acquired a similar reputation. It was said that he cried when he had to tax the people, while a manifesto of the peasant revolt in Normandy in 1639 looked back with nostalgia to the time ‘when Louis XII presided over a golden age’»y su sucesor Luis XII, de quien se decía que lloraba al tener que gravar al pueblo y a cuyo tiempo miraba con nostalgia un manifiesto de la revuelta campesina de Normandía de 1639 como a una edad de oro

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«In other cahiers we are told that ‘the name of Henry IV is always known in the countryside and always repeated with emotion’, that he recognized his subordination to God and the law, and that he saw himself as the father of his people who had nothing to gain from their oppression.»y lo que dicen otros *cahiers*: que el nombre de Enrique IV se conoce siempre en el campo y se repite siempre con emoción, que reconocía su subordinación a Dios y a la ley y que se veía como padre de su pueblo, sin nada que ganar en oprimirlo

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«In Central Europe, the Emperor Maximilian was presented, in his own time and afterwards, as a just and clement ruler, who gladly listened to the petitions of his subjects.»y el caso centroeuropeo: al emperador Maximiliano se lo presentó, en su tiempo y después, como gobernante justo y clemente que escuchaba de buen grado las peticiones de sus súbditos

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«In Hungary, the justice of King Mátyás, who died in 1490, was proverbial. The proverb ran ‘King Mátyás is dead, justice is lost’: (Meghalt Mátyás király, oda az igazság, or, in humanist Latin, Matthias obiit, justitia periit).»y el húngaro: la justicia del rey Matías, muerto en 1490, era proverbial, con el refrán de que muerto el rey Matías se perdió la justicia

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«In Norway, throughout our period, the eleventh-century king St Olav remained a popular hero, and innovations that the peasants disliked were resisted in the name of ‘King Olav's law’.»y el noruego: el rey san Olaf, del siglo XI, siguió siendo héroe popular durante todo el periodo, y las innovaciones que disgustaban a los campesinos se resistían en nombre de la *ley del rey Olaf*; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

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«The Motif-Index calls this motif ‘King in disguise to learn secrets of subjects’ (K. 1812), which gives an unfortunate impression of snooping, whereas the king is usually presented as trying to ensure that justice is being done or to learn about the opinions of ordinary people.»y una enmienda al rótulo: el *Motif-Index* lo llama *rey disfrazado para averiguar los secretos de los súbditos*, lo que da impresión desafortunada de fisgoneo, cuando al rey se lo presenta por lo común tratando de asegurar que se haga justicia o de conocer las opiniones de la gente común

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«A number of English ballads describe the meetings of King Edward and the Tanner (Child 273), King Henry and the Miller, King William and the Forester, or King Richard and Robin Hood»con las baladas inglesas que lo traen: los encuentros del rey Eduardo y el curtidor, el rey Enrique y el molinero, el rey Guillermo y el guardabosque, o el rey Ricardo y Robin Hood

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«In Scotland it was said that James V used to disguise himself as a tinker, a beggar or ‘The Gudeman of Ballengeich’.»y el escocés: se decía que Jacobo V se disfrazaba de calderero, de mendigo o de *el buen hombre de Ballengeich*

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«In Russia, tales circulated of how the Tsar (sometimes specified as Ivan the Terrible or Peter the Great) joined the thieves»y el ruso: circulaban cuentos de cómo el zar, a veces identificado con Iván el Terrible o Pedro el Grande, se juntaba con los ladrones

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«Sometimes he would associate with them in a disguise and once he advised them to rob the Exchequer; for (says he) I know the way to it; but one of the fellows up with his fist, and struck him a hearty good blow on the face, saying Thou Rogue, wilt thou offer to rob His Majesty, who is so good to us; let us go rob such a rich boyar who has cozen’d His Majesty of vast sums. At this Ivan was well pleased.»y cita el cuento: a veces se les juntaba disfrazado y una vez les aconsejó robar el tesoro, porque él sabía el camino, y uno de los mozos alzó el puño y le dio un buen golpe en la cara diciendo que qué bellaco era por proponer robar a su majestad, que tan bueno era con ellos, y que fueran mejor a robar a un boyardo rico que lo había estafado con sumas enormes, con lo que Iván quedó muy complacido

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«During the Peasants’ War, after the battle of Frankenhausen, thousands of peasants gathered at the Kyffhaüser mountain, where the emperor was traditionally said to be sleeping, to wait for him to rise up and avenge the innocent blood which had lately been shed.»con el episodio que lo documenta: durante la guerra de los campesinos, tras la batalla de Frankenhausen, miles de campesinos se reunieron en el monte Kyffhäuser, donde la tradición decía que el emperador dormía, a esperar que se alzara y vengara la sangre inocente derramada

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«The same story was attached to King Arthur, ‘the past and future king’, rex quondam rexque futurus, asleep in the ‘hollow hill’. It was also attached to Charlemagne, to ‘good king Wenceslas’ (Svatý Václav) of Bohemia, to Mátyás of Hungary and to Sebastian of Portugal.»y a quiénes más se adhirió: al rey Arturo, el rey pasado y futuro, dormido en la colina hueca; a Carlomagno; al *buen rey Wenceslao* de Bohemia; a Matías de Hungría y a Sebastián de Portugal

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«He was traditionally represented in England as a megalomaniac braggart, claiming to be God: ‘For I am even he that made heaven and hell/ And of my mighty power holdeth up this world round’.»y cómo se lo representaba en Inglaterra: como fanfarrón megalómano que decía ser Dios, el mismo que hizo el cielo y el infierno y que con su poderoso poder sostiene este mundo redondo

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«In time of war, foreign or civil, these odious comparisons were particularly common. Henry II of France was described as ‘Pharaoh’ in a Huguenot song, and so was Philip II in a Dutch song during the revolt of the Netherlands.»y su uso bélico: en tiempo de guerra, exterior o civil, esas comparaciones odiosas eran particularmente comunes, con Enrique II de Francia llamado *faraón* en una canción hugonote y Felipe II en una canción neerlandesa durante la revuelta de los Países Bajos

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«A wall-painting of about 1600 in a church in Suceviţa in Moldavia shows the Israelites crossing the Red Sea, with Pharaoh's troops dressed like Poles, the principal enemy of the Moldavians at the time.»y su versión pictórica: una pintura mural de hacia 1600 en una iglesia de Suceviţa, en Moldavia, muestra a los israelitas cruzando el mar Rojo con las tropas del faraón vestidas de polacos, el enemigo principal de los moldavos entonces

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«One of the cahiers, booklets listing the grievances of the third estate in 1789,»y su continuidad hasta 1789, en uno de los *cahiers* del tercer estado; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con Luis XVI como heredero de las virtudes de Luis IX, Luis XII y Enrique IV

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«A seventeenth-century chapbook, The History of the King and the Cobbler, tells us that ‘it was the custom of King Henry»y el pliego del XVII *The History of the King and the Cobbler*, que dice cuál era la costumbre de Enrique VIII; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con sus paseos nocturnos disfrazado

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«Cases of open criticism of reigning monarchs stand out by their relative rarity, although a handful of French and English examples, at least, can be found. At Dijon in 1630, a portrait of Louis XIII was burned in the street, and something similar happened at Aix in 1637.»y lo escaso de la crítica abierta: los casos destacan por su rareza relativa, aunque se hallen unos cuantos franceses e ingleses, como el retrato de Luis XIII quemado en la calle en Dijon en 1630 y algo semejante en Aix en 1637

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«Notre père qui êtes á Marly, votre nom n’est pas glorieux, votre règne est sur sa fin, votre volonté n’est plus fait ni sur la terre ni sur la mer. (Our Father who art at Marly, thy name is not glorious, thy kingdom is ending, they will is no longer done either on earth or on the sea).»y la parodia del padrenuestro dirigida a Luis XIV a fines del XVII, con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: Padre nuestro que estás en Marly, tu nombre no es glorioso, tu reino toca a su fin, tu voluntad ya no se hace ni en la tierra ni en el mar

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«In the 1530s, a Buckinghamshire man is recorded as saying that ‘the King is a knave and liveth in adultery, and is an heretic and liveth not after the laws of God … I set not by the King's crown, and if I had it here, I would play at football with it’.»y el testimonio inglés de los años treinta del XVI: un hombre de Buckinghamshire dijo que el rey es un bellaco y vive en adulterio y es hereje y no vive según las leyes de Dios, que no estima la corona del rey y que si la tuviera allí jugaría al fútbol con ella

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«In Thouars in western France in 1707, a man is recorded to have said that ‘Le roi est un bougre et un voleur’.23 George II was burned in»y el francés de 1707: en Thouars se registró a un hombre diciendo que el rey es un bujarrón y un ladrón; el tramo se corta en el salto de renglón del troceo

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«effigy at Walsall in Staffordshire 1750, while in 1779–80 George III appeared in prints as ‘Sultan’, an oriental despot in a turban.»y los ingleses del XVIII: Jorge II quemado en efigie en Walsall en 1750 y Jorge III aparecido en las estampas de 1779-80 como *sultán*, déspota oriental con turbante; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

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«The testimony of popular literature fits in with the evidence from popular rebellions. The rising in the North of England in 1536 known as ‘the Pilgrimage of Grace’ claimed to be directed not against Henry VIII but against his minister Thomas Cromwell.»y el cotejo con las revueltas: el alzamiento del norte de Inglaterra de 1536 decía ir dirigido no contra Enrique VIII sino contra su ministro Thomas Cromwell

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«Two Austrians, ‘Pfaffe Amis’ and ‘Der Pfarrer vom Kalenberg’, were medieval trickster-figures who were still popular in the sixteenth century. Their Tuscan equivalent was the ‘merry priest’ of fifteenth-century Florence, il piovano arlotto, ‘a poor country cleric’, as he described himself, barely able to read his missal, and loving wine, women, and jests at the expense of both clergy and laity.»y sus parientes: los austriacos *Pfaffe Amis* y *Der Pfarrer vom Kalenberg*, figuras medievales de embaucador aún populares en el XVI, y su equivalente toscano, el *piovano Arlotto* de la Florencia del XV, pobre clérigo de campo que apenas sabía leer su misal y amaba el vino, las mujeres y las burlas a costa de clérigos y laicos

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«If we want to see popular anti-clericalism in its normal form, it would be better to look at a less revolutionary decade. Popular attitudes were expressed in anecdotes, plays, or even popular art, like the eighteenth-century Staffordshire figure of the tithe pig chasing the parson.»y dónde mirar para ver el anticlericalismo popular en su forma normal: en una década menos revolucionaria, con las actitudes expresadas en anécdotas, piezas o arte popular, como la figura de Staffordshire del XVIII del cerdo del diezmo persiguiendo al párroco

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«The clerical seducer is often the butt of sixteenth-century French farces. Friars in particular were mocked in this way in Italian stories from Boccaccio to Bandello, stories which were probably literary elaborations of folktales, like that of Frate Alberto disguised as the angel Gabriel (Decameron, day 4, Tale 2).»y su presencia literaria: el seductor clerical es blanco frecuente de las farsas francesas del XVI, y a los frailes se los burlaba así en los cuentos italianos de Boccaccio a Bandello, probablemente elaboraciones literarias de cuentos populares, como el de fray Alberto disfrazado del arcángel Gabriel

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«After Henri III of France had had the Duke of Guise assassinated,»y otro uso del tópico, tras el asesinato del duque de Guisa; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con los predicadores de la Liga que llamaron a Enrique III *nuevo Herodes*

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«In The Seven Champions of Christendom (1596) a work which went through at least twenty-six editions by 1770), St George and St James were joined by the brave knights St Denis, St Anthony of Padua, St Andrew, St Patrick and St David.»y su elenco: en *The Seven Champions of Christendom*, obra que tuvo al menos veintiséis ediciones para 1770, a san Jorge y Santiago se sumaron san Dionisio, san Antonio de Padua, san Andrés, san Patricio y san David

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«Marko, for example, might be painted ‘grasping a grown ox by the tail slung over his shoulders and carrying it on his back while he walked erect’.»con el ejemplo: a Marko podía pintárselo agarrando por la cola a un buey adulto echado al hombro y llevándolo a la espalda mientras caminaba erguido

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«A great rock split down the middle might be seen near Turin in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. According to a Venetian nobleman, ‘the idiot peasants’ said that Orlando ‘split it with his sword’.»y el segundo: cerca de Turín podía verse en los siglos XVI y XVII una gran roca partida por la mitad, y según un noble veneciano *los campesinos idiotas* decían que Orlando la había partido con su espada

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«In Les quatre fils Aymon, Renaud kills Charlemagne's nephew Bertolais because Bertolais struck him in a dispute over a game of chess.»y el francés: en *Les quatre fils Aymon*, Renaud mata al sobrino de Carlomagno, Bertolais, porque este lo golpeó en una disputa sobre una partida de ajedrez

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 311»

«From a military point of view, the knight in armour was already an anachronism in 1500, and as war became more highly organized, he was gradually replaced, in popular imagery as well as on the field, by the professional army officer, like ‘the Austrian hero’, Prince Eugene of Savoy.»y su relevo histórico: desde el punto de vista militar el caballero armado era ya anacronismo en 1500, y al organizarse mejor la guerra lo reemplazó gradualmente, en la imaginería popular como en el campo, el oficial profesional, como el *héroe austriaco*, el príncipe Eugenio de Saboya

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 311»

«Yet Prince Eugene was still cast in the mould of Roland or St George and celebrated in broadsides as ‘the valiant hero’, ‘the noble knight’ (der tapfere Held, der edle Ritter), fighting ‘like a lion’ against the Turks.»y la persistencia del molde: al príncipe Eugenio se lo fundió aún en el molde de Roldán o san Jorge y se lo celebró en pliegos como el valiente héroe, el noble caballero, que peleaba como un león contra los turcos; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 311»

«If inn-signs provide a just measure of English popular heroes, then in the eighteenth century the Duke of Marlborough and the Marquis of Granby were prominent among them, like Admiral Rodney and, above all, Admiral Vernon: ‘Brave Vernon, Britain's Hero’ as the ballads called him, or ‘Admiral Vernon the scourge of Spain’.»y la medida inglesa: si los rótulos de posada miden bien a los héroes populares ingleses, en el XVIII destacaban el duque de Marlborough y el marqués de Granby, como el almirante Rodney y sobre todo el almirante Vernon, el *bravo Vernon, héroe de Britania*, el *azote de España*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 311»

«Over a hundred varieties of a medal struck in his honour have survived, with the inscription that ‘he took Portobello with six ships only’»y su cifra: sobreviven más de cien variedades de una medalla acuñada en su honor, con la inscripción de que tomó Portobelo con solo seis naves

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 311»

«The romance of the Four Sons of Aymon, pictured astride the famous horse Bayard (Figure 13, Figure 14) was popular in France, the Netherlands and Germany»y la de *Los cuatro hijos de Aymón*, retratados a horcajadas sobre el caballo Bayardo, popular en Francia, los Países Bajos y Alemania

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 310»

«In similar fashion, a Russian ballad presents»y el paralelo ruso; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con Iliá de Múrom riñendo con Vladimiro de Kiev

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 310»

«After all, soldiers ‘did not have to work in the fields; they were freed from the domination of their parents; they wore a splendid uniform; and they got to see something of the world’.»y sus razones: los soldados no tenían que trabajar en los campos, se libraban del dominio de sus padres, llevaban un uniforme espléndido y veían algo del mundo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 312»

«Perhaps it was a concession to popular taste when St Martin dividing his cloak with the Beggar was shown (in a statue by Georg Donner in the cathedral of St Martin in Bratislava), in the uniform of an eighteenth-century hussar.»y la concesión que sospecha: quizá fue concesión al gusto popular que san Martín partiendo su capa con el mendigo apareciera, en una estatua de Georg Donner en la catedral de Bratislava, con uniforme de húsar del siglo XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 312»

«The noble, like the priest, has an unheroic side, but it is one shown relatively rarely. In the romances of chivalry, we find the figure of the treacherous knight, such as Ganelon in the Chanson de Roland, Mordred in the Mort d’Arthur, Count Amaury in Huon de Bordeaux, or the Counts of Carrión in the ballads about the Cid.»y el lado no heroico del noble, que se muestra relativamente poco: la figura del caballero traidor, como Ganelón en la *Chanson de Roland*, Mordred en la *Mort d'Arthur*, el conde Amaury en *Huon de Bordeaux* o los condes de Carrión en los romances del Cid

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 312»

«It was often the miller or the bailiff who got the blame for his actions. Occasional exceptions to this rule include an Italian folktale presenting a noble who marries a poor girl and deserts her, and the Catalan ballad El Compte Arnau, where the Count's ghost says that he is in hell for having underpaid his workers – per pagar mal les soldades. Again, a celebrated French print of c. 1789 shows the nobleman riding on the peasant's back»y quién cargaba con la culpa: el molinero o el mayordomo, con excepciones ocasionales como un cuento italiano del noble que se casa con una muchacha pobre y la abandona, la balada catalana del *Comte Arnau*, cuyo fantasma dice estar en el infierno por pagar mal las soldadas, y una estampa francesa célebre de hacia 1789 en que el noble cabalga sobre la espalda del campesino

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 312»

«However, in eastern Germany in 1525, some peasants declared that ‘the gentry of Keymen robbed the poor people of their grain’, while in Mecklenburg, a series of stories about the tyranny of the noble landlord were collected from oral tradition as late as the 1950s, under the Communist regime, when such stories had become orthodox rather than subversive.»y las excepciones: en el este de Alemania en 1525 unos campesinos declararon que la nobleza de Keymen robaba el grano a los pobres, y en Mecklemburgo se recogieron de tradición oral, todavía en los años cincuenta y bajo el régimen comunista, relatos sobre la tiranía del terrateniente noble, cuando ya eran ortodoxos y no subversivos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 313»

«A German folktale well known in the period described a rapacious lawyer who, when one of his victims called out ‘the Devil take you’, was literally taken away by the Devil. Another folktale concerns a lawyer who tries to practice without lying and fails in the attempt.»y dos cuentos: el del abogado rapaz a quien, al gritar una de sus víctimas que se lo lleve el diablo, el diablo se lleva literalmente, y el del abogado que intenta ejercer sin mentir y fracasa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 313»

«There is also a rich vein of English evidence for popular hostility to ‘the two-tongued lawyer’, particularly during the Civil War. The Leveller leader John Lilburne called lawyers and judges ‘thieves cum privilegio’.»y la veta inglesa: hay evidencia rica de hostilidad popular al *abogado de dos lenguas*, sobre todo durante la guerra civil, y el cabecilla *leveller* John Lilburne llamó a abogados y jueces ladrones con privilegio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 313»

«These gabeleurs were described by the rebellious peasants and others as ‘tyrants’, ‘cannibals’, and ‘bloodsuckers’. They were not infrequently attacked in the course of their operations, a custom that seems to have survived in France till the days of Pierre Poujade in the 1950s.»y cómo se los llamaba: tiranos, caníbales y chupasangres, y no pocas veces se los atacaba en plena faena, costumbre que parece haber sobrevivido en Francia hasta los días de Pierre Poujade en los años cincuenta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 314»

«Thou Usurer with thy money bags, That liveth so at ease: By gaping after gold thou dost Thy mighty God displease, And for thy greedy usury And thy great extortion: Except thou dost repent thy sins, Hell fire will be thy portion.»y cita una balada de pliego británica de 1612 contra el usurero: tú, usurero con tus sacos de dinero, que vives tan holgado, desagradas a tu Dios poderoso por andar boquiabierto tras el oro, y si no te arrepientes de tus pecados el fuego del infierno será tu parte

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 314»

«In the same class were monopolists, like Sir Giles Mompesson, whose monopoly of licensing alehouses probably made him one of the best-hated men in England.»y en la misma clase los monopolistas, como Sir Giles Mompesson, cuyo monopolio de licencias de cervecerías lo hizo probablemente uno de los hombres más odiados de Inglaterra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 315»

«For greedy gain he thrust the weak to wall And thereby got himself the devil and all.»y cita la inscripción de la estampa de 1621 que lo atacaba: por ganancia codiciosa arrinconó al débil contra la pared y con ello se ganó al diablo y a todo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 315»

«Dives, whose story was sung in ballads (such as Child 56) and painted on alehouse walls, was the prototype of the selfish rich man, invoked, for example, in an English anonymous letter of 1795 about the distress of the poor.»y el prototipo del rico egoísta: el rico Epulón, cuya historia se cantaba en baladas y se pintaba en las paredes de las cervecerías, invocado por ejemplo en una carta anónima inglesa de 1795 sobre la miseria de los pobres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 315»

«Alternatively, the miser might be presented as a comic figure, a fool who is so upset by the loss of his money that he dies, like Reginald Money-Bags and John Eye-of-the-Penny in the popular plays of eighteenth-century Wales.»y la alternativa cómica: el avaro como figura de loco, tan afligido por la pérdida de su dinero que muere, como Reginald Money-Bags y John Eye-of-the-Penny en las piezas populares del Gales del XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 315»

«The Digger leader Gerard Winstanley declared that ‘The law is the fox, poor men are the geese; he pulls off their feathers»y el cabecilla *digger* Gerrard Winstanley, que declaró que la ley es el zorro y los pobres los gansos, a los que arranca las plumas; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *and feeds upon them*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 313»

«As for that nineteenth-century favourite, the entrepreneur as popular hero, he is almost invisible in the early modern period, with one significant exception. The exception is England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, where we find heroes like ‘old Hobson the merry Londoner’ (a wealthy haberdasher); the Berkshire clothier, Jack of Newbury; Simon Eyre, Lord Mayor»y el empresario como héroe popular, favorito del siglo XIX: casi invisible en la época moderna temprana salvo la Inglaterra de los siglos XVII y XVIII, con el viejo Hobson, Jack of Newbury y Simon Eyre; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con Dick Whittington

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 315»

«The story of King Solomon and Marcolf is a medieval one and it was written in Latin, but since it was current in sixteenth-century Europe and translated into a number of vernaculars, it should not be dismissed.»y el primero: la historia del rey Salomón y Marcolfo es medieval y se escribió en latín, y no debe desecharse porque corría en la Europa del XVI y se tradujo a varias lenguas vulgares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 316»

«Marcolf, who is sometimes portrayed carrying a pitchfork, is a peasant, ‘of visage greatly misshapen and foul’. He may look a fool, but he triumphs over the proverbially wise Solomon with ease, turning out to be ‘right talkative eloquent and wise’.»y su figura: Marcolfo, retratado a veces con una horca, es un campesino de rostro muy deforme y feo, que puede parecer tonto y triunfa con facilidad sobre el proverbialmente sabio Salomón, resultando ser muy hablador, elocuente y sabio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 316»

«Another peasant who is no fool is the Italian Campriano, who triumphs over a group of merchants in a sequence of incidents that progress from the crude to the sadistic.»y el segundo: el italiano Campriano, que triunfa sobre un grupo de mercaderes en una secuencia de incidentes que va de lo grosero a lo sádico

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 316»

«Much more attractive is the French peasant, ‘Goodman Poverty’, Bonhomme Misère. He is poor but kind.»y el tercero, que le parece mucho más atractivo: el campesino francés *Bonhomme Misère*, pobre y bondadoso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 316»

«Misère is presented as ‘satisfied with his destiny’; simple (but not as simple as he looks); generous; and ultimately indestructible. It is hardly surprising that the story was a popular one, with at least fourteen editions before 1800.»y el retrato que saca: Misère se presenta satisfecho con su destino, simple pero no tan simple como parece, generoso y en última instancia indestructible, de ahí que la historia fuera popular, con al menos catorce ediciones antes de 1800

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 317»

«A similar picture of the wisdom of contenting oneself with modest comforts emerges from a poem from eighteenth-century Scandinavia, Bonde Lyckan, ‘Peasant Success’, painted on a board in an eighteenth-century Norwegian cottage»y el cuarto: un cuadro semejante de la sabiduría de contentarse con comodidades modestas emerge de un poema escandinavo del XVIII, *Bonde Lyckan*, *éxito campesino*, pintado en una tabla de una cabaña noruega

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 317»

«He catches a thief in this way and releases him on oath never to rob the tree again. Later he is cunning enough to catch Death himself, and only lets»y su desenlace: así atrapa a un ladrón y lo suelta bajo juramento de no robar más el árbol, y después es bastante astuto para atrapar a la Muerte misma; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 316»

«En 8te kiørs bonde A peasant with eight cows som haver en haest who owns a horse Gudfrygtig og aer-lig, God-fearing and honest, god naboe dernaest, a good neighbour as well. Sin Gud og Kong troe Faithful to his God and his king med hver mands attest. as everyone will bear witness. Er lidet louv-halted, He limps a little god ven med sin Praest, good friends with his vicar. Ved inted af Laensmand Sees nothing of the magistrate, ej heller noen rest. owes nothing to anyone. Boer langt op i skougen, Lives high up in the woods, har skieldum nogen giaest. seldom has a guest. Er frie for Herregaarden, Is free from the landlord, krig hunger og paest.»y cita el poema noruego con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime en columna paralela: un campesino de ocho vacas con un caballo, temeroso de Dios y honrado, buen vecino, fiel a su Dios y a su rey con el testimonio de todos, algo cojo, buen amigo de su párroco, que no ve al alguacil ni debe nada, vive alto en el bosque, rara vez tiene huésped y está libre del señorío, la guerra, el hambre y la peste; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 317»

«Vel bruger sin ager, Makes good use of his land, eng, spade og laest. meadow, spade and last. Og slider sit vadmel, He wears homespun, skind-buxer og vaest.»y la continuación del poema noruego: saca buen provecho de su tierra, su prado, su pala y su horma, y gasta su paño casero, calzones de cuero y chaleco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 317»

«This practice seems to have been particularly common in Italy, and it may be no accident that some of the most vivid hostile images of the peasant are Italian, such as those expressed in Le malitie di villani (‘The peasants’ dirty tricks’), a song that declares they are ‘like animals’»y dónde se agudiza: esa práctica parece haber sido especialmente común en Italia, y puede no ser accidente que algunas de las imágenes hostiles más vivas del campesino sean italianas, como *Le malitie di villani*, canción que los declara *como animales*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 318»

«In mal far si sono astute Si li vecchi come i putti I me par ribaldi tutti Con lor non e da praticare De villani non te fidare. (They are cunning in ill-doing, The old ones as much as the young, They all seem rogues to me, There is no doing business with them, Don’t trust the peasant).»y cita la canción con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: son astutos para el mal, los viejos tanto como los mozos, todos me parecen bellacos, con ellos no hay trato posible, no te fíes del villano

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 318»

«In more cheerful mood, the townsmen and their spokesmen, notably Hans Sachs, saw peasants as figures of fun.»y el tono más alegre: los habitantes de la ciudad y sus portavoces, señaladamente Hans Sachs, veían a los campesinos como figuras de burla

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 319»

«His play Heinz in Nürnberg mocks the simple countryman who comes to town to obtain a citizen's privileges, a theme also found in an Italian song about a peasant who wanted to become a citizen of Ferrara. The moral is clear: peasant, know your place!»con su pieza *Heinz in Nürnberg*, que se burla del campesino simple que viene a la ciudad a obtener privilegios de ciudadano, tema hallado también en una canción italiana sobre un campesino que quería hacerse ciudadano de Ferrara, con una moral clara: campesino, conoce tu lugar; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 319»

«Particularly popular in the Netherlands, France and Germany was the story of Geneviève of Brabant, the wife falsely accused of adultery and driven out by her husband, living in the forest till her innocence was discovered.»y la historia especialmente popular en los Países Bajos, Francia y Alemania: la de Genoveva de Brabante, esposa acusada falsamente de adulterio y expulsada por su marido, que vive en el bosque hasta que se descubre su inocencia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 319»

«Equally passive were two heroines who often took the place of saints in Protestant countries: chaste Susanna (like Geneviève, falsely accused but vindicated) and patient Griselda. Both were celebrated in German plays, in English puppet-plays, in Swedish ballads and in Danish chapbooks.»y las dos heroínas que ocupaban el lugar de las santas en los países protestantes: la casta Susana, falsamente acusada y vindicada como Genoveva, y la paciente Griselda, celebradas en piezas alemanas, títeres ingleses, baladas suecas y pliegos daneses

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 319»

«A sixteenth-century play has as its villain a certain Biagio, ‘a»y una pieza del XVI cuyo villano es un tal Biagio; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *treacherous peasant’ (un perfido villano)*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 318»

«In eighteenth-century Russia, we find the Cossack rebel Emilian Pugachev; in the Carpathians, Oleks Dovbuš; in Slovakia, Juraj Jánošík.58 In Andalusia, there was ‘the generous bandit’, Diego Corrientes. In the South of Italy, there was Angelo Duca, known as ‘Angiolillo’, who was hanged in Salerno in 1784.»y la nómina del XVIII: el rebelde cosaco Emelián Pugachov en Rusia, Oleksa Dovbuš en los Cárpatos, Juraj Jánošík en Eslovaquia, el *bandido generoso* Diego Corrientes en Andalucía y Angelo Duca, *Angiolillo*, ahorcado en Salerno en 1784

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 321»

«In Britain, there was Captain Kidd (who was born in Scotland), Rob Roy, and Dick Turpin, who was not only a highwayman but also a burglar, deerstealer and smuggler.»y la británica: el capitán Kidd, nacido en Escocia, Rob Roy y Dick Turpin, que era salteador además de ladrón de casas, furtivo de ciervos y contrabandista; el impreso parte *deer-stealer* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *deerstealer*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 321»

«In France, the most famous figures were Cartouche, who led a gang of thieves in Paris, and Mandrin, who organized smuggling in Dauphiné.»y la francesa: Cartouche, que dirigió una banda de ladrones en París, y Mandrin, que organizó el contrabando en el Delfinado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 321»

«Robin Hood robbed the rich and gave to the poor, as the ballads suggest, notably A Gest of Robyn Hood (Child 117) and A True Tale of Robin Hood (Child 154). This characteristic was to become a commonplace of outlaw biography in the English-speaking world.»con el arquetipo: Robin Hood robaba a los ricos y daba a los pobres, según sugieren las baladas, rasgo que iba a volverse lugar común de la biografía del forajido en el mundo anglohablante

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 321»

«Rob Roy, like Robin, gave money to a poor man who was in debt to a rich one, taking it back from the rich man soon after. Dick Turpin threw six pounds into the house of a poor woman in a gesture reminiscent of the Charity of St Nicholas.»y sus repeticiones: Rob Roy dio dinero a un pobre endeudado con un rico y se lo recuperó al rico poco después, y Dick Turpin arrojó seis libras en casa de una mujer pobre en gesto que recuerda la caridad de san Nicolás

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 321»

«Diego Corrientes, el ladrón de Andalucía, Que a los ricos robaba y a los pobres socorria. (Diego Corrientes, the robber of Andalucia Who took from the rich and helped the poor)»y el romance español que celebra a Diego Corrientes, el ladrón de Andalucía que a los ricos robaba y a los pobres socorría; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 322»

«Elsewhere the theme underwent local variations, according to need: The ballads of Stenka Razin show him punishing unjust officials and hanging a tyrannical governor on his own gallows.»y sus variaciones locales según la necesidad: las baladas de Stenka Razin lo muestran castigando a funcionarios injustos y colgando a un gobernador tiránico en su propia horca

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 322»

«Angiolillo was said to have defended the honour of virgins and to have sold corn cheap to the poor in times of dearth.»y de Angiolillo se decía que defendía la honra de las vírgenes y vendía barato el grano a los pobres en tiempos de carestía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 322»

«The outlaw was not infrequently described in terms borrowed from the stereotype of the knight. Robin Hood was described as ‘courteous’: ‘Would he never do company harm/That any woman was in’.»y el molde prestado: no pocas veces se describía al forajido con el estereotipo del caballero, y a Robin Hood se lo llamaba *cortés*, que nunca haría daño a compañía en que hubiera una mujer; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 322»

«Stenka Razin was presented in ballads as a bogatyr, a traditional warrior hero. Serrallonga was described as galán, ‘gallant’ in every sense. Mandrin was noted for his ‘politeness … to the fair sex’, and is described in one biography as preux, ‘valiant’, an adjective associated with Roland and other heroes of romances of chivalry.»y los demás: a Stenka Razin se lo presentaba como *bogatyr*, héroe guerrero tradicional; a Serrallonga como *galán* en todos los sentidos, y de Mandrin se notaba su cortesía con el bello sexo y una biografía lo llama *preux*, valiente, adjetivo asociado a Roldán y a otros héroes caballerescos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 322»

«However, the outlaw was not always idealized. Serrallonga may have been a popular hero, but the small fry of his profession was viewed rather differently, as some sixteenth-century Catalan chapbooks suggest.»y el límite de la idealización: Serrallonga pudo ser héroe popular, y a los peces chicos de su profesión se los veía de otro modo, según sugieren algunos pliegos catalanes del XVI

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 322»

«The verses on a certain Ianot Poch, for example, emphasised the ‘evils and disasters’ that he and his band had caused, suggested that he was ‘possessed by the devil (endiablada), and accused him of cruelty to ordinary people»con el caso: los versos sobre un tal Ianot Poch subrayaban los males y desastres que él y su banda causaron, lo decían *endiablado* y lo acusaban de crueldad con la gente común

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 322»

«La pobra gent robaves Fins los claus de las parets (You robbed poor people of everything, down to the nails in the walls).»y citan: a la pobre gente robabas hasta los clavos de las paredes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 322»

«In similar fashion the broadside Captain Kidd's Farewell to the Seas (1701), presented him as proud and cruel, themes elaborated in a later eighteenth-century American version.»y el paralelo inglés: el pliego *Captain Kidd's Farewell to the Seas* de 1701 lo presentaba orgulloso y cruel, temas elaborados en una versión estadounidense posterior; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 323»

«The Venetian governor of Split complained in 1574 that the local inhabitants ‘have various seditious ballads always in their mouths; especially one comparing the Turk to a devouring flood, which they sing at night, under our very palace windows’.»con la queja del gobernador veneciano de Split en 1574: los habitantes locales tienen siempre en la boca varias baladas sediciosas, sobre todo una que compara al turco con una riada devoradora, y la cantan de noche bajo las ventanas mismas del palacio

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 323»

«Jews were regarded as murderers because they had crucified Christ and they were often accused of the ritual murder of children, as in the ballad, Hugh of Lincoln»y las demás acusaciones: se los tenía por asesinos por haber crucificado a Cristo y se los acusaba a menudo del asesinato ritual de niños, como en la balada de Hugh of Lincoln

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 324»

«The stereotype of the cruel and greedy usurer was often applied to them. In mystery plays, Judas was often represented as a typical Jewish usurer of this kind, while Jews were shown in seventeenth-century German prints as profiteering from dearth and debased coinage.»y el estereotipo del usurero cruel y codicioso, aplicado a menudo a ellos, con Judas representado en los misterios como usurero judío típico y los judíos mostrados en estampas alemanas del XVII lucrándose de la carestía y la moneda envilecida

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 324»

«In this case too, it has been suggested that people projected ‘their unacknowledged terrifying desires’ on to the witch.»y la misma lectura proyectiva: también aquí se ha sugerido que la gente proyectaba sobre la bruja sus deseos aterradores no reconocidos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 324»

«A popular story, The Wandering Jew, told of the shoemaker who would»y el relato popular del Judío Errante: el zapatero que no dejó descansar a Cristo camino de la crucifixión; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *not let Christ rest*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 323»

«In sixteenth-century France, Catholics described Protestants as pigs, as sacrilegious and blasphemous – why else should they have attacked relics and images? – as ‘bewitched’ by the new religion, as treacherous and as people who indulged in child-murder, cannibalism and promiscuous sex, encouraged by their ministers.»y su contenido en Francia: los católicos describían a los protestantes como cerdos, sacrílegos y blasfemos —¿por qué si no habrían atacado reliquias e imágenes?—, *embrujados* por la religión nueva, traicioneros y dados al infanticidio, el canibalismo y el sexo promiscuo, alentados por sus ministros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 325»

«Conversely, in seventeenth-century England, Protestants saw Catholics as idolaters, supporters of the Devil, and as plotters, traitors who wanted to destroy English liberty and to bring in papal, Spanish or French tyranny, not to mention the Inquisition.»y a la inversa en Inglaterra: los protestantes veían a los católicos como idólatras, partidarios del diablo y conspiradores, traidores que querían destruir la libertad inglesa e implantar la tiranía papal, española o francesa, por no hablar de la Inquisición

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 325»

«The Emperor Charles V, for instance, had great power, but there is only a little evidence that he was seen as a hero after his death.»con las pruebas: Carlos V tuvo gran poder y hay poca evidencia de que se lo viera como héroe tras su muerte

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 326»

«No expense was spared to present Louis XIV as a hero in his own lifetime, but unlike his grandfather Henri, Louis does not seem to figure in French folktales. Conversely, relatively colourless personalities such as Sebastian of Portugal and William III of England did become popular heroes.»y los casos contrarios: no se escatimó gasto en presentar a Luis XIV como héroe en vida y no parece figurar en los cuentos franceses, mientras personalidades relativamente incoloras como Sebastián de Portugal y Guillermo III sí se volvieron héroes populares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 326»

«If Louis XII of France enjoyed a reputation for justice in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, this may be in part because he had been assimilated to St Louis»y el segundo: si Luis XII gozó de fama de justicia en los siglos XVII y XVIII, pudo ser en parte porque se lo había asimilado a san Luis

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 327»

«‘Conquering William’, William III of England, may have been conflated with William the»y el tercero: *el conquistador Guillermo*, Guillermo III de Inglaterra, pudo confundirse con Guillermo el Conquistador; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 327»

«If Martin Luther was seen as a Protestant saint, notably in the famous woodcut by Hans Baldung, this may be in part because St Martin was already a popular hero. Conversely, the cult of St Martin may have survived in Evangelical Germany by association with Martin Luther.»y el cuarto, en los dos sentidos: si a Lutero se lo vio como santo protestante, señaladamente en la xilografía famosa de Hans Baldung, pudo ser en parte porque san Martín era ya héroe popular, y a la inversa el culto de san Martín pudo sobrevivir en la Alemania evangélica por asociación con Martín Lutero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 327»

«A ruler's own actions might of course help him to be seen in terms of the stereotype. William III and Charles XII (Figure 12) did win victories, Henri IV did bring peace, Louis XII and the Emperor Joseph II were concerned with justice and reform and Sebastian did fight the infidel.»y el peso de los hechos: las acciones del gobernante podían ayudarlo a verse según el estereotipo, porque Guillermo III y Carlos XII sí ganaron victorias, Enrique IV sí trajo la paz, Luis XII y José II sí se ocuparon de la justicia y la reforma, y Sebastián sí peleó contra el infiel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 327»

«If the ‘Harun al-Rashid’ topos of the ruler in disguise attached itself to Peter the Great, this may be because Peter did travel incognito, although this was in England and the Dutch Republic, not in Russia.»y la segunda: si el tópico de Harún al-Rashid se adhirió a Pedro el Grande, pudo ser porque Pedro sí viajó de incógnito, aunque en Inglaterra y la República holandesa y no en Rusia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 327»

«The Turkish invasion of Hungary in 1526 helped make King Mátyás, who died in 1490, into a hero; the Spanish takeover of Portugal in 1580 did the same for Sebastian, who had been killed in 1578.»con los casos: la invasión turca de Hungría en 1526 ayudó a hacer héroe al rey Matías, muerto en 1490, y la anexión española de Portugal en 1580 hizo lo mismo con Sebastián, muerto en 1578

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 327»

«Perhaps the Russian ‘Time of Troubles’ around the year 1600 softened the harsh outlines of the career of Ivan the Terrible, who died in 1584.»y el tercero, dicho como conjetura: quizá el *Tiempo de las Tribulaciones* ruso de hacia 1600 suavizó los contornos duros de la carrera de Iván el Terrible, muerto en 1584

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 327»

«As we have seen, similar stories were told of Dick Turpin and Rob Roy.»y su repetición: se contaban historias semejantes de Dick Turpin y Rob Roy

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 328»

«Dick Whittington, about whom some reliable information has survived, offers a clear case of crystallization. He was a rich merchant and also a generous one, founding Whittington College.»y el caso más claro de cristalización: Dick Whittington, del que sobrevive alguna información fiable, mercader rico y además generoso que fundó el Whittington College

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 328»

«In the folktale version of his life, however, he was described as coming of humble origin (when he was really of gentry stock) and as marrying his master's daughter (which we happen to know he did not do).»y su deformación: en la versión de cuento popular se lo describe de origen humilde, cuando era de familia de la *gentry*, y casándose con la hija de su amo, cosa que se sabe que no hizo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 328»

«The story offers an example of an international folktale in which a poor boy makes good. In this version, Whittington is an orphan who walks to London to make his fortune, works as a scullion in a merchant's kitchen, becomes rich from the sale of his cat and is chosen four times to be Lord Mayor.»y el molde que lo acoge: un cuento internacional en que un muchacho pobre prospera, con Whittington huérfano que camina a Londres a hacer fortuna, sirve de pinche en la cocina de un mercader, se enriquece con la venta de su gato y es elegido cuatro veces Lord Mayor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 328»

«In Russia, the image of Pugachev was assimilated to that of Razin, whom he resembled in obvious respects such as being a Cossack and a rebel. Conversely, the career of Razin was in turn remembered or reconstructed in terms of that of Pugachev.»y el caso ruso en los dos sentidos: la imagen de Pugachov se asimiló a la de Razin, a quien se parecía en ser cosaco y rebelde, y a la inversa la carrera de Razin se recordó o reconstruyó en términos de la de Pugachov

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 328»

«In the German Faust-Book of 1587, these themes were combined in a relatively minor figure, a certain Georgius Faustus of Heidelberg who had lived in the early sixteenth century and studied magic.»y dónde se combinaron: en el *Faustbuch* alemán de 1587, en torno a una figura relativamente menor, un tal Georgius Faustus de Heidelberg que había vivido a principios del XVI y estudiado magia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 328»

«Frederick the Great inherited something from the traditional ‘Emperor Frederick’, a figure that was itself the product»con el caso: Federico el Grande heredó algo del *emperador Federico* tradicional, figura que era ella misma un producto; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la asimilación de Federico II a Federico I

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 326»

«Gabriel Ratsey, a minor English outlaw who was executed in 1605, was said to have intended to rob»con el caso: de Gabriel Ratsey, forajido inglés menor ejecutado en 1605, se decía que se propuso robar a un hombre; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con los cuarenta chelines que le dio al hallarlo pobre

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 327»

«Frederick the Great was said to be invulnerable as well as having two books of magic to help him win battles. King Olav was believed to work miraculous cures.»y los reyes: de Federico el Grande se decía que era invulnerable y que tenía dos libros de magia para ayudarlo a ganar batallas, y del rey Olaf se creía que hacía curas milagrosas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 329»

«Turpin rode from London to York in a day, such a remarkable feat that his arrival served him as an alibi.»y Turpin, que cabalgó de Londres a York en un día, proeza tan notable que su llegada le sirvió de coartada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 329»

«However, these exploits were nothing compared to those of the Russian razboiniki. Bullets and cannonballs could not harm Stenka Razin, and he once escaped from prison by drawing a boat on the wall and sailing away in it.»y los rusos, que a su lado no son nada: a Stenka Razin no lo dañaban balas ni cañonazos, y una vez escapó de la cárcel dibujando un bote en la pared y navegando en él

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 329»

«To be rich was abnormal, so a rich man must have oppressed the poor, found buried treasure, or given a purse that could never be emptied, as in The History of Fortunatus.»y la misma regla con la riqueza: ser rico era anormal, de modo que el rico tenía que haber oprimido a los pobres, hallado un tesoro enterrado o recibido una bolsa que nunca se vaciaba, como en la *Historia de Fortunato*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«The people of San Pedro de Usun threatened to throw their image of St Peter into the river if their prayers were not heard, and the people of Villeneuve-St-Georges actually did throw their St George into the Seine in 1735, after he had failed to look after their vines.»con los casos: los de San Pedro de Usún amenazaron con echar su imagen de san Pedro al río si no se oían sus oraciones, y los de Villeneuve-Saint-Georges echaron de hecho su san Jorge al Sena en 1735, tras fallarles con las viñas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«Ex-votos were often offered to miraculous images, while different images of the same saint were sometimes believed to be rivals, like the two St Christophers at Tarragona.»y su rivalidad: se ofrecían exvotos a las imágenes milagrosas, y a veces se creía que imágenes distintas del mismo santo eran rivales, como los dos san Cristóbales de Tarragona

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 330»

«The peasants of Telemark in Norway were described in 1786 as holding one basic principle: ‘Follow the old ways. Oppose all innovations’ (Følg gammel Skik. Staae imod alle Anordninger).»con el testimonio noruego de 1786: de los campesinos de Telemark se dijo que sostenían un principio básico, seguir las viejas costumbres y oponerse a toda innovación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 331»

«Popular prints sometimes showed big fish eating up small ones, an image for which the obvious interpretation is that (as the fisherman says in Shakespeare's Pericles) fish live in the sea just as men do on land.»y su imagen: las estampas populares mostraban a veces peces grandes comiéndose a los chicos, imagen cuya interpretación obvia es la que da el pescador del *Pericles* de Shakespeare, que los peces viven en el mar como los hombres en tierra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 332»

«Hence the German peasants who rose in 1525 declared they were defending their traditional rights. The Norman peasants who rose in 1639 resisted the demands of Louis XIII in the name of the laws of Louis XII. Eighteenth-century English food rioters demanded traditional prices and traditional restrictions on profiteers. The peasants of Telemark opposed new taxes in 1786 in the name of King Olav's Law.»con los cuatro casos: los campesinos alemanes de 1525 declararon defender sus derechos tradicionales, los normandos de 1639 resistieron a Luis XIII en nombre de las leyes de Luis XII, los amotinados ingleses del XVIII exigieron precios y restricciones tradicionales, y los de Telemark se opusieron a los impuestos nuevos de 1786 en nombre de la ley del rey Olaf

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 333»

«Michael Gaismair, who led the rising in the Tyrol, had a vision of ‘complete equality in the land’ (ain ganze Glaichait im Lande).91 Stenka Razin proclaimed that all men would be equal.»y sus voces: Michael Gaismair, que dirigió el alzamiento del Tirol, tuvo una visión de igualdad completa en la tierra, y Stenka Razin proclamó que todos los hombres serían iguales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 333»

«In 1525, Thomas Müntzer preached a similar utopia to the peasants and miners of Thuringia. At Münster in 1534, the Anabaptists announced a new order in which ‘all things were to be in common, there would be no private property, and nobody was to do any more work, but simply trust in God’.»y sus continuadores: en 1525 Thomas Müntzer predicó una utopía semejante a los campesinos y mineros de Turingia, y en Münster en 1534 los anabaptistas anunciaron un orden nuevo en que todo sería común, no habría propiedad privada y nadie trabajaría más, sino que confiaría en Dios

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 334»

«seventeenth-century French inn, instead of a notice such as ‘Do not ask for credit as a refusal might offend’, still quite common in English pubs in the 1970s, an English traveller in Lyon noticed a picture of a dead man labelled Crédit est Mort»y el ejemplo francés de la personificación: en una posada del Lyon del XVII un viajero inglés vio, en vez de un aviso de no pedir fiado, un cuadro de un muerto rotulado *el crédito ha muerto*; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 331»

«This attitude shades into the millenarian. Hans Böhm, ‘the drummer of Niklashausen’, who preached in the Würzburg area in the 1470s, declared that a kingdom was at hand where there would»y la quinta respuesta, la milenarista, con Hans Böhm, el tamborilero de Niklashausen, que declaró que se acercaba un reino; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *be no taxes, rents or services*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 333»

«In this spectrum of opinion, one can find radical views and activist views but rarely the two combined. A labourer in Elizabethan Essex once asked, ‘What can rich men do against poor men if the poor men rise and hold together?’95 They rarely did.»y lo que el espectro no da: se hallan opiniones radicales y opiniones activistas, y rara vez las dos combinadas, como cuando un jornalero del Essex isabelino preguntó qué pueden los ricos contra los pobres si los pobres se levantan y se mantienen unidos; rara vez lo hicieron

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 334»

«For example, in the Vivarais in 1670, some rebellious peasants declared that it was the turn of the gentry to become their servants.»con el caso: en el Vivarés en 1670 unos campesinos rebeldes declararon que le tocaba a la nobleza volverse sus criados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«In 1944, a study of Turkish villagers revealed that they could not imagine a sum of money larger than five thousand dollars.»con el cotejo moderno: un estudio de 1944 sobre aldeanos turcos reveló que no podían imaginar una suma de dinero mayor de cinco mil dólares

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«Similarly, when Misère is asked what he wishes for most, he thinks not of land or more trees, but simply of improved security for the one tree he has.»y el del cuento: cuando se le pregunta a Misère qué desea más, no piensa en tierra ni en más árboles sino simplemente en más seguridad para el único árbol que tiene

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«In the world of the folktale, he was surely right. He avoided the nemesis in the Grimm's story of the fisherman and his wife who asked for too much, irritated their supernatural helper and lost all they had gained.»y por qué acertaba en el mundo del cuento: evitó la némesis del relato de los Grimm del pescador y su mujer, que pidieron demasiado, irritaron a su auxiliar sobrenatural y perdieron cuanto habían ganado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 335»

«J. Crespin, Histoire des Martyrs (1554: rpr 3 vols., Toulouse, 1885–9); J.-F. Gilmont, Jean Crespin (Geneva, 1981); D. Nicholls, ‘The Theatre of Martyrdom in the French Reformation’, Past & Present 121 (1988), pp. 49–73.»la nota 7 da la *Histoire des Martyrs* de Jean Crespin y los estudios de Gilmont y de David Nicholls sobre el teatro del martirio en la Reforma francesa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 337»

«W. Haller, Foxe's Book of Martyrs and the Elect Nation (London, 1963), esp. ch. 4.»la nota 8 remite el libro de los mártires de Foxe al *Foxe's Book of Martyrs and the Elect Nation* de William Haller

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 337»

«S. Collins, The Present State of Russia (London, 1671), p. 52f. Cf. M. Perrie, The Image of Ivan the Terrible in Russian Folklore»la nota 18 da la fuente del cuento del zar entre los ladrones —el *Present State of Russia* de Samuel Collins— y el estudio de Maureen Perrie sobre la imagen de Iván el Terrible en el folclore ruso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 338»

«H. Eberhardt, ‘Der Kyffhäuserberg in Geschichte und Sage’, Blätter fur Deutsche Landesgeschichte 96 (1960), p. 97f.»la nota 19 remite el Kyffhäuser al ensayo de Hans Eberhardt sobre el monte en la historia y la leyenda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 338»

«Motif-Index f.585.1, K.443.9; K. V. Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (London, 1971), p. 568f.; L. Roper, Witch Craze: Terror and Fantasy in Baroque Germany (New Haven, CT, 2004), pp. 17–18, 78–9, 121–2, 172–3, 177–8.»la nota 56 remite la preponderancia de mujeres entre las acusadas de brujería al *Religion and the Decline of Magic* de Keith Thomas y al *Witch Craze* de Lyndal Roper

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 342»

«E. J. Hobsbawm, Bandits (London, 1969).»la nota 57 da los *Bandits* de Hobsbawm, de 1969; el troceo imprime el arranque en columna

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 342»

«R. Hsia, The Myth of Ritual Murder: Jews and Magic in Reformation Germany (New Haven, CT, 1988); M. Rubin, Gentile Tales: the Narrative Assault on Late Medieval Jews (New»la nota 67 remite la acusación de asesinato ritual al *Myth of Ritual Murder* de Ronnie Hsia y a los *Gentile Tales* de Miri Rubin

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 343»

«J. Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews (New Haven, CT,»la nota 68 da *The Devil and the Jews* de Joshua Trachtenberg

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 343»

«N. Cohn, Europe's Inner Demons (London, 1975), p. 259.»la nota 69 da la plana exacta del *Europe's Inner Demons* de Cohn para la proyección de los deseos sobre la bruja

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 343»

«W. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People (London, 1872), p.»la nota 70 remite Baba Yagá a las *Songs of the Russian People* de William Ralston

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 343»

«T. Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality (New York,»la nota 73 da la fuente de la *personalidad autoritaria*: el libro de Adorno y otros de 1950

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 344»

«E. M. Butler, The Fortunes of Faust (Cambridge, 1952), p. 7f.; C. Dédéyan, Le Thème de Faust dans la Littérature Européenne (Paris, 1954).»la nota 78 da la bibliografía de Fausto: *The Fortunes of Faust* de E. M. Butler y *Le Thème de Faust dans la Littérature Européenne* de Charles Dédéyan

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 344»

«M. Bloch, The Royal Touch (1924: English translation, London, 1973); Bø, Heilig Olav, ch. 4.»la nota 79 remite el toque real a *The Royal Touch* de Marc Bloch y las curas de san Olaf al libro de Olav Bø

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 344»

«C. Hill, The World Turned Upside Down (London, 1972), see index, ‘lawyers’.»la nota 43 remite la hostilidad a los abogados durante la guerra civil inglesa al *World Turned Upside Down* de Christopher Hill

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 340»

«N. Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium (London, 1957), pp. 228, 265; Seibt, Utopica, p. 182f.»la nota 93 remite el milenio y el país de Jauja al *Pursuit of the Millennium* de Cohn y a la *Utopica* de Ferdinand Seibt

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 346»

«J. Ferté, La vie religieuse dans les campagnes parisiennes (Paris, 1962), p. 340; Amades, Els Ex-Vots (Barcelona, 1952), p.»la nota 81 da las fuentes de las imágenes amenazadas y de los exvotos: Jeanne Ferté para el campo parisino y *Els Ex-Vots* de Joan Amades

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 344»

«‘Credit Is Dead’ from Jacques Lagniet's Recuil des plus illustres proverbs…. (Paris, 1657). [RB 10217]. This item reproduced by permission of The Huntington Library, San Marino,»el pie de la figura 9, la estampa del *crédito ha muerto* del *Recuil des plus illustres proverbes* de Jacques Lagniet, París 1657; el pie se imprime igual en el índice de figuras y en la sección de láminas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 12»

«‘Long Live the King, Long Live the Nation, I knew our turn was coming’. Paris, Musée Carnavalet.»el pie de la figura 18, la estampa revolucionaria del viva el rey, viva la nación, ya sabía yo que nos llegaba el turno, del Musée Carnavalet; el pie se imprime igual en el índice de figuras y en la sección de láminas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 13»

«The Italian priest Alberto Fortis recorded with disapproval on his visit to Dalmatia that ‘domestic economy is not commonly understood by the Morlaks, a pastoral people of that region; in this respect they resemble the Hottentots and finish off in a week what should have lasted for many months, simply because an opportunity to make merry has presented itself’.»con el testimonio de Alberto Fortis en Dalmacia, dicho con desaprobación: los morlacos no entienden comúnmente la economía doméstica, en lo que se parecen a los hotentotes, y acaban en una semana lo que debía durar muchos meses, simplemente porque se ha presentado una ocasión de alegrarse

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 367»

«An English visitor to Naples noticed that ‘very little suffices to clothe the lazaro [the poor man] except on holidays; and then he is indeed tawdrily decked out, with laced jacket and flame-coloured stockings; his buckles are of enormous magnitude’.2 The special clothes were a sign that the day was no ordinary one.»con el testimonio napolitano: un visitante inglés notó que muy poco basta para vestir al *lazaro*, el pobre, salvo en los días de fiesta, cuando va emperejilado con chaqueta de galón y medias color de llama y hebillas de magnitud enorme, señal de que el día no era ordinario

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 368»

«A French sociologist has suggested that in traditional societies, people live ‘in remembrance of one festival and in expectation of the next’.»y la fórmula que cita de un sociólogo francés: en las sociedades tradicionales la gente vive en el recuerdo de una fiesta y en la espera de la siguiente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 368»

«Some English travellers who were in Prato for the feast of Our Lady, early in the seventeenth century, took a good look at the crowd in the piazza, ‘whereof we judged one half to have hats of straw and one fourth part to be bare legged’.»con el testimonio de Prato a principios del XVII: unos viajeros ingleses miraron la multitud de la plaza y juzgaron que la mitad llevaba sombrero de paja y una cuarta parte iba con las piernas desnudas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 369»

«An English clergyman, in Barcelona for Holy Week in 1787, pointed out that ‘many upon such occasions resort to Barcelona from the adjacent villages, and some from distant provinces’.»y el de Barcelona en la Semana Santa de 1787: un clérigo inglés señaló que en tales ocasiones muchos acuden desde las aldeas vecinas y algunos desde provincias distantes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 369»

«Italian storytellers began with the sign of the cross, and in eighteenth-century Scotland a report to the Highland Society told of ‘an old fellow in the parish that very gravely takes off his bonnet as often as he sings Duon Dearmot … he told me it was out of regard for the memory of that hero’.»con los dos ejemplos: los narradores italianos empezaban con la señal de la cruz, y en la Escocia del XVIII un informe a la Highland Society contaba de un viejo de la parroquia que se quitaba muy gravemente el bonete cada vez que cantaba *Duon Dearmot*, por respeto a la memoria de aquel héroe

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 370»

«However, if Robin was to be King of the May, he would need a Queen. Maid Marion is not recorded in association with Robin Hood until the sixteenth century, hundreds of years after his story was first told, but Robin and Marion appeared as the May King and Queen at Reading in 1502, at Kingston-on-Thames in 1506, in London in 1559 and at Abingdon in 1566.»y la consecuencia documentada: si Robin había de ser rey de mayo, necesitaba reina, y Maid Marion no se registra junto a él hasta el siglo XVI, cientos de años después de contarse su historia, aunque los dos aparecen como rey y reina de mayo en Reading en 1502, Kingston-on-Thames en 1506, Londres en 1559 y Abingdon en 1566

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 370»

«It would be misleading to describe Robin, in the terminology of the folklorist Wilhelm Mannhardt, as a ‘vegetation demon’, for this would be to ignore his social significance, yet Robin the outlaw may have stepped into the role and taken over some of the attributes of a spirit of spring.»y la lectura que propone con su límite: sería engañoso describir a Robin, con el término del folclorista Wilhelm Mannhardt, como *demonio de la vegetación*, porque eso ignoraría su significado social, y aun así Robin el forajido pudo entrar en el papel y asumir algunos atributos de un espíritu de la primavera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 370»

«The poet Thomas Gray made the same point when he wrote from Turin in 1739: ‘This Carnival lasts only from Christmas»y el mismo punto en Thomas Gray desde Turín en 1739: el carnaval dura solo de Navidad a cuaresma; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con las dos mitades del año que quedan

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 368»

«Today, at least in academic circles, the idea of such a Carnival has become almost indissociable from the ideas of the Russian cultural theorist Mikhail Bakhtin, whose study of the world of Rabelais (written for the most part in the 1930s but published only in 1965) treated Carnival as the supreme»y a quién está atada hoy esa idea: al menos en círculos académicos, la idea de tal carnaval se ha vuelto casi inseparable de las ideas de Mijaíl Bajtín, cuyo estudio del mundo de Rabelais, escrito en su mayor parte en los años treinta y publicado solo en 1965, trató el carnaval como el ejemplo supremo de algo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 373»

«example of what he called ‘the culture of folk humour’, emphasizing the obscenity of the images of what he called ‘the material bodily lower stratum’ and also the subversive function of the festival, its emphasis on the ‘degradation’ or ‘uncrowning’ of rulers and other important people.»y de qué: de lo que Bajtín llamó *la cultura del humor popular*, subrayando la obscenidad de las imágenes de lo que llamó *el estrato corporal inferior material* y también la función subversiva de la fiesta, su acento en la *degradación* o el *descoronamiento* de gobernantes y otros personajes importantes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 373»

«Historians have found this book exciting and inspiring ever since its publication, which may be said to have occurred at the right moment, just when the study of popular culture was itself becoming popular among intellectuals.»y su fortuna: los historiadores han hallado ese libro excitante e inspirador desde su publicación, que cabe decir que ocurrió en el momento justo, cuando el estudio de la cultura popular se volvía él mismo popular entre los intelectuales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 373»

«The English translation of the book on Rabelais appeared, appropriately enough, in 1968, the French in 1970 and the Spanish in 1974.»y sus fechas: la traducción inglesa del libro sobre Rabelais apareció, apropiadamente, en 1968, la francesa en 1970 y la española en 1974

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 373»

«Among the historians who were citing Bakhtin in the 1970s were Natalie Davis, Bronisław Geremek, Carlo Ginzburg, Aron Gurevich, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Dmitri Likhachev, Robert Muchembled, Bob Scribner, and myself.»y quiénes lo citaban en los setenta: Natalie Davis, Bronisław Geremek, Carlo Ginzburg, Aron Gurevich, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Dmitri Lijachov, Robert Muchembled, Bob Scribner y él mismo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 373»

«By the 1980s, Bakhtin's book had become a virtually obligatory reference in studies of popular culture in different disciplines.»y su consagración: para los años ochenta el libro de Bajtín se había vuelto referencia prácticamente obligatoria en los estudios de cultura popular de disciplinas distintas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 373»

«Nevertheless, the book is open to serious criticism. As Gurevich suggested, Bakhtin made too sharp a distinction between official and unofficial culture, reducing popular culture to the world of laughter and treating the official culture of the Middle Ages as completely serious and even gloomy.»y las objeciones que recoge: como sugirió Gurevich, Bajtín trazó una distinción demasiado tajante entre cultura oficial y no oficial, redujo la cultura popular al mundo de la risa y trató la cultura oficial de la Edad Media como del todo seria y aun sombría

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 373»

«He also failed to discuss interactions between high and low, between gravity and levity. Ironically enough, the theorist of dialogue missed the opportunity to discuss this kind of dialogue.»y la segunda objeción, con su ironía: tampoco discutió las interacciones entre lo alto y lo bajo, entre la gravedad y la ligereza, de modo que el teórico del diálogo perdió la ocasión de discutir esa clase de diálogo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 373»

«In the first place, there was massive eating of meat, pancakes, and (in the Netherlands) waffles, reaching a climax on Shrove Tuesday, which in seventeenth-century England was described as a time of ‘such boiling and broiling, such roasting and toasting, such stewing and brewing, such baking, frying, mincing, cutting, carving, devouring, and gorbellied gourmandizing, that a man would think people did take in two months’ provision at once into their paunches, or that they did ballast their bellies with meat for a voyage to Constantinople, or the West Indies’.»con el primero: comer carne, tortas y, en los Países Bajos, gofres, con el clímax en el martes de carnaval, descrito en la Inglaterra del XVII como tiempo de tal cocer y asar, hornear, freír y devorar que se diría que la gente metía de una vez en la panza la provisión de dos meses, o que lastraba el vientre con carne para un viaje a Constantinopla o a las Indias Occidentales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 374»

«Drinking was also heavy. In Russia, according to an English visitor, in the last week of Carnival ‘they drink as if they were never to drink more’.»y la bebida: también abundante, y en Rusia, según un visitante inglés, en la última semana de carnaval beben como si no fueran a beber más

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 374»

«Italians liked to dress as characters from the commedia dell’arte. Pulcinella (the ancestor of the English ‘Punch’ was particularly popular in Naples, while Goethe recorded seeing hundreds of Pulcinellas along the Corso in Rome.»y el gusto italiano: disfrazarse de personajes de la *commedia dell'arte*, con Pulcinella, antepasado del *Punch* inglés, especialmente popular en Nápoles, y Goethe registrando haber visto cientos de Pulcinellas a lo largo del Corso en Roma

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«An Englishman in Paris during the Carnival of 1786 wrote that ‘popes, cardinals, monks, devils, courtiers, harlequins, and lawyers all mingled in one promiscuous crowd’.»y el testimonio parisino de 1786: un inglés escribió que papas, cardenales, monjes, diablos, cortesanos, arlequines y abogados se mezclaban todos en una multitud promiscua

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«Wann der heilige Sankt Martin Will der Bischof sehr entfliehn Sitzt er in dem Gänse Stall …»y la canción alemana sobre san Martín: cuando el santo san Martín quiere esquivar el obispado, se sienta en el corral de los gansos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 371»

«The crowd did not just dress up but acted out their parts. ‘One plays the Doctor of Law and goes up and down the streets with his book in his hand disputing with every man he meets’.»y la actuación: la multitud no solo se disfrazaba sino que hacía su papel, y uno hacía de doctor en leyes y andaba por las calles con su libro en la mano disputando con cuantos hallaba

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«In Cadiz, the ubiquitous English visitor noticed women on balconies pouring pails of water on the men below.»y el testimonio gaditano: el ubicuo visitante inglés notó mujeres en los balcones vertiendo cubos de agua sobre los hombres de abajo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«In Nuremberg there was one float or Hölle, which was drawn through the streets on a sledge to the main square. It often took the form of a ship, reminiscent of the German»con el caso de Núremberg: había un carro o *Hölle* que se arrastraba por las calles en un trineo hasta la plaza mayor y tomaba a menudo forma de nave, que recuerda a las procesiones germánicas del carro-nave de la Antigüedad y la Edad Media; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *ship-wagon processions*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 376»

«Floats were particularly numerous and famous in Florence. The actors would represent gardeners, wet-nurses, fencers, students, Turks, Landsknechten [German soldiers], and other social types.»y el florentino: los carros eran allí especialmente numerosos y famosos, y los actores representaban jardineros, nodrizas, esgrimidores, estudiantes, turcos, *Landsknechte* y otros tipos sociales

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 376»

«In some French Carnivals, husbands who had been beaten by their wives or had recently got married were carried in procession by the officials of the ‘great prince Mardi Gras’ or led through town mounted backwards on an ass.»y el caso francés: en algunos carnavales, los maridos apaleados por sus mujeres o recién casados iban en procesión llevados por los oficiales del *gran príncipe Martes de Carnaval* o paseados por la ciudad montados al revés en un asno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 376»

«The Roman Carnival included a race for young men, a race for Jews, and a race for old men.»con el romano: incluía una carrera de jóvenes, una de judíos y una de viejos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 376»

«There were jousts or tournaments on land or water. In eighteenth-century Lille, the jousters stood on two boats in the river.»y las justas en tierra o agua: en el Lille del XVIII los justadores iban de pie en dos botes en el río

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 376»

«Football matches on Shrove Tuesday were common in Britain and northern France. In Bologna, one side threw eggs at the other, which tried to ward them off with sticks.»y los partidos de fútbol del martes de carnaval, comunes en Gran Bretaña y el norte de Francia, y en Bolonia un bando tiraba huevos al otro, que trataba de pararlos con palos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 376»

«Many games of this kind centred on the figure of ‘Carnival’ himself. ‘Carnival’ usually took the form of a fat man, pot-bellied, ruddy, cheerful, often hung about with meat (sausages, fowl, rabbits), seated on a barrel, or accompanied (as in Venice in 1572) by a cauldron of macaroni.»y la figura central: muchos de esos juegos giraban en torno al *Carnaval* mismo, que solía tomar la forma de un hombre gordo, panzudo, rubicundo, alegre, colgado a menudo de carnes —salchichas, aves, conejos—, sentado en un barril o acompañado, como en Venecia en 1572, de un caldero de macarrones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 377»

«There is some evidence to suggest that battles between Carnival and Lent were not just figments of the imagination of Brueghel, Bosch, and other painters, but were enacted in public. In Bologna in 1506, for instance, there was a tournament between ‘Carnival’, on a fat horse, and ‘Lent’, on a thin one, each with a squadron of followers.»y la evidencia de que la batalla no era solo pintada: en Bolonia en 1506 hubo un torneo entre el *Carnaval*, en caballo gordo, y la *Cuaresma*, en uno flaco, cada uno con su escuadrón de seguidores

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 377»

«These clubs were led by ‘Kings’ or ‘Abbots’ of Misrule and recruited particularly, though not exclusively, from the YAMs (young adult males), as in»y quiénes los formaban: los dirigían *reyes* o *abades* del desgobierno y se reclutaban sobre todo, aunque no solo, entre los varones adultos jóvenes; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con las cofradías de Ruan, Dijon, Venecia y Núremberg

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 375»

«At Koenigsberg in 1583, ninety butchers carried in procession a sausage weighing 440 pounds.»con la cifra: en Königsberg en 1583 noventa carniceros llevaron en procesión una salchicha de cuatrocientas cuarenta libras

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 378»

«Carnival was a time of particularly intense sexual activity, as historians of eighteenth-century France have been able to show with their tables of the seasonal movement of conceptions, with a peak around February.»y la prueba demográfica: el carnaval era tiempo de actividad sexual particularmente intensa, como han podido mostrar los historiadores de la Francia del XVIII con sus tablas del movimiento estacional de las concepciones, con un pico hacia febrero

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 378»

«E bella e nuova ed util masserizia Sempre con noi portiamo, D’ogni cosa dovizia, E chi volesse il può toccar con mano. (Our tools are fine, new and useful, we always carry them with us, they are good for anything, and if you want to touch them, you can.»y cita la copla con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: nuestras herramientas son finas, nuevas y útiles, siempre las llevamos con nosotros, sirven para todo, y si queréis tocarlas, podéis

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 379»

«In Naples in 1664, the ladies were shocked to see a wooden phallus, ‘the size of a horse's’, being carried through the streets.»y el testimonio napolitano de 1664: las damas se escandalizaron al ver un falo de madera del tamaño del de un caballo llevado por las calles

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 379»

«Sisas, alcavalas y papel sellado Me tienen desollado. (The excise, the sales tax and the tax on stamped paper/have fleeced me).»y la inscripción misma, con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: sisas, alcabalas y papel sellado me tienen desollado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 380»

«Other figures, alluding to the current traffic in honours, carried the costumes of the military orders, with inscriptions ‘For Sale’.»y las otras figuras, que aludían al tráfico de honores llevando los hábitos de las órdenes militares con carteles de *se vende*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 380»

«In Moscow, the number of killings in the street increased during the Carnival season.»con el dato moscovita: el número de muertes callejeras aumentaba en la temporada de carnaval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 380»

«It was said about 1800 that ‘The average of dangerous or mortal wounds on every great festival at Seville’ was ‘about two or three’.»y el sevillano: hacia 1800 se decía que el promedio de heridas peligrosas o mortales en cada fiesta grande de Sevilla era de dos o tres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 380»

«An English visitor to Venice at the end of the sixteenth century recorded that ‘there were on Shrove-Sunday at night seventeen slain, and very many wounded; besides that they reported, there was almost every night one slain, all that Carnival time’.»y el veneciano: un visitante inglés de fines del XVI registró que el domingo de carnestolendas por la noche hubo diecisiete muertos y muchos heridos, y que se decía que casi todas las noches había uno, durante todo el carnaval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 380»

«In London, Shrove Tuesday violence by apprentices was as regular as eating pancakes: ‘Youths arm’d with cudgels, stones, hammers, rules, trowels and handsaws put playhouses to the sack and bawdyhouses to the spoil’, with their pockets full of stones to pelt the constable and his men when they arrived on the scene.»y el londinense: la violencia de los aprendices el martes de carnaval era tan regular como comer tortas, con mozos armados de garrotes, piedras, martillos, reglas, paletas y serruchos que saqueaban los teatros y arrasaban los burdeles, con los bolsillos llenos de piedras para apedrear al alguacil y a sus hombres cuando llegaban

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 380»

«there was a tug-of-war, still staged on Boxing Day between two inns, the Feathers and the Bull.»y el de Ludlow, en Shropshire, con una soga tirada que todavía se hace el día de San Esteban entre dos posadas, el Feathers y el Bull; la frase arranca en la plana anterior

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 377»

«Alternatively, a pig might be solemnly beheaded, as happened every year in Venice, or a sardine might be»y sus variantes: podía decapitarse solemnemente un cerdo, como cada año en Venecia, o enterrarse una sardina; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *buried with full honours, as was the case in Madrid*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 377»

«Luther, for example, was attacked for turning the world upside down, while he attacked the rebellious peasants of 1525 in the same way.»con los casos: a Lutero se lo atacó por poner el mundo del revés, y él atacó del mismo modo a los campesinos rebeldes de 1525

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 382»

«In England in the mid-seventeenth century, the Quakers, among other groups, were called ‘turners of the world upside down’ by their adversaries.»y a los cuáqueros, a quienes sus adversarios llamaron en la Inglaterra de mediados del XVII *volcadores del mundo*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 382»

«Whether ordinary people saw the topsy-turvy world as a bad thing is much less clear. When the peasant rebels of 1525 invaded the house of the Teutonic Order at Heilbronn, they forced the knights to exchange roles with them. While the invaders feasted, the knights had to stand by the table, hat in hand. ‘Today, little Junker’, said one of the peasants, ‘we are the knights’»y el otro lado, que declara mucho menos claro: si la gente común veía el mundo al revés como cosa mala, porque cuando los campesinos rebeldes de 1525 invadieron la casa de la Orden Teutónica en Heilbronn obligaron a los caballeros a cambiar de papel con ellos, y mientras los invasores banqueteaban los caballeros tenían que estar de pie junto a la mesa, sombrero en mano, y uno de los campesinos dijo que hoy, señorito, los caballeros somos nosotros

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 382»

«The common people in Norfolk in 1549, during Ket's rebellion, declared that ‘gentlemen have ruled aforetime and they [the commons] will rule now’.»y el segundo caso: la gente común de Norfolk declaró en 1549, durante la rebelión de Ket, que los caballeros habían gobernado antes y que ahora gobernarían ellos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 382»

«Two popular prints by André Basset circulated after the French Revolution, one with the noble astride the peasant, the other with the peasant astride the noble, the second one inscribed ‘I knew our turn was coming»y el cuarto: dos estampas populares de André Basset circularon tras la Revolución francesa, una con el noble a horcajadas sobre el campesino y otra con el campesino sobre el noble, esta segunda con la leyenda de que ya sabía que les llegaba el turno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 383»

«Pour dormir une heure De profond sommeille, Sans qu’on se réveille, On gagne six francs, Et à manger autant; Et pour bien boire On gagne une pistole Ce pays est drôle, On gagne par jour Dix francs à faire l’amour.47 (To sleep deeply for an hour without waking, one earns six francs; to eat and drink well, one earns a pistole; this country is strange, one is paid ten francs a day to make love).»y cita la variación de un poeta popular francés con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: por dormir una hora de sueño profundo sin despertar se ganan seis francos, y otro tanto por comer; por beber bien se gana una pistola; qué país tan raro, donde se ganan diez francos al día por hacer el amor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 383»

«Claude Lévi-Strauss recommended scholars to look for conceptual»y el método que toma de Lévi-Strauss, buscar oposiciones conceptuales; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *oppositions such as raw and cooked, nature and culture*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 380»

«Another theme, which emerges from the Nuremberg Carnivals in particular, is that of youth. In 1510, there was a float representing the Fountain of Youth; in 1514, one of old women being devoured by a giant devil.»y otro tema, que emerge de los carnavales de Núremberg: el de la juventud, con un carro de la fuente de la juventud en 1510 y otro de viejas devoradas por un diablo gigante en 1514

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 384»

«When Sir James Frazer discussed Carnival in his Golden Bough, he suggested that it was a ritual to make the crops grow and interpreted not only the wild men of the woods but also ‘Carnival’ as vegetation spirits.»y la lectura que discute: cuando Frazer trató el carnaval en *La rama dorada* sugirió que era un rito para hacer crecer las cosechas e interpretó como espíritus de la vegetación no solo a los hombres salvajes del bosque sino al *Carnaval* mismo; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 385»

«Nonetheless, it might be a mistake to dismiss Frazer without more ado.53 ‘Fertility’ is a useful concept for linking disparate elements in Carnival from eggs to weddings, not to mention the many phallic symbols.»y la concesión que le hace: podría ser un error despachar a Frazer sin más, porque *fertilidad* es concepto útil para enlazar elementos dispares del carnaval, de los huevos a las bodas, sin contar los muchos símbolos fálicos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 385»

«Carnival did not have the same importance all over Europe. It was strong in the Mediterranean area, in Italy, Spain, and France; fairly strong in Central Europe; and at its weakest in the north, in Britain and Scandinavia, probably because the weather discouraged an elaborate street festival at this time of year (though it is worth noting that in Riga, ‘the major festival of the year was without doubt Carnival’»y su geografía: el carnaval no tenía la misma importancia en toda Europa, era fuerte en el área mediterránea, bastante fuerte en Europa central y más débil en el norte, probablemente porque el tiempo desalentaba una fiesta callejera elaborada en esa época del año, aunque en Riga fuera sin duda la fiesta mayor del año

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 385»

«Mossehor, qu’es eissi présen, Vos dona xx banastas dé mal dé dens, Et a tôs vôs aoutrés aoûssi Dona una cóa de Roussi. (My lord, who is here present/Gives you 20 baskets of toothache/And to all you others also/Gives a red bum).»y cita una, con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime: mi señor, que aquí está presente, os da veinte cestas de dolor de muelas, y a todos vosotros os da también un trasero rojo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 386»

«According to the proclamation abolishing these customs in 1541, they included ‘children being strangely decked and apparelled to counterfeit priests, bishops and women, and so to be led with songs and dances from house to house blessing the people and gathering money, and boys do sing Mass and preach in the pulpit’.»y en qué consistía, según la proclama que las abolió en 1541: niños extrañamente ataviados y vestidos para contrahacer a sacerdotes, obispos y mujeres, llevados con canciones y bailes de casa en casa bendiciendo a la gente y recogiendo dinero, y niños que cantan misa y predican en el púlpito

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 387»

«As at Carnival, the season was personified. The ‘riding’, or procession, of Yule (the original Father Christmas) and his wife was a great event in sixteenth-century York, ‘drawing great concourses of people after them to gaze’, as the corporation admitted when it abolished this ritual in 1572.»y su personificación: como en el carnaval, la temporada se personificaba, y la *cabalgata* de Yule —el Padre Navidad original— y su mujer era gran acontecimiento en el York del XVI, que atraía tras de sí grandes concursos de gente a mirar, según admitió la corporación al abolir el rito en 1572

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 387»

«The carnivalesque side of the proceedings comes out more vividly from a seventeenth-century German account which explains that these ‘Chaldeans’, so called after the people who persuaded King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon to throw the three Jews Shadrach, Mesach, and Abednego into the ‘burning fiery furnace’ (Daniel 3.8– 30), were the following»y su lado carnavalesco, más vivo en una relación alemana del XVII que explica quiénes eran esos *caldeos*, llamados así por los que persuadieron a Nabucodonosor de arrojar al horno a los tres judíos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 388»

«certain dissolute people who each year received the patriarch's permission, for a period from eight days before Christmas until the day of the three saintly kings, to run about the streets with special fireworks. They often burned the beards of passers-by, especially the peasants … whoever wanted to be spared had to pay a kopek. They were dressed as carnival revellers, wearing on their heads painted wooden hats.»y cita esa relación: gente disoluta que cada año recibía permiso del patriarca, desde ocho días antes de Navidad hasta el día de los santos reyes, para correr por las calles con fuegos artificiales especiales, y a menudo quemaban las barbas de los transeúntes, sobre todo de los campesinos, y quien quería librarse tenía que pagar un kopek, e iban vestidos como carnavaleros con sombreros de madera pintados en la cabeza

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 388»

«Men, women, and children went to the woods where, as a late sixteenth-century description puts it, ‘they spend all the night in pleasant pastimes’, returning with birch-boughs and a maypole. In other words, the rites of spring involved sexual licence.»y qué se hacía: hombres, mujeres y niños iban al bosque donde, según una descripción de fines del XVI, pasaban toda la noche en agradables pasatiempos, y volvían con ramas de abedul y un mayo, de modo que los ritos de primavera implicaban licencia sexual

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 389»

«In eighteenth-century London, chimneysweeps covered themselves with flour on May Day, a ritual of reversal if ever there was one.»y el londinense: en el XVIII los deshollinadores se cubrían de harina el primero de mayo, rito de inversión donde los haya

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 389»

«In Spain, May Day was, like Carnival, celebrated with mock battles and mock weddings, for example (as Sebastian de Covarrubias described it in his dictionary), ‘a sort of play performed by lads and lasses who place a little boy and a little girl on a marriage bed that signifies matrimony’.»y el español: el primero de mayo se celebraba, como el carnaval, con batallas y bodas burlescas, por ejemplo, según lo describió Covarrubias en su diccionario, una especie de representación hecha por mozos y mozas que ponen a un niño y a una niña en un lecho nupcial que significa el matrimonio; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 389»

«In late medieval England, this was the time when mystery plays were performed in the marketplaces of Chester, Coventry, York, and elsewhere.»y el inglés bajomedieval: era el tiempo en que se representaban los misterios en los mercados de Chester, Coventry, York y otras partes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 389»

«Florence was also dedicated to St John the Baptist and his feast was marked not only by religious plays, processions, and floats, but also by bonfires, giants, fireworks, races, football matches, bullfights, spiritelli, and men walking on stilts.»y el florentino: la ciudad estaba dedicada a san Juan Bautista y su fiesta se marcaba con piezas religiosas, procesiones y carros, y además con hogueras, gigantes, fuegos, carreras, partidos de fútbol, corridas, *spiritelli* y hombres sobre zancos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 390»

«Naples was another city where the feat of St John was celebrated in spectacular fashion.»y el napolitano, donde la fiesta se celebraba igualmente de manera espectacular; el troceo imprime *feat* por *feast*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 390»

«In sixteenth-century Estonia, St John's Eve was marked, according to one Lutheran pastor, by flames of joy over the whole country. Around these bonfires people danced, sang and leapt with great pleasure, and did not spare the big bagpipes … many loads of beer were brought … what disorder, whoring, fighting and killing and dreadful idolatry took place there!»con el testimonio estonio del XVI: según un pastor luterano, la noche de San Juan se marcaba con llamas de alegría por todo el país, y en torno a esas hogueras la gente bailaba, cantaba y saltaba con gran placer sin ahorrar las gaitas grandes, y se traían muchas cargas de cerveza, con qué desorden, fornicación, pelea y muerte y espantosa idolatría; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 390»

«Per fora per vicos it personata libido Et censore carens subit omnia tecta voluptas.»y cita al poeta italiano Mantuano a principios del XVI: el deseo enmascarado recorre plazas y calles y, a falta de censor, el placer entra bajo todos los techos; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con la traducción inglesa que el libro imprime

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 384»

«In Russia, according to a sixteenth-century English visitor, at Christmas, ‘every bishop in his cathedral church setteth forth a show of the three children in the oven, where the angel is made to»y la rusa: según un visitante inglés del XVI, en Navidad cada obispo montaba en su catedral un espectáculo de los tres jóvenes en el horno; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el ángel que baja volando

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 387»

«a fiddler must play for them [the harvesters] when they have eaten their bellyfuls, going into the barn and dancing on the wooden floor until they drip with sweat, there being a big can with beer at hand for them and a piece of tobacco for each.»con la descripción galesa de 1760: un violinista ha de tocar para los segadores cuando han comido hasta hartarse, y entran en el granero y bailan sobre el suelo de madera hasta chorrear sudor, con una jarra grande de cerveza a mano y un trozo de tabaco para cada uno

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 391»

«In Sicily a few years later, a French visitor remarked that ‘after the harvest the peasants celebrate a popular festival, a kind of orgy’, dancing to the sound of drums; ‘a young woman dressed in white and seated on an ass … is surrounded by men on foot who carry wheat-sheaves on their heads and in their arms, and seem to be doing homage to her with them’.»y la siciliana: un visitante francés notó que tras la cosecha los campesinos celebran una fiesta popular, una especie de orgía, bailando al son de tambores, con una joven vestida de blanco sentada en un asno rodeada de hombres a pie que llevan gavillas de trigo en la cabeza y en los brazos y parecen rendirle homenaje con ellas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 391»

«the servant and his master are alike and everything is done with an equal freedom. They sit at the same table, converse freely together, and spend the remaining part of the night in dancing, singing etc without any difference or distinction.»y el igualitarismo inglés: en la cena de la cosecha, según un testigo del XVIII, el criado y su amo son iguales y todo se hace con igual libertad, se sientan a la misma mesa, conversan libremente y pasan el resto de la noche bailando y cantando sin diferencia ni distinción

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 391»

«In London, the same day was the occasion of Bartholomew Fair, held in Smithfield, the centre of the London meat trade. Ben Jonson's play Bartholomew Fair (1614) describes with accuracy the main ingredients in this festival: Bartholomew pig (sold in booths with a pig's head as a sign), gingerbread, puppet shows, and several days of licensed disorder.»y el londinense: el mismo día era el de la feria de San Bartolomé en Smithfield, centro del comercio de carne de Londres, y la pieza de Ben Jonson describe con exactitud sus ingredientes principales, el cerdo de San Bartolomé vendido en casetas con una cabeza de cerdo por rótulo, el pan de jengibre, los títeres y varios días de desorden licenciado

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 392»

«In France, Germany, and the Netherlands, St Martin's Day was a great occasion when people cheerfully obeyed the injunction of the song, ‘Drink Martin's wine and eat goose’ (trinck Martins wein und gens isz), all the more cheerfully because in some places, such as Groningen in the early seventeenth century, it was customary for the innkeepers to provide the roast goose for nothing.»y el de san Martín: en Francia, Alemania y los Países Bajos era gran ocasión en que la gente obedecía alegremente el mandato de la canción, bebe el vino de Martín y come ganso, tanto más alegremente porque en algunos sitios, como Groninga a principios del XVII, los posaderos acostumbraban dar el ganso asado de balde

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 392»

«The ‘fist wars’ in Venice, in which the young men of one quarter fought another on the bridges separating their territories, seem to have taken place in an atmosphere of joyous violence that it is appropriate to call ‘carnivalesque’.»con las *guerras de puños* venecianas, en que los mozos de un barrio peleaban con los de otro en los puentes que separaban sus territorios, en una atmósfera de violencia gozosa que le parece apropiado llamar carnavalesca; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 392»

«Both the violence and the ecstasy of such occasions have been caught and preserved for us by William Hogarth in four paintings (made in 1755 and followed by engravings of the same subject) entitled Humours of an Election.»y quién las fijó: William Hogarth, en cuatro pinturas de 1755 seguidas de grabados del mismo asunto, tituladas *Humours of an Election*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 392»

«Hence Dr Johnson's objection to the abolition of public hangings: ‘Sir, executions are intended to draw spectators. If they do not draw spectators, they don’t answer their purpose’.»y la objeción de Johnson a abolir las ejecuciones públicas: las ejecuciones están pensadas para atraer espectadores, y si no los atraen no cumplen su propósito

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 393»

«Then they would mount the scaffold, the stage on which their last act was to be performed. The clergy would attend them. The condemned men might be allowed to address the crowd, either to declare their repentance or (as at Montpellier in 1554) to describe their crimes in verse.»y su escena: subían al cadalso, tablado en que había de representarse su último acto, el clero los asistía y podía permitírseles dirigirse a la multitud para declarar su arrepentimiento o, como en Montpellier en 1554, para describir sus crímenes en verso

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 393»

«If the criminal was a priest, he would have to be solemnly ‘degraded’ or ‘unfrocked’ before execution, as Savonarola and two other friars were in 1498, on a scaffold in the main square of Florence: ‘they were robed in all their vestments, which were taken off one by one, with the appropriate words for the degradation … then their hands and faces were shaved, as is customary at this ceremony’.»y el rito de degradación: si el criminal era sacerdote había que degradarlo solemnemente antes de ejecutarlo, como a Savonarola y a otros dos frailes en 1498 en un cadalso de la plaza mayor de Florencia, revestidos de todos sus ornamentos, que se les quitaban uno a uno con las palabras apropiadas, y después se les rapaban las manos y la cara, como es costumbre en esa ceremonia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 393»

«They might sympathize with the criminal, and the performance offered opportunities to express this sympathy. To take two famous English examples: when John Lilburne was whipped through Fleet Street to Westminster in 1638, he was supported by the crowd, and when Daniel Defoe was pilloried at Temple Bar in 1703, he was pelted with flowers instead of the customary stones or refuse.»con los dos casos ingleses famosos: cuando azotaron a John Lilburne por Fleet Street hasta Westminster en 1638, la multitud lo apoyó, y cuando pusieron a Daniel Defoe en la picota en Temple Bar en 1703, lo apedrearon con flores en vez de las piedras o la basura acostumbradas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 394»

«Girls on the steps of St Sepulchre's Church would throw flowers and blow kisses to the condemned as they passed. The ‘Carnival’ atmosphere at Tyburn has often been the subject of comment.»con el detalle: las muchachas de los escalones de la iglesia del Santo Sepulcro arrojaban flores y lanzaban besos a los condenados al pasar, y la atmósfera de *carnaval* de Tyburn ha sido objeto frecuente de comentario

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 394»

«Equally carnivalesque were the rituals of popular justice, of which the most famous was the charivari. A charivari was, to follow a famous seventeenth-century English definition, a ‘public defamation’, especially ‘an infamous (or infaming) ballad, sung, by an armed troop, under the window of an old dotard married, the day before, unto a young wanton, in mockery of them both’.»y el rito de justicia popular más famoso: la cencerrada o *charivari*, definida en el XVII como difamación pública, y especialmente como balada infamante cantada por una tropa armada bajo la ventana de un viejo chocho casado la víspera con una moza liviana, en burla de ambos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 394»

«This public mocking might be postponed till Carnival, when insult was licensed, and might be organized by societies like the Abbaye des Conards at Rouen or the Badia degli Stolti at Turin, both of which played prominent parts in Carnival.»y su calendario: esa burla pública podía posponerse al carnaval, cuando el insulto estaba licenciado, y organizarla sociedades como la Abbaye des Conards de Ruan o la Badia degli Stolti de Turín, prominentes las dos en el carnaval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 395»

«In the countryside around Riga, another Lutheran pastor described the feast of St John's Eve rather more sympathetically in the late eighteenth century.»y el testimonio letón: en el campo en torno a Riga otro pastor luterano describió la noche de San Juan con más simpatía a fines del XVIII

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 390»

«In Bologna and in London his day was the occasion of carnivalesque celebrations. At Bologna, it was called ‘the feast of the pig’, which was carried in triumph»con el caso boloñés: allí el día se llamaba *la fiesta del cerdo*, llevado en triunfo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *before it was killed, roasted and distributed*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 391»

«His name was mentioned in Chapter 1:»y quién era ese pastor; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y sigue *Johann Gottfried Herder*

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«The ruling classes, who knew their Roman history, were well aware of the uses of ‘bread and circuses’, or of ‘bread, bulls and work’ (pan, toros y trabajo), the programme which the Spanish royal favourite Fernando de Valenzuela put forward in 1674.»y lo que sabían las clases dirigentes: conocían su historia romana y el uso del pan y circo, o del *pan, toros y trabajo* que el valido español Fernando de Valenzuela propuso en 1674

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 397»

«The use of ritual in social conflict appears even more clearly in Palermo in 1647. An increase in the price of bread sparked off the conflict.»y el caso de Palermo en 1647, donde el uso del rito en el conflicto social se ve aún mejor: lo desató una subida del precio del pan

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 397»

«The crowd were headed off by some Carmelite friars, who walked up to them carrying the host, so that everyone had to fall to their knees. Religious ritual was used as a form of crowd control.»y su desenlace: a la multitud la detuvieron unos carmelitas que se le acercaron llevando la hostia, de modo que todos tuvieron que hincarse, con lo que el rito religioso sirvió de control de masas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 397»

«A number of social anthropologists, notably Max Gluckman, have advanced interpretations of this kind. In Zululand, just before the harvest, unmarried girls used to put on men's clothes, carry shields and assegais, sing bawdy songs and drive the cattle out, all activities normally confined to men.»con el caso que aduce Gluckman: en Zululandia, justo antes de la cosecha, las muchachas solteras se ponían ropas de hombre, llevaban escudos y azagayas, cantaban canciones obscenas y sacaban el ganado, actividades todas normalmente reservadas a los hombres; el troceo imprime el nombre del antropólogo en columna

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 398»

«The Swazi insulted and criticized their king on the occasion of certain festivals. Gluckman explained this ‘license in ritual’, as he called it, in terms of its social function. ‘The lifting of the normal taboos and restraints obviously serves to emphasize them’»y el segundo: los suazis insultaban y criticaban a su rey en ciertas fiestas, y Gluckman explicó esa *licencia en el rito* por su función social, porque levantar los tabúes y restricciones normales sirve obviamente para subrayarlos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 398»

«Apparent protests against the social order, these actions are in fact ‘intended to preserve and even to strengthen the established order’. Gluckman went so far as to suggest that where the social order is seriously questioned, ‘rites of protest’ do not occur.»y su tesis: esas acciones, protestas aparentes contra el orden social, están de hecho pensadas para preservar y aun reforzar el orden establecido, hasta el punto de que Gluckman sugirió que donde el orden social se cuestiona en serio no se dan ritos de protesta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 398»

«Similarly, his colleague Victor Turner, in a comparative study of rituals of status reversal, argued that the rituals lead to ‘an ecstatic experience’, an enhanced sense of community, followed by a ‘sober return’ to the normal social structure. ‘By making the low high and the high low, they reaffirm the hierarchical principle’.»y la de su colega Victor Turner: en un estudio comparativo de los ritos de inversión de estatus sostuvo que llevan a una experiencia extática, un sentido acrecentado de comunidad, seguido de un *regreso sobrio* a la estructura social normal, y que al hacer alto lo bajo y bajo lo alto reafirman el principio jerárquico

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 398»

«The world turned upside down was regularly re-enacted. Why did the upper classes permit this? It looks as if they were aware that the society they lived in, with all its inequalities of wealth, status, and power, could not survive without a means for the subordinates to purge their resentments and compensate for their frustrations, a kind of ‘safety-valve’, a term that the English journalist William Hone used about popular festivals in 1825.»y la pregunta que se hace y responde: por qué lo permitían las clases altas, y parece que eran conscientes de que la sociedad en que vivían, con todas sus desigualdades de riqueza, estatus y poder, no podía sobrevivir sin un medio para que los subordinados purgaran sus resentimientos y compensaran sus frustraciones, una suerte de *válvula de seguridad*, término que el periodista inglés William Hone usó de las fiestas populares en 1825

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 398»

«We do these things in jest and not in earnest, as the ancient custom is, so that once a year the foolishness innate in us can come out and evaporate. Don’t wine skins and barrels burst very often if the air-hole (spiraculum) is not opened from time to time? We too are old barrels ….»y cita a unos clérigos franceses que en 1444 defendieron así la Fiesta de los Locos: hacemos estas cosas en broma y no en serio, como es la antigua costumbre, para que una vez al año la necedad innata en nosotros pueda salir y evaporarse, porque los odres y los barriles revientan a menudo si no se les abre de cuando en cuando el respiradero, y también nosotros somos barriles viejos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 399»

«In similar fashion an English visitor to Italy in the mid-seventeenth century explained the Roman Carnival to his own countrymen: ‘all this is allowed the Italians that they may give a little vent to their spirits which have been stifled in for a whole year and are ready else to choke with gravity and melancholy’.»y el mismo argumento en un visitante inglés de Italia a mediados del XVII, que explicó a sus compatriotas el carnaval romano: todo eso se les permite a los italianos para que den un poco de salida a sus espíritus, ahogados durante todo un año y a punto si no de asfixiarse de gravedad y melancolía; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 399»

«The safety-valve theory of festivals is not the whole story. As Natalie Davis put it, ‘Misrule can have its own rigor’.»y su límite, con Natalie Davis: la teoría de la válvula de seguridad no es toda la historia, porque el desgobierno puede tener su propio rigor

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 399»

«The awareness took dramatic form in a debate in Palermo in 1648. 1647 had been a year of disturbances, which historians sometimes describe as a ‘revolution’. The viceroy who was governing Sicily for the King of Spain arranged for the Carnival of 1648 to be more magnificent than usual, in order to distract the people.»y el debate de Palermo de 1648, tras el año de disturbios de 1647 que a veces se llama *revolución*: el virrey que gobernaba Sicilia por el rey de España dispuso que el carnaval de 1648 fuera más magnífico que de costumbre para distraer al pueblo

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«The cardinal archbishop of Naples had called off the festival of St John the Baptist, for similar reasons, following the revolt of Masaniello in 1647. Once again, in Naples in 1764, a year of famine and discontent, the government debated whether or not to ban Carnival.»y los casos napolitanos: el cardenal arzobispo suspendió por razones semejantes la fiesta de san Juan Bautista tras la revuelta de Masaniello de 1647, y en 1764, año de hambre y descontento, el gobierno debatió si prohibir o no el carnaval

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 401»

«However, rebels and rioters often employed rituals and symbols to legitimate their actions, As its name reminds us, the rebellion of the northern counties in England in 1536 was presented as a pilgrimage, the ‘Pilgrimage of Grace’, with the rebels marching behind a banner of the Five Wounds of Christ.»con los casos: la rebelión de los condados del norte de Inglaterra de 1536 se presentó como peregrinación, la *Peregrinación de Gracia*, con los rebeldes marchando tras un estandarte de las Cinco Llagas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 401»

«In Normandy in 1639, the rebels marched behind the banner of St John the Baptist.»y el normando de 1639, con los rebeldes marchando tras el estandarte de san Juan Bautista

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 401»

«Mikhail Bakhtin had a vivid word for this kind of ritual of humiliation: ‘uncrowning’. Following this mock procession, however, the man was lynched.»y la palabra viva que Bajtín tenía para ese rito de humillación, *descoronamiento*, con el detalle de que tras esa procesión burlesca al hombre lo lincharon

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 402»

«Riots and rebellions frequently took place on the occasions of major festivals. In Basel they long remembered the massacre which took place on Shrove Tuesday 1376, which was known as böse Fastnacht, ‘evil Carnival’, just as Londoners remembered ‘evil May Day’ 1517, which turned into a riot against foreigners. At Bern in 1513, Carnival turned into a peasant revolt.»y su calendario: motines y rebeliones ocurrían con frecuencia en las fiestas mayores, con la matanza de Basilea del martes de carnaval de 1376, recordada como *böse Fastnacht*, el *carnaval malo*, como los londinenses recordaban el *evil May Day* de 1517, vuelto motín contra extranjeros, y con el carnaval de Berna de 1513 vuelto revuelta campesina; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana y el troceo lo devuelve cosido

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 402»

«During the sixteenth-century wars of religion in France, festivals were particularly likely to turn violent. At Romans in Dauphiné, the dances and masquerades organized by one of the clubs or ‘kingdoms’ for the Carnival of 1580 carried the message that ‘the rich men of the town had enriched themselves at the expense of the poor’.»y el caso francés: durante las guerras de religión del XVI las fiestas eran especialmente propensas a volverse violentas, y en Romans, en el Delfinado, las danzas y mascaradas que un club organizó para el carnaval de 1580 llevaban el mensaje de que los ricos de la ciudad se habían enriquecido a costa de los pobres

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 402»

«The occasion turned into a massacre, first in town and then in the countryside, where the local gentlemen ‘went hunting through the villages, killing the peasants like pigs’.»y su desenlace: la ocasión se volvió matanza, primero en la ciudad y luego en el campo, donde los caballeros locales iban de caza por las aldeas matando campesinos como cerdos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 402»

«Examples of the turn to serious violence can easily be multiplied. At Dijon in 1630, the Carnival developed into a riot in which the winegrowers took the lead.»y otros ejemplos: en Dijon en 1630 el carnaval degeneró en un motín encabezado por los viñadores

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«The great revolt of Catalonia in 1640 began on 7 June, the day of one of the greatest of Spanish festivals, Corpus Christi. On that day, every year, labourers would arrive in Barcelona to hire themselves out for the coming harvest.»y el catalán: la gran revuelta de 1640 empezó el 7 de junio, día del Corpus, cuando cada año los jornaleros llegaban a Barcelona a alquilarse para la cosecha

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 402»

«For this reason, the revolt is often described as that of the ‘reapers’ (segadors), although the action was planned in advance and hundreds of the men dressed as reapers were actually rebels in disguise.»y su nombre con la reserva que le pone: por eso se llama a menudo la revuelta de los *segadors*, aunque la acción se planeó de antemano y cientos de los vestidos de segadores eran en realidad rebeldes disfrazados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 402»

«Some nobles disagreed with this policy and one of them expressed the fear that ‘on the pretext of these assemblies of the people for these ridiculous spectacles, factious spirits would be»y la objeción de algunos nobles: uno expresó el temor de que con el pretexto de esas asambleas del pueblo para espectáculos ridículos los espíritus facciosos hicieran algo; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue *able … to encourage some new riot*

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«However, they did not always stop at effigies. In Naples in 1585, for instance, an unpopular official was taken»y su límite: no siempre se detenían en las efigies, y en Nápoles en 1585 se llevó a un funcionario impopular; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana y sigue con el paseo de espaldas y sin gorra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 401»

«Another serious riot, in Madrid in 1766, took place on Palm Sunday, when crowds would be in town.»y el madrileño de 1766, el Domingo de Ramos, cuando había multitudes en la ciudad

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«R. Caillois, L’Homme et le Sacré (1950: Paris, 1963 edn), p.»la nota 4 identifica al sociólogo francés de la fórmula sobre el recuerdo y la espera de la fiesta: Roger Caillois, *L'Homme et le Sacré*

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«E. R. Leach, ‘Ritual’, in D. Sills (ed.) International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (18 vols., New York, 1968– 91), 13, p. 521f.; C. Bell, Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice (New York, 1992).»la nota 9 da la bibliografía del concepto de ritual: la entrada de Edmund Leach en la *International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences* y la *Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice* de Catherine Bell

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 403»

«V. Lanternari, ‘La politica culturale della Chiesa nelle campagne: La fiesta di San Giovanni’ Società (1955), rpr Occidente e terzo mondo, Bari, 1972); R. Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, MA, 1952).»la nota 12 remite la fiesta de san Juan a Vittorio Lanternari y el *woodwose* a los *Wild Men in the Middle Ages* de Richard Bernheimer

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 404»

«C. Kluckhohn, ‘Myths and Rituals’, Harvard Theological Review, 35 (1942), pp. 45–79; G. S. Kirk, Myth (Cambridge, 1970), ch. 1.»la nota 13 da la bibliografía del debate entre mito y rito: el ensayo de Clyde Kluckhohn y el *Myth* de G. S. Kirk

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 404»

«M. Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (1965: Cambridge, MA, 1968); A. Gurevich, Medieval Popular Culture (1981: English translation, Cambridge, 1988), pp. 176–80; cf. P. Burke, ‘Bakhtin for Historians’, Social History 13 (1988), pp. 85–»la nota 16 da el Bakhtin por la traducción de Cambridge (Massachusetts) de 1968, la *Medieval Popular Culture* de Aron Gurevich con las planas de su objeción, y el propio ensayo de Burke *Bakhtin for Historians*

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«Bakhtin, Rabelais, p. 7f.»la nota 17 remite la imagen del carnaval como pieza sin muros a las primeras planas del Bakhtin

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 404»

«M. Gluckman, ‘Rituals of Rebellion in South-East Africa’, repr. in his Order and Rebellion in Tribal Africa (London, 1963); M. Gluckman, Custom and Conflict in Africa (Oxford, 1956,) ch. 5; V. Turner, The Ritual Process (London, 1969), ch. 5.»la nota 90 da las fuentes de la teoría de la válvula: los *Rituals of Rebellion in South-East Africa* y el *Custom and Conflict in Africa* de Max Gluckman y *The Ritual Process* de Victor Turner

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 411»

«Davis, Society and Culture, p. 97.»la nota 94 da la plana exacta del *Misrule can have its own rigor* de Natalie Davis

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 411»

«R. C. Davis, The War of the Fists (New York, 1994).»la nota 76 remite las *guerras de puños* venecianas al *War of the Fists* de Robert C. Davis

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«R. Villari; The Revolt of Naples (1967: English translation, Cambridge, 1993), pp. 23–5; Burke, ‘Masaniello’.»la nota 101 remite el linchamiento napolitano de 1585 al *Revolt of Naples* de Rosario Villari y a un trabajo propio sobre Masaniello; el troceo imprime punto y coma tras el apellido

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«E. Piemond, Mémoires (Valence, 1885), p. 88f; Bercé, Fête, pp. 75–8; E. Le Roy Ladurie, Le Carnaval de Romans (Paris, 1979).»la nota 103 da las fuentes del carnaval de Romans de 1580: las memorias de Eustache Piémond, la *Fête et révolte* de Yves-Marie Bercé y *Le Carnaval de Romans* de Le Roy Ladurie

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 412»

«French translation, Paris, 1967), p. 135f; J. H. Elliott, The Revolt of the Catalans (Cambridge, 1963), pp. 445–51.»la nota 104 remite la revuelta de los segadores a *Les soulèvements populaires en France* de Boris Porshnev —el troceo abre el tramo a media ficha, con el pie de la traducción francesa— y al *Revolt of the Catalans* de John H. Elliott

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«1. N. Elias, The Civilizing Process (1939: English translation, Oxford, 1982); A. Mitzman, ‘The Civilizing Offensive’, Journal of Social History 20 (1987), pp. 663–87»la nota 1 de la introducción a la parte III remite a *The Civilizing Process* de Elias y al artículo de Arthur Mitzman; el tramo se corta antes de la referencia a Roy Powell, que pasa a la plana siguiente

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«The idea that Carnival and other major festivals are pre-Christian survivals tends to be associated with the Victorian anthropologist Sir James Frazer, but in fact, it goes back much further.»Burke enmienda la atribución corriente: la idea de que el carnaval es supervivencia precristiana se asocia al antropólogo victoriano sir James Frazer, y él la remonta mucho más atrás; el troceo parte la frase con un salto de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 419»

«Some of the ideas of the British archaeologist Margaret Murray on witches as secret pagans actually go back to the godly in early modern Europe.»Burke traza hasta los piadosos de la primera modernidad algunas ideas de la arqueóloga británica Margaret Murray sobre las brujas como paganas secretas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 420»

«Scholars have suggested more than once that the Catholic reform of popular culture associated with the Counter-Reformation was not so much a victory as a compromise, or, to vary the metaphor, a ‘difficult but successful marriage’.»Burke recoge la propuesta repetida por otros estudiosos de que la reforma católica de la cultura popular no fue victoria sino compromiso, *un matrimonio difícil pero logrado*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 457»

«In the Scottish Highlands, recent research suggests that ‘Calvinism was earlier and more effectively established’ in the Highlands than had been thought.»Burke recoge la investigación reciente según la cual *el calvinismo se estableció antes y con más eficacia* en las Tierras Altas de Escocia de lo que se creía

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 458»

«For example, Owen Davies suggests that in England, ‘cunning-folk were as much a part of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century society as they were of the seventeenth’. Michael»Burke recoge a Owen Davies, para quien en Inglaterra *los cunning-folk fueron tan parte de la sociedad de los siglos XVIII y XIX como de la del XVII*; el troceo parte la palabra *eighteenth- and nineteenth-century* y el tramo se corta antes del apellido siguiente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 462»

«Hunter agrees that in 1800, ‘At a popular level … magical beliefs continued to be prevalent’.»Burke suma a Michael Hunter, que da por vigentes en 1800 las creencias mágicas *en el nivel popular*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 462»

«1. C. G. Stridbeck, ‘The Combat of Carnival and Lent’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 19 (1956), pp. 96–109; C. Gaignebet, ‘Le combat de Carnaval et de Carême’, Annales ESC 27 (1972), pp. 313–45.»la nota 1 del capítulo 8 remite el cuadro de Brueghel a los artículos de Carl Gustaf Stridbeck y de Claude Gaignebet

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 465»

«2. M. Ingram, ‘Ridings, Rough Music, and the “Reform of Popular Culture”’, Past & Present 105 (1984), pp. 79–113; M. Ingram, ‘The Reform of Popular Culture’, in B. Reay (ed.) Popular Culture in Seventeenth Century England (London, 1985); R. Hutton, ‘Reformation of Manners’, in The Rise and Fall of Merry England (Oxford, 1985), pp. 111–52, and ‘Puritan Revolution’, in The Rise and Fall of Merry England (Oxford, 1985), pp. 200–26; A. Ramsey, ‘Reformation of Popular Culture’, in P. Stearns (ed.) Encyclopaedia of European Social History 5 (2001).»la nota 2 reúne la bibliografía sobre la fórmula misma: los dos trabajos de Martin Ingram, los dos capítulos de *The Rise and Fall of Merry England* de Ronald Hutton y la entrada de A. Ramsey en la enciclopedia de Stearns

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 465»

«3. N. Z. Davis, ‘Some Tasks and Themes in the Study of Popular Religion’, in C. Trinkaus and H. Oberman (eds.) The Pursuit of Holiness (Leiden, 1974), pp. 307–36, at p. 309.»la nota 3 remite a *Some Tasks and Themes in the Study of Popular Religion* de Natalie Zemon Davis, en el volumen de Trinkaus y Oberman

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 465»

«4. A. Domínguez Ortiz, The Golden Age of Spain (English translation, London, 1971), p. 323n.; C. Hill, Change and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century England (London, 1974), p. 19.»la nota 4 remite las comparaciones con los indios al *Golden Age of Spain* de Antonio Domínguez Ortiz y al *Change and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century England* de Christopher Hill

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 465»

«5. K. M. Lea, Italian Popular Comedy (2 vols., Oxford, 1934), 1, p.»la nota 5 remite lo de Ottonelli al *Italian Popular Comedy* de Kathleen Lea; el troceo corta el número de página en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 465»

«6. Erasmus, ‘Supputatio Errorum in Censuris Beddae’, in his Opera (10 vols., Leiden 1703–06: repr. Hildesheim, 1962), 9, col. 516.»la nota 6 da la fuente de la frase de Erasmo sobre el carnaval de Siena en la *Supputatio Errorum in Censuris Beddae* de sus *Opera*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 466»

«11. M. Murray, The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (Oxford,»la nota 11 remite a *The Witch-Cult in Western Europe* de Margaret Murray; el troceo corta el año en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 466»

«20. P. Stubbes, Anatomy of Abuses (London, 1583), p. 98f. Cf. J. Goring, Godly Exercises or the Devil's Dance? Puritanism and Popular Culture in Pre-Civil War England (London, 1983), p. 11ff.»la nota 20 da la *Anatomy of Abuses* de Stubbes y el *Godly Exercises or the Devil's Dance?* de Jeremy Goring

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 467»

«19. A. Arcangeli, Davide o Salomè? Il dibattito europeo sulla danza nella prima età moderna (Rome, 2000).»la nota 19 remite la condena del baile al *Davide o Salomè?* de Alessandro Arcangeli; el troceo imprime el número de nota en renglón aparte

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 467»

«23. E. Griffin, England's Revelry: A History of Popular Sports and Pastimes, 1660–1830 (Oxford, 2005), pp. 116–7.»la nota 23 remite los precedentes de la oposición a la crueldad con los animales al *England's Revelry* de Emma Griffin

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 467»

«26. S. Brant, Das Narrenschiff (2nd edn, Strasbourg, 1495), section 110b; R. Crowley, Select Works (London, 1872), p. 8.»la nota 26 da la edición de 1495 del *Narrenschiff* de Brant y las *Select Works* de Robert Crowley

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 467»

«29. M. Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904: English translation, London, 1930). Cf. C. Hill, Society and Puritanism in Pre-Revolutionary England (London, 1964)»la nota 29 remite la *ética protestante* a Max Weber, con Christopher Hill y E. P. Thompson al lado; el tramo se corta en el límite del troceo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 468»

«30. P. Wiertz, ‘Zur Religiösen Volkskultur der Orientalischen und Orthodoxen Kirchen’, in E. von Ivánka et al. (eds.) Handbuch der Ostkirchenkunde (Düsseldorf, 1971), pp. 569–632; J. Binns, An Introduction to the Christian Orthodox Churches (Cambridge, 2002), pp. 135–42; A. Zayarnyuk and J. P. Himka, Letters from Heaven: Popular Religion in Russia and Ukraine (Toronto, 2006).»la nota 30 da la bibliografía de la religión popular ortodoxa: Paul Wiertz, el *Introduction to the Christian Orthodox Churches* de John Binns y el *Letters from Heaven* de Zayarnyuk y Himka

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 468»

«31. E. Duchesne (ed.) Le Stoglav (Paris, 1920), p. 242f. Cf. R. Zguta Russian Minstrels (1978: rpr Philadelphia, PA, 2017); W. F. Ryan, The Bathhouse at Midnight (Stroud, 1999) and Russian Magic at the British Library (London, 2006), ch. 2.»la nota 31 remite el *Stoglav* a la edición de Duchesne y suma los *Russian Minstrels* de Russell Zguta y los dos libros de W. F. Ryan sobre la magia rusa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 468»

«32. P. Pascal, Avvakum et les débuts du Raskol (Paris, 1938), pp. 35f., 54f., 49f.; cf. Zguta, Russian Minstrels, pp. 59–62.»la nota 32 remite el edicto del zar Alejo al *Avvakum et les débuts du Raskol* de Pierre Pascal

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 468»

«33. J. Ferté, La vie religieuse dans les campagnes parisiennes (Paris, 1962), p. 292; The Life of the Archpriest Avvakum by Himself (English translation, London, 1963), pp. 47–8.»la nota 33 adjudica los dos pasajes paralelos: el del cura de Nanterre al libro de Jeanne Ferté y el otro a *The Life of the Archpriest Avvakum by Himself*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 468»

«35. M. Aston, England's Iconoclasts (London, 1988); C. Eire, War against the Idols (Cambridge, 1986); D. Freedberg, The Power»la nota 35 abre la bibliografía de la iconoclasia con Margaret Aston, Carlos Eire y David Freedberg; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 468»

«of Images (Chicago, IL, 1989), ch. 14; O. Christin, Une revolution symbolique: l’iconoclasme huguenot et la reconstruction catholique (Paris, 1991); L. P. Wandel, Voracious Idols and Violent Hands: Iconoclasm in Reformation Zurich (Cambridge, 1995).»sigue la nota 35 en la plana 469 con Olivier Christin y Lee Palmer Wandel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 469»

«translation, Chicago, IL, 1996), pp. 177–9; W. Frijhoff,»la nota 18 del capítulo 8 remite el desplazamiento de la sensibilidad religiosa al *Otoño de la Edad Media* de Huizinga y a Willem Frijhoff; el ancla se toma a media ficha porque el mismo libro se cita en las notas del capítulo 3

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 466»

«37. Rueff von dem Heyligen Ritter S. Gergen (Augsburg, 1621); C. Hole, English Folk Heroes (London, 1947), p. 27f.»la nota 37 da el pliego augsburgués de san Jorge de 1621 y el *English Folk Heroes* de Christina Hole; el troceo imprime *S. Gergen*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 469»

«38. M. Todd, The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland (New Haven, CT, 2002), p. 184.»la nota 38 remite la campaña calvinista escocesa al *Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland* de Margo Todd

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 469»

«39. L. Marcus, The Politics of Mirth: Jonson, Herrick, Milton, Marvell and the Defense of Old Holiday Pastimes (Chicago, IL, 1986), esp. ch. 1. Cf. Hutton, Rise and Fall of Merry England.»la nota 39 remite el *Book of Sports* y a Herrick al *Politics of Mirth* de Leah Marcus; el troceo imprime el número de nota en renglón aparte

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 469»

«42. I. Origo, The World of St Bernardino (London, 1963), p. 166; P. Adam, La Vie Paroissiale en France au 14e Siècle (Paris, 1964), p. 264f.»la nota 42 remite las condenas del siglo XV al *World of St Bernardino* de Iris Origo y a *La vie paroissiale en France au 14e siècle* de Paul Adam

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 469»

«44. O. Clemen, Luther und die Volksfrömmigkeit seiner Zeit (Dresden and Leipzig, 1938); E. Klingner, Luther und der Deutsche Volksaberglaube (Berlin, 1912); E. Kohler, Martin Luther und der Festbrauch (Cologne and Graz, 1959).»la nota 44 reúne la bibliografía sobre Lutero y la religiosidad popular: Otto Clemen, Erwin Klingner y Erich Kohler

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 469»

«46. G. Granberg, Kyrkan och Folktron (1948: rpr in A.B. Rooth, ed., Folkdikt och Folktro, Lund, 1971); A. Mänd, Urban Carnival (Turnhout, 2005), p. 83.»la nota 46 remite el asalto luterano sueco a la *idolatría* al *Kyrkan och Folktron* de Gunnar Granberg, y el pasaje de Reval al *Urban Carnival* de Anu Mänd

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 470»

«47. H. Trümpy, ‘Die Reformation als Volkskundliches Problem’, in Festschrift für G. Heilfurth (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 249–58. Cf. C. Garside, Zwingli and the Arts (New Haven, CT, 1966). On Dutch Calvinism, H. F. Wirth, Der Untergang des Niederländischen Volksliedes (The Hague, 1911), pp. 120f., 173f.»la nota 47 da a Hans Trümpy, el *Zwingli and the Arts* de Charles Garside y, sobre el calvinismo neerlandés, el libro de H. F. Wirth; el troceo espacia el nombre y el título

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 470»

«49. E. Grindal, Remains (Cambridge, 1843), p. 141f; H. C. Gardiner, Mysteries’ End (New Haven, CT, 1946); A. G. Dickens, ‘Tudor York’, in P. M. Tillott (ed.) Victoria County History: The City of York (London, 1961).»la nota 49 remite el fin del drama religioso inglés a los *Remains* de Grindal, al *Mysteries' End* de Harold Gardiner y al *Tudor York* de A. G. Dickens

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 470»

«51. Council of Trent, 25th session, in E. C. Holt (ed.) A Documentary History of Art (2 vols., New York, 1958), 2, p. 64f. Cf. K. P. Luria, ‘“Popular Catholicism” and the Catholic Reformation’, in K. M. Comerford and H. M. Pabel (eds.) Early Modern Catholicism (Toronto, 2001).»la nota 51 sitúa el decreto tridentino en la sesión 25 y añade el artículo de Keith Luria sobre el *catolicismo popular*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 470»

«52. P. Galesinus (ed.) Acta Ecclesiae Mediolanensis (Milan, 1582); J. Saenz (ed.) Collectio Conciliorum Hispaniae (6 vols., Rome, 1755); J. F. Schannat (ed.) Concilia Germaniae (11 vols., Cologne 1759–90); T. Gousset (ed.) Les Actes de la Province Ecclésiastique de Reims (4 vols., Rheims, 1842–4), esp. vols. 3, 4.»la nota 52 da las colecciones conciliares en que Burke apoya los sínodos de los años sesenta del siglo XVI, de Milán a Reims

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 470»

«53. F. H. Reusch, (ed.) Die Indices Librorum Prohibitorum des 16. Jahrhunderts (Tübingen, 1886), pp. 242, 315, 384; C. Sepp, Verboden Lectuur (Leiden, 1889), p. 261.»la nota 53 remite los índices de libros prohibidos a la edición de Franz Heinrich Reusch y al *Verboden Lectuur* de Christiaan Sepp

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 471»

«55. J. Delumeau, Le Catholicisme entre Luther et Voltaire (Paris, 1971), p. 256f.»la nota 55 remite las tres figuras de la reforma católica y a Francisco de Sales al *Catholicisme entre Luther et Voltaire* de Jean Delumeau

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 471»

«59. C. Bagshaw, A True Relation (1601), repr. in T. G. Law, A Historical Sketch of the Conflict between Jesuits and Seculars (London, 1889), p. 18.»la nota 59 adjudica el episodio de Wisbech a *A True Relation* de Christopher Bagshaw, reimpresa por T. G. Law

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 471»

«63. C. Sisson, Lost Plays of Shakespeare's Age (London, 1936), p.»la nota 63 remite la sátira de Wells contra John Hole a los *Lost Plays of Shakespeare's Age* de Charles Sisson; el troceo corta el número de página en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 471»

«64. G. N. Parker, ‘Success and Failure during the First Century of the English Reformation’, Past & Present 136 (1992), pp. 43– 82.»la nota 64 remite el balance de la primera fase al artículo de Geoffrey Parker sobre el éxito y el fracaso del primer siglo de la Reforma inglesa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 471»

«67. S. L. Greenslade (ed.) The Cambridge History of the Bible (Cambridge, 1963), chs. 3–4.»la nota 67 remite la lista de biblias vernáculas a la *Cambridge History of the Bible* de Greenslade

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 472»

«68. H. Pleijel, The Devotional Literature of the Swedish People (Lund, 1955), pp. 9f., 16f.»la nota 68 remite los datos suecos de biblias e inventarios al *Devotional Literature of the Swedish People* de Hilding Pleijel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 472»

«70. N. Z. Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (London, 1975), pp. 4–5.»la nota 70 remite a los artesanos hugonotes de Lyon cantando salmos al *Society and Culture in Early Modern France* de Natalie Zemon Davis, en la edición londinense de 1975

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 472»

«72. C. Bost, Les prédicants protestants des Cévennes (2 vols., Paris, 1912); E. Le Roy Ladurie, The Peasants of Languedoc (1966, abbreviated English. Translation, Urbana, IL, 1974), p.»la nota 72 remite la ausencia de canción tradicional en las Cevenas a Charles Bost y a *The Peasants of Languedoc* de Le Roy Ladurie; el troceo imprime el punto sobrante en *English. Translation*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 472»

«73. J. Geffcken, Der Bildercatechismus des 15. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1855); G. Strauss, ‘Success and Failure in the German Reformation’, Past & Present 67 (1975), pp. 28–49, at p. 38f.»la nota 73 remite el catecismo al libro de Johannes Geffcken y al artículo de Gerald Strauss sobre el éxito y el fracaso de la Reforma alemana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 472»

«77. F. M. Higman, The Style of John Calvin (Oxford, 1967),»la nota 77 remite los tratados franceses de Calvino al *Style of John Calvin* de Francis Higman; el troceo corta el apéndice en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 473»

«78. K. C. Sessions, ‘Song Pamphlets’, in G. P. Tyson and S. S. Wagonheim (eds.) Print and Culture in the Renaissance (Newark, NJ, 1986); F. M. Higman, ‘Music’, in A. Pettegree (ed.) Reformation World (London, 2001); R. W. Oettinger, Music as Propaganda in the German Reformation (Aldershot, 2001).»la nota 78 reúne la bibliografía de la música de la Reforma: Kyle Sessions, Francis Higman y Rebecca Wagner Oettinger

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 473»

«80. D. Laing (ed.) A Compendious Book of Psalms and Spiritual Songs (Edinburgh, 1868).»la nota 80 remite los contrahechos escoceses al *Compendious Book of Psalms and Spiritual Songs* editado por David Laing

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 473»

«82. R. W. Scribner, For the Sake of Simple Folk (Cambridge,»la nota 82 remite los carnavales protestantes al *For the Sake of Simple Folk* de Bob Scribner; el troceo corta el año en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 473»

«85. S. Svärdström, Dalmålningarna (Stockholm, 1949), p. 93f. Cf. H. C. von Haebler, Das Bild in der evangelischen Kirche (Berlin, 1957); M. Scharfe, Evangelische Andachtsbilder (Stuttgart, 1968); S. Christie, Den Lutherske Ikonografi i Norge (2 vols., Oslo, 1973); R. Lieske, Protestantische Frömmigkeit (Munich,»la nota 85 reúne la bibliografía de la imagen luterana: Svärdström, von Haebler, Scharfe, Christie y Lieske; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 473»

«86. Bede, Ecclesiastical History (English translation, Harmondsworth, 1955), Book 1, ch. 30.»la nota 86 adjudica la carta de Gregorio Magno a la *Historia eclesiástica* de Beda, libro I, capítulo 30; el troceo espacia el nombre y el título

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 474»

«87. R. de Nobili, Première Apologie (1610) (French translation, Paris, 1931), p. 67.»la nota 87 remite la defensa de Roberto de Nobili a su *Première Apologie* de 1610 en traducción francesa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 474»

«89. J.-B. Bossuet, Catéchisme du Diocèse de Meaux (Paris, 1690), p.»la nota 89 adjudica el pasaje de la hoguera *eclesiástica* al *Catéchisme du diocèse de Meaux* de Bossuet; el troceo corta el número de página en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 474»

«94. S. Paolucci, Missioni de’Padri della Compagnia di Giesù nel Regno di Napoli (Naples, 1651), pp. 19f., 23, 42f.»la nota 94 adjudica la descripción de las misiones napolitanas al libro de Scipione Paolucci de 1651

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 474»

«98. B. Malinowski, Magic, Science and Religion (New York, 1954), pp. 101, 107, 144.»la nota 98 remite la idea del mito como *carta de fundación* al *Magic, Science and Religion* de Malinowski

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 475»

«100. B. W. Wardropper (ed.) Cancionero espiritual (Oxford, 1954),»la nota 100 remite los himnos *contrahechos a lo divino* al *Cancionero espiritual* editado por Bruce Wardropper; el troceo corta la página en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 475»

«102. C. Sommervogel, Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus (10 vols., Brussels and Paris, 1880–91).»la nota 102 remite las ediciones de los catecismos de Canisio y Belarmino a la *Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus* de Sommervogel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 475»

«104. Figures compiled from the catalogues of the British Library and the Bibliothèque Nationale de France.»la nota 104 declara que las cifras de ediciones de la *Imitación* y del *Combate espiritual* se compilaron de los catálogos de la British Library y la Bibliothèque nationale de France

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 475»

«106. M.-H. Froeschlé-Chopard, La religion populaire en Provence (Paris, 1980); K. P. Luria, Territories of Grace: Cultural Change in the 17th Century Diocese of Grenoble (Stanford, CA, 1991); W. Freitag, Mariawallfahrten im Fürstbistum Münster (Paderborn, 1991); M. R. Forster, Religion and Reform in the Bishopric of Speyer (Ithaca, NY, 1992); D. Gentilcore, From Bishop to Witch: The System of the Sacred in Early Modern Terra d’Otranto (Manchester, 1992); C. S. Dixon, The Reformation and Rural Society (Cambridge, 1996); P. Conner, Huguenot Heartland: Montauban and Southern French Calvinism (Aldershot, 2002).»la nota 106 reúne la investigación regional que Burke pide: Froeschlé-Chopard, Luria, Freitag, Forster, Gentilcore, Dixon y Conner; el troceo espacia varios títulos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 475»

«109. L. G. Séguin, The Country of the Passion-Play (London, 1880),»la nota 109 remite los autos de Oberammergau al *Country of the Passion-Play* de L. G. Séguin; el troceo corta la página en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 476»

«110. G. Pitrè, Sacre rappresentazioni popolari in Sicilia (Palermo, 1876), p. 7f.; F. M. Luzel (ed.) Sainte Tryphine (Quimperlé, 1863), p. vii; J. de Cambry, Voyage dans le Finistère (3 vols., Paris, 1799), 3, p. 176.»la nota 110 remite los misterios sicilianos a Giuseppe Pitrè, los bretones a la *Sainte Tryphine* de Luzel y el baile en capilla y cementerio al *Voyage dans le Finistère* de Jacques Cambry

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 476»

«112. B. Amilha, Le Tableu de la Bido del Parfet Crestia (Toulouse, 1673), p. 231f.»la nota 112 da el título occitano del libro de Amilha, *Le Tableu de la Bido del Parfet Crestia*, impreso en Tolosa en 1673

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 476»

«113. D. Fabre and J. Lacroix, La vie quotidienne des paysans de Languedoc au 19e siècle (Paris, 1973), pp. 161, 168.»la nota 113 remite los casos de Lodève y Montpeyroux a *La vie quotidienne des paysans de Languedoc au 19e siècle* de Daniel Fabre y Jacques Lacroix

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 476»

«116. J. Carreyre, ‘Synode de Pistoie’, Dictionnaire de Théologie Catholique, vol. 12 (Paris, 1935); G. Turi, Viva Maria: la reazione all riforme leopoldine (Florence, 1969), p. 7f.; G. de Rosa, Vescovi, Popolo e magia nel Sud (Naples, 1971), pp. 34f., 49, 73, 126.»la nota 116 remite el sínodo de Pistoya al artículo de Carreyre y suma el *Viva Maria* de Gabriele Turi y el *Vescovi, popolo e magia nel Sud* de Gabriele de Rosa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 476»

«117. J. Molanus, De Picturis et Imaginibus Sacris (Leuven, 1570), chs 1, 16, 26, 59, 71.»la nota 117 da el tratado de Molanus, *De picturis et imaginibus sacris*, con la ciudad en su forma actual

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 476»

«121. A. Lottin, ‘Contre-réforme et religion populaire’, in Y. M. Hilaire (ed.) La religion populaire (Lille, 1981), pp. 43–60; M. Mullett, ‘Popular Culture and the Counter-Reformation’, History of European Ideas 11 (1989), pp. 493–9.»la nota 121 adjudica la lectura de la reforma católica como *matrimonio difícil pero logrado* a Alain Lottin y a Michael Mullett

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 477»

«O. Bø, Heilag-Olav i Norske Folketradisjon (Oslo, 1955),»la nota 122 remite la pervivencia del culto de san Olav al *Heilag-Olav i norske folketradisjon* de Olav Bø; el troceo abre la plana con el título y corta el capítulo en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 477»

«123. J. Dawson, ‘Calvinism and the Gaidhealtachd in Scotland’ (1994: rpr in A. R. Macdonald and B. Harris (eds.) Scotland: The Making and Unmaking of the Nation (Dundee, 2007), pp. 109–27; J. Kirk (ed.) The Church in the Highlands (Edinburgh, 1998); S. J. Reid, ‘Cultures of Calvinism in Early Modern Scotland’, in B. Gordon and C. R. Truman (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Calvin and Calvinism, DOI: 10.1093/ oxfordhb/9780198728818.013.13; M. Martin, A Description of the Western Islands of Scotland (1703: new edn, Stirling, 1934).»la nota 123 reúne la investigación sobre el calvinismo en las Tierras Altas —Jane Dawson, James Kirk, Steven Reid— y remata con la *Description of the Western Islands of Scotland* de Martin Martin

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 477»

«124. E. Saunders, A View of the State of Religion in the Diocese of St David's (London, 1721), esp. p. 36; T. Rees, History of Protestant Nonconformity in Wales (2nd edn, London, 1883), esp. pp. 313f., 348.»la nota 124 remite la cultura popular galesa al *View of the State of Religion in the Diocese of St David's* de Erasmus Saunders y a la *History of Protestant Nonconformity in Wales* de Thomas Rees

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 477»

«126. E. Jones, The Bardic Museum (London, 1802).»la nota 126 adjudica la queja de 1802 por la decadencia de la juglaría galesa al *Bardic Museum* de Edward Jones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 477»

«129. R. W. Malcolmson, Popular Recreations in English Society (Cambridge, 1973), chs. 6 and 7. Cf. T. C. Curtis and W. Speck, ‘The Societies for the Reformation of Manners’, Literature and History 3 (1976), pp. 45–64; Hutton, ‘Reformation of Manners’; P. Collinson, ‘Elizabethan and Jacobean Puritanism as Forms of Popular Religious Culture’, in C. Durston and J. Eales (eds.) The Culture of English Puritanism (Basingstoke, 1996); A. Walsham, ‘The Godly and Popular Culture’, in J. Coffey and P. Lim (eds.) The Cambridge Companion to Puritanism (Cambridge, 2008), pp. 277–93, at pp. 279–82.»la nota 129 reúne la bibliografía de la reforma de las costumbres: Robert Malcolmson, Curtis y Speck, Hutton, Patrick Collinson y Alexandra Walsham

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 478»

«131. J. C. Gottsched, Versuch einer Critische Dichtkunst (1730), in his Werke (Berlin and New York, 1973), part 2, ch. 11; J. von Sonnenfels, ‘Briefe über die Wienerische Schaubühne’, in his Gesammelte Schriften (10 vols., Vienna, 1783–7), 5, p. 189f.; O. Rommel, Die Alt-Wiener Volkskomödie (Vienna, 1952), p. 384f.»la nota 131 da las fuentes de Gottsched y Sonnenfels y el *Die Alt-Wiener Volkskomödie* de Otto Rommel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 478»

«132. Dejean, Un prélat independant, p. 31n.; W. P. C. Knuttel, B. Bekker (The Hague, 1906); A. C. Fix, Fallen Angels: Balthasar Bekker, Spirit Belief, and Confessionalism in the Seventeenth Century Dutch Republic (Dordrecht, 1999).»la nota 132 remite a Pavillon y a Balthasar Bekker, con el *Fallen Angels* de Andrew Fix

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 478»

«134. R. Mandrou, Magistrats et sorciers en France au 17e siècle (Paris, 1968); M. de Certeau, ‘Les magistrats devant les sorciers’, Revue de l’histoire de l’église de France 55 (1969), pp. 300–19; K. V. Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (London, 1971); A. Walsham, ‘The Reformation and “The Disenchantment of the World” Reassessed’, Historical Journal 51 (2008), pp. 497–528; M. Hunter, The Decline of Magic (New Haven, CT, 2020).»la nota 134 reúne la bibliografía de la baja de los procesos por brujería: Mandrou, Certeau, el *Religion and the Decline of Magic* de Keith Thomas, Walsham y el *Decline of Magic* de Michael Hunter

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 479»

«136. O. Davies, Cunning Folk: Popular Magic in English History (London, 2003), p. xiii: Hunter, Decline, p. 178.»la nota 136 adjudica las dos citas sobre la magia popular al *Cunning Folk* de Owen Davies y al *Decline of Magic* de Hunter

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 479»

«133. Oxford English Dictionary, ‘superstition’; J. B. Thiers, Traité des Superstitions (Paris, 1704), ch. 9; G. Cocchiara, Sul Concetto di Superstizione (Palermo, 1945); A. Momigliano, ‘Popular»la nota 133 apoya el cambio de sentido de *superstición* en el *Oxford English Dictionary*, el *Traité des superstitions* de Thiers y Giuseppe Cocchiara, y abre la referencia a Momigliano; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 478»

«137. J. Devlin, The Superstitious Mind: French Peasants and the Supernatural in the Nineteenth Century (New Haven, CT, 1987); O. Davies, ‘Witchcraft Accusations in France, 1850–1900’, in W. de Blécourt and O. Davies (eds.) Witchcraft Continued: Popular Magic in Modern Europe (Manchester, 2004), pp. 107– 32.»la nota 137 remite las acusaciones de brujería francesas hasta el siglo XX al *Superstitious Mind* de Judith Devlin y al artículo de Owen Davies en *Witchcraft Continued*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 479»

«139. J. Favret-Saada, Deadly Words: Witchcraft in the Bocage (1977: English translation, Cambridge, 1980).»la nota 139 adjudica las *palabras mortales* al *Deadly Words: Witchcraft in the Bocage* de Jeanne Favret-Saada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 479»

«140. B. G. Feijoó, Teatro Critico Universal (8 vols., Madrid, 1733), 1, ch. 1; 2, chs. 3–5; 3, chs. 1, 6; 5, ch. 16. Cf. I. L. McClelland, Benito Jerónimo Feijoo (New York 1969); I. Urzainqui and R. Olay Valdés (eds.) Con la razón y la experiencia: Feijoo 250 años después (Oviedo, 2016).»la nota 140 da la edición madrileña del *Teatro crítico universal* de Feijoó y la bibliografía sobre él de McClelland y de Urzainqui y Olay Valdés

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 480»

«141. N. Fernández de Moratín, Desengaños al Teatro Español (Madrid, 1762), pp. 10f., 21; A. A. Parker, The Allegorical Drama of Calderón (Oxford, 1943), p. 20.»la nota 141 remite la crítica a Calderón a los *Desengaños al teatro español* de Moratín y al *Allegorical Drama of Calderón* de Alexander Parker

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 480»

«143. G. de Jovellanos, ‘Memoria para el Arreglo de la Policía de los Espectáculos’ (1790), in Obras Escogidas (Madrid, 1955), 2, p. 29; J. Meléndez Valdés, Discursos Forenses (Madrid, 1821), p. 167f. Cf. A. González Palencia, ‘Meléndez Valdés y la Literatura de Cordel’, Revista de la Biblioteca, Archivo y Museo 30 (1931), pp. 117–36.»la nota 143 da la *Memoria para el arreglo de la policía de los espectáculos* de Jovellanos y los *Discursos forenses* de Meléndez Valdés, con el artículo de González Palencia sobre la literatura de cordel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 480»

«This argument about cultural withdrawal has been put forward several times in different national contexts, notably by Mikhail Bakhtin in his discussion of the ‘distintegration’ of ‘popular-festive laughter’ in the seventeenth century, although it was never (so far as I know) discussed at any length or on a comparative basis until the first edition of this book.»Burke adjudica el argumento del retiro cultural a varios antes que él, en particular a Bajtín y su *desintegración* de la *risa popular festiva* en el siglo XVII, y declara que nadie lo había tratado con extensión ni en clave comparada hasta la primera edición de este libro

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 518»

«Thus Francis Child wrote of the British ballads: ‘the growth of civilization has driven them from the memory of the highly-polished and instructed, and has left them as an exclusive possession to the uneducated’.»Burke cita a Francis Child sobre las baladas británicas: *el crecimiento de la civilización las ha echado de la memoria de los pulidos e instruidos y las ha dejado en posesión exclusiva de los que no tienen letras*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 518»

«In a similar fashion, it has been argued that in Denmark and Sweden ‘about the middle of the 17th century … the upper classes lost their interest in the old-fashioned songs’.»Burke suma la tesis de que en Dinamarca y Suecia *hacia mediados del siglo XVII… las clases altas perdieron el interés por las canciones a la antigua*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 518»

«In the case of England, ‘the literati had very clearly dissociated themselves from the plebeian element in his [Shakespeare's] art’ by the time of Dryden in the later seventeenth century.»Burke cita para Inglaterra que *los literatos se habían disociado muy claramente del elemento plebeyo del arte de Shakespeare* ya en tiempos de Dryden; el troceo imprime el apóstrofo recto en *Shakespeare's*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 518»

«Edward Thompson referred to ‘the disassociation between patrician and plebeian cultures’ in the eighteenth century, when ‘a profound distance opened’ between them, while David Underdown suggested that ‘the gulf between the respectable and the “lower sort”’ became wider and deeper in the eighteenth century.»Burke cita a Edward Thompson sobre *la disociación entre las culturas patricia y plebeya* del siglo XVIII, cuando *se abrió una distancia profunda*, y a David Underdown sobre el abismo entre los respetables y *los de abajo*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 518»

«1. R. Mols, ‘Population in Europe’, in C. Cipolla (ed.) The Fontana Economic History of Europe, vol. 2 (London, 1974); F. Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life (1967: English translation, London, 1973), ch. 1.»la nota 1 del capítulo 9 remite las cifras de población a Roger Mols en la *Fontana Economic History of Europe* y al *Capitalism and Material Life* de Braudel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 539»

«2. N. McKendrick et al., The Birth of Consumer Society (London, 1982); R. Sandgruber, Die Anfänge der Konsumgesellschaft (Vienna, 1982); D. Roche, A History of Everyday Things: The Birth of Consumptin in France (1997: English translation, Cambridge, 2000).»la nota 2 remite la *sociedad de consumo* al *Birth of Consumer Society* de McKendrick, a Roman Sandgruber y a Daniel Roche; el troceo imprime *Consumptin*, con la errata del original

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 539»

«4. W. G. Hoskins, ‘The Rebuilding of Rural England’, Past & Present 4 (1953), pp. 44–59; cf. R. Machin, ‘The Great Rebuilding: A Re-Assessment’, Past & Present 77 (1977), pp. 33–56; A. Riff, L’art populaire et l’artisanat rural en Alsace (Strasbourg and Paris, 1945), p. 4f.»la nota 4 remite la reconstrucción de la Inglaterra rural a Hoskins y a la reevaluación de Machin, y el caso alsaciano a Adolphe Riff

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 540»

«13. Martin Butler, ‘Kemp, William’; ODNB; B. Capp, The World of John Taylor the Water-Poet (Oxford, 1994), p. 23.»la nota 13 remite a Will Kemp en el *ODNB* y a John Taylor en el libro de Bernard Capp

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 540»

«16. J. H. Plumb, The Commercialization of Leisure in 18th-Century»la nota 16 adjudica la cita sobre las carreras de caballos a *The Commercialization of Leisure in 18th-Century England* de J. H. Plumb; el troceo corta el pie en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 541»

«14. S. During, Modern Enchantments: The Cultural Power of Secular Magic (Cambridge, MA, 2002), pp. 66–73.»la nota 14 remite la *magia seglar* al *Modern Enchantments* de Simon During

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 541»

«21. H. Mackenzie (ed.) Report of the Committee Appointed to Inquire into the Authenticity of Ossian (Edinburgh, 1805), p. 10, and Appendix, p. 47.»la nota 21 adjudica el informe sobre Osián y el dicho de Hugh M'Donald al *Report of the Committee Appointed to Inquire into the Authenticity of Ossian* editado por Henry Mackenzie

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 541»

«22. J. Cain et al., Le Livre Français (Paris, 1972), pp. 48f., 59; N. Z. Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (London, 1975), ch. 7.»la nota 22 remite las cifras de producción de libros a *Le Livre Français* y al capítulo 7 del *Society and Culture in Early Modern France* de Natalie Zemon Davis

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 541»

«31. L. Stone, ‘Literacy and Education in England, 1640–1900’, Past & Present 42 (1969), pp. 69–139.»la nota 31 adjudica la *revolución educativa* inglesa al artículo de Lawrence Stone en *Past & Present*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 542»

«33. L. Fontaine, History of Pedlars in Europe (1993: English translation, Cambridge, 1996).»la nota 33 remite los buhoneros del Alto Comminges a la *History of Pedlars in Europe* de Laurence Fontaine

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 542»

«25. C. M. Cipolla, Literacy and Development in the West»la nota 25 remite las tasas de alfabetización por países al *Literacy and Development in the West* de Carlo Cipolla; el troceo corta el pie en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 541»

«36. F. Dahl, Dutch Corantos (The Hague, 1946), p. 23.»la nota 36 adjudica la tasa de supervivencia de los periódicos a los *Dutch Corantos* de Folke Dahl

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 542»

«39. E. Nesi (ed.) Il Diario della Stamperia di Ripoli (Florence, 1903), pp. 97, 114.»la nota 39 adjudica el caso de *Bernardino el charlatán* al *Diario della Stamperia di Ripoli*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 543»

«40. A. B. Lord, The Singer of Tales (Cambridge, MA, 1960), ch.»la nota 40 remite la hipótesis sobre la improvisación y la escritura al *Singer of Tales* de Albert Lord; el troceo corta el capítulo en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 543»

«42. D. Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society (Glencoe, IL,»la nota 42 adjudica la *personalidad móvil* al *Passing of Traditional Society* de Daniel Lerner; el troceo corta el año en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 543»

«43. Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights: A History (New York,»la nota 43 remite la tesis sobre la novela y la empatía al *Inventing Human Rights* de Lynn Hunt

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 543»

«38. D. Boorstin, The Image (New York, 1962), chs. 1–2. Cf. M.A.»la nota 38 remite el *pseudoacontecimiento* a *The Image* de Daniel Boorstin y abre la referencia a Matthias Shaaber; el troceo corta el tramo en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 542»

«45. R. Schenda, Volk ohne Buch (Frankfurt, 1970), pp. 250,»la nota 45 adjudica los fardos de los buhoneros de 1812 y 1825 al *Volk ohne Buch* de Rudolf Schenda

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 543»

«50. K. V. Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (London, 1971), pp. 641–68. Cf. During, Modern Enchantments, p. 1; E. Bever, The Realities of Witchcraft and Popular Magic in Early Modern Europe (Basingstoke, 2008); M. Hunter, The Decline of Magic: Britain in the Enlightenment (New Haven, CT,»la nota 50 remite la *magia seglar* y el ocaso de la magia a Keith Thomas, Simon During, Edward Bever y Michael Hunter; el troceo corta el año en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 544»

«53. E. J. Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels (Manchester, 1959); M. Foucault, Discipline and Punish (1975: English translation, London, 1991).»la nota 53 adjudica el rótulo *prepolítico* a los *Primitive Rebels* de Hobsbawm y la enmienda a *Vigilar y castigar* de Foucault

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 544»

«54. E. P. Thompson, Customs in Common (London, 1991), pp. 185–351. Cf. K. Lindley, Popular Politics and Religion in Civil War London (Aldershot, 1997); J. Walter, Crowds and Popular Politics in Early Modern England (Manchester, 2006), pp. 1–19; T. Harris, ‘Introduction’, to Harris (ed.) The Politics of the Excluded, c.1500–1850, pp. 1–29; M. Braddick and P. Withington, ‘Introduction’, to Braddick and Withington (eds.) Popular Culture and Popular Agency in Early Modern England and Ireland (Woodbridge, 2017), pp. 1–14.»la nota 54 reúne la bibliografía de la *cultura política popular*: los *Customs in Common* de Thompson, Keith Lindley, John Walter, Tim Harris y el volumen de Braddick y Withington

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 544»

«56. A. Fox, ‘Rumour, News and Popular Political Opinions in Elizabethan and Early Stuart England’, Historical Journal 40 (1997), pp. 597–620, at p. 600.»la nota 56 adjudica la cita sobre los procesos por *falsos rumores* al artículo de Adam Fox

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 544»

«58. P. Blickle, The Revolution of 1525 (1975: English translation, Baltimore, MD, 1981); R. W. Scribner, For the Sake of Simple Folk (1981: revised edn, Oxford 1994). Cf H. Buszello, ‘The Common Man's View of the State’, in R. W. Scribner and G. Benecke (eds.) The German Peasant War (London, 1979); Scribner, Popular Culture and Popular Movements in Reformation Germany (London, 1987); T. Scott, ‘The Common People in the German Reformation’, Historical Journal 34 (1991), pp. 183–92.»la nota 58 reúne la bibliografía de la guerra de los campesinos y la propaganda luterana: Peter Blickle, Bob Scribner, Horst Buszello y Tom Scott

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 545»

«69. C. Jouhaud, Mazarinades: le fronde des mots (Paris, 1985); J. K. Sawyer, Printed Poison: Pamphlet Propaganda, Faction Politics and the Public Sphere in Early Seventeenth Century France (Berkeley, CA, 1990). Quotation from Le Pernonisme Berné, c. 1650 (British Library, 1492m 17 (10), p. 2.»la nota 69 remite las *mazarinadas* a Christian Jouhaud y a Jeffrey Sawyer, y adjudica la copla citada a *Le Pernonisme Berné*, de hacia 1650, en la British Library

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 546»

«76. C. Hill, The World Turned Upside Down (London, 1972), ch.»la nota 76 adjudica lo dicho sobre los *levellers* al *World Turned Upside Down* de Christopher Hill; el troceo corta el capítulo en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 547»

«74. A. Halasz, The Marketplace of Print: Pamphlets and the Public Sphere in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1997); P. Lake and S. Pincus, The Politics of the Public Sphere in Early Modern England (Manchester, 2007)»la nota 74 reúne la bibliografía de la *esfera pública* inglesa: Alexandra Halasz, y Lake y Pincus; el tramo se corta antes de Jason Peacey, que pasa a la plana siguiente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 546»

«80. C. de Saussure, Lettres et Voyages (Lausanne, 1903), p.»la nota 80 adjudica el testimonio del viajero suizo a las *Lettres et Voyages* de César de Saussure

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 547»

«85. W. Coxe, Travels into Poland, Russia, Sweden (3 vols., London,»la nota 85 adjudica la estampa de Struensee en la cabaña noruega a los *Travels* de William Coxe; el troceo corta el pie en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 547»

«94. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London, 1963), pp. 89f., 104f.»la nota 94 remite las sociedades radicales inglesas y los *Rights of Man* de Paine a *The Making of the English Working Class* de Thompson

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 548»

«99. I. Favretto, ‘Rough Music and Factory Protest in Post-1945 Italy’, Past & Present 228 (2015), pp. 207–247. Cf. I. Favretto and X. Itçaina (eds.) Protest, Popular Culture and Tradition in Modern and Contemporary Western Europe (London, 2017).»la nota 99 remite las formas carnavalescas de protesta fabril a Ilaria Favretto y al volumen que editó con Xabier Itçaina; el troceo espacia el título

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 549»

«100. M. Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (1965: English translation, Cambridge, MA, 1968), p. 115.»la nota 100 declara la edición de Bajtín que Burke maneja: la traducción inglesa de *Rabelais and His World* publicada en Cambridge (Massachusetts) en 1968, no una posterior

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 549»

«101. F. J. Child (ed.) The English and Scottish Popular Ballads (onevolume edn, Cambridge, MA, 1932), p. 367; B. R. Jonsson, Svensk Balladtradition (Stockholm, 1967), p. 856.»la nota 101 adjudica la cita de Francis Child —el impreso parte *one-volume* en el fin de renglón y la extracción la devuelve pegada como *onevolume*— a su edición de *The English and Scottish Popular Ballads* y la escandinava a la *Svensk Balladtradition* de Bengt Jonsson

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 549»

«102. R. Weimann, Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition (1967: English translation, Baltimore, MD, 1978), p. 185; E. P. Thompson, Customs in Common (London, 1991), pp. 1, 5; D. Underdown, Revel, Riot and Rebellion (Oxford, 1985), pp. 279, 281.»la nota 102 adjudica la cita sobre Shakespeare a Robert Weimann, la de la disociación de culturas a los *Customs in Common* de Thompson y la del abismo a *Revel, Riot and Rebellion* de Underdown

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 549»

«103. R. Chartier, ‘Culture populaire. Retour sur un concept historiographique’, Eutopias 52 (1994), pp. 1–19.»la nota 103 adjudica la objeción a la tesis del retiro al artículo de Roger Chartier sobre el concepto historiográfico de cultura popular

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 550»

«107. P. Burke, The Fortunes of The Courtier (Cambridge,»la nota 107 remite las ediciones de *El cortesano* a un libro propio de Burke, *The Fortunes of The Courtier*; el troceo corta el año en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 550»

«108. N. Elias, The Civilizing Process (1939: English translation, revised edn, Oxford, 2000).»la nota 108 remite el dominio de sí de la nobleza al *Proceso de la civilización* de Elias, en la edición inglesa revisada de 2000

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 550»

«110. R. Kelso, Doctrine for the Lady of the Renaissance (Urbana, IL, 1956), lists 891 treatises on the subject.»la nota 110 apunta que el *Doctrine for the Lady of the Renaissance* de Ruth Kelso lista 891 tratados sobre educación femenina

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 550»

«112. R. J. Kerner, Bohemia in the Eighteenth Century (New York, 1932), p. 344f.; B. Balbín, Dissertatio Apologetica (Prague, 1775), p. 7; O.J. Falnes, National Romanticism in Norway (New York, 1933); J. H. Wuorinen, Nationalism in Modern Finland»la nota 112 remite el caso checo a Robert Kerner y a la *Dissertatio Apologetica* de Balbín, y los casos noruego y finlandés a Falnes y a Wuorinen; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 550»

«114. S. Mercurio, De Gli Errori Popolari d’Italia (Venice, 1603), esp. Book 4; T. Courval, Satyre contre les charlatans et pseudomedecins empiriques (Paris, 1610).»la nota 114 da los títulos de Mercurio y de Courval, y fecha la sátira de este en 1610 y no en 1619 como el cuerpo del capítulo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 551»

«121. Barberini quoted in C. Ginzburg, I benandanti (Turin, 1966),»la nota 121 adjudica la carta del cardenal Barberini a *I benandanti* de Carlo Ginzburg; el troceo corta la página en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 551»

«124. Rousseau q. W. Bahner, ‘Le mot et la notion du “peuple” dans l’oeuvre de Rousseau’, Studies on Voltaire 55 (1967), p.»la nota 124 adjudica la burla de Rousseau al artículo de Werner Bahner sobre la palabra *pueblo* en su obra; el troceo corta la página en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 552»

«125. A. B. Friedman, The Ballad Revival (Chicago, IL, 1961), chs. 1– 2; W. Cornwallis, Essays, London, 1600, ‘Of the Observation and Use of Things’.»la nota 125 remite el trato inglés a las baladas al *Ballad Revival* de Albert Friedman y adjudica el pasaje citado a los *Essays* de William Cornwallis de 1600

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 552»

«126. C. R. Baskervill, The Elizabethan Jig (Chicago, IL, 1929), p.»la nota 126 remite el *jig* isabelino al libro de Charles Baskervill; el troceo corta la página en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 552»

«127. E. Welsford, The Fool (London, 1935), ch. 7.»la nota 127 remite el bufón de corte al *The Fool* de Enid Welsford

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 552»

«129. J. Webster, The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft (London, 1677), p. 323.»la nota 129 adjudica la cita sobre quiénes creían en brujas al *Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft* de John Webster

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 552»

«130. Chesterfield, Letters (Oxford, 2008), 25 July 1741.»la nota 130 fecha en el 25 de julio de 1741 la carta de Chesterfield contra los refranes comunes

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 552»

«131. R. C. A. Prior, Ancient Danish Ballads (3 vols., London,»la nota 131 adjudica la copla de Reenberg a las *Ancient Danish Ballads* de R. C. A. Prior; el troceo imprime el número de nota en renglón aparte

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 552»

«133. B. Szabolcsi, A Concise History of Hungarian Music (London, 1964), pp. 37, 43; Z. Kodály, Folk Music of Hungary (1952: English translation, London, 1971), p. 16.»la nota 133 adjudica la anécdota del poeta Benedek Virág a Bence Szabolcsi y a *Folk Music of Hungary* de Zoltán Kodály

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 552»

«135. J. Rae, Life of Adam Smith (1895: repr. New York, 1965), p. 369. Cf. D. Craig, Scottish Literature and the Scottish People 1680–1830 (London, 1961), chs. 1–2.»la nota 135 adjudica la respuesta de Adam Smith a la *Life of Adam Smith* de John Rae y añade el libro de David Craig

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 553»

«138. R. Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime (London, 1975), p. 187; S. T. Aksakov, A Russian Gentleman (1856: English translation, London, 1917), p. 289; C. Kelly, Petrushka (Cambridge, 1990), p. 27.»la nota 138 remite los usos de la nobleza rusa a Richard Pipes, a las memorias de Aksákov en su traducción *A Russian Gentleman* y al *Petrushka* de Catriona Kelly

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 553»

«141. H. Bebel, Proverbia Germanica (Leiden, 1879); Bebel, Facetien (Leipzig, 1931).»la nota 141 da las dos colecciones de Bebel, los *Proverbia Germanica* y las *Facetien*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 553»

«144. A. Vedel, It Hundrede vduaalde Danske Viser (Ribe, 1591); Dansk Biografisk Leksikon (16 vols., Copenhagen 1979–84), s.v. ‘Vedel’.»la nota 144 da la colección de Vedel de 1591, *It Hundrede vduaalde Danske Viser*, y la entrada del *Dansk Biografisk Leksikon*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 553»

«143. F. Friese, Historische Nachricht von der Merkwürdigen Ceremonien der Altenburgischen Bauern (1703: rpr Schmöln, 1887).»la nota 143 da el título del estudio de Friedrich Friese sobre las ceremonias de los campesinos de Altemburgo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 553»

«146. P. Syv (ed.) Udvalde Danske Viser (Copenhagen, 1695).»la nota 146 da la reimpresión de Peder Syv de las baladas danesas en 1695

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 554»

«147. J. Aubrey, ‘Remains’, in Three Prose Works (Fontwell, 1972), p. 132. Cf. R. Dorson, The British Folklorists (London, 1968), p. 4f.»la nota 147 adjudica el pasaje de Aubrey a sus *Remains* y añade *The British Folklorists* de Richard Dorson

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 554»

«148. J. B. Thiers, Traité des Superstitions (1704: new edn, Paris 1984). Cf. F. Lebrun, ‘Le “Traite des Superstitions”’, Annales de Bretagne 83 (1976), pp. 443–65, and J. Revel, ‘Forms of Expertise: Intellectuals and “Popular” Culture in France (1650–1800)’, in S. L. Kaplan (ed.) Understanding Popular Culture (Berlin, 1984), ch. 10.»la nota 148 da el *Traité des superstitions* de Thiers y los estudios de François Lebrun y de Jacques Revel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 554»

«150. L. A. Muratori, Delle forze della fantasia (Venice, 1745); L. A. Muratori, Dissertazioni sopra le Antichità Italiane (3 vols, Milan, 1751). Cf. S. Bertelli, Erudizione e Storia in L.A. Muratori (Naples, 1960).»la nota 150 da las dos obras de Muratori, *Delle forze della fantasia* y las *Dissertazioni sopra le antichità italiane*, y el estudio de Sergio Bertelli

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 554»

«156. T. Blackwell, An Enquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer (London, 1735); R. Lowth, De Sacra Poesia Hebraeorum (Oxford, 1753).»la nota 156, última del capítulo 9, da el *Enquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer* de Blackwell y el *De sacra poesia Hebraeorum* de Lowth

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 555»

«Appendix 1 The Discovery of the People: Select Studies and Anthologies, 1760–1846 Publications in parts are mentioned in the year in which the first part came out:»el apéndice 1 lista por años los estudios y antologías del *descubrimiento del pueblo* entre 1760 y 1846, con la regla de fechar las obras por entregas en el año de la primera

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 556»

«1760 J. Macpherson, Fragments of Ancient Poetry 1762 J. Macpherson, Fingal 1763 H. Blair, A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian 1765 T. Percy, Reliques of Ancient Poetry»el apéndice abre con los *Fragments of Ancient Poetry* y el *Fingal* de Macpherson, la disertación de Hugh Blair sobre Osián y las *Reliques* de Percy

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 556»

«1766 H. G. Porthan, De Poesi Fennica 1770 M. I. Chulkhov, Sobranie Raznykh Pesen 1774 A. Fortis, Viaggio in Dalmazia 1775 S. Johnson, A Journey to the Western Islands 1776 D. Herd, Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs 1776 G. A. Bürger, Herzensausguss über Volkspoesie 1776 V. F. Trutovsky, Sobranie Russkich Prostych Pesen 1777 J. Brand, Observations on Popular Antiquities 1778 J. G. Herder, Volkslieder»la tanda siguiente del apéndice, de Porthan y Chulkhov a los *Volkslieder* de Herder, pasando por Fortis, Johnson, Herd, Bürger, Trutovsky y Brand

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 556»

«1780 J. J. Bodmer, Altenglische und Altschwäbische Ballade 1782 J.K.A. Musäus, Volksmärchen der Deutschen 1783 J. Pinkerton, Select Scottish Ballads 1789 C. Ganander, Mythologia Fennica 1789 C. Brooke, Reliques of Irish Poetry 1790 N. A. Lvov, Sobranie Narodnykh Russkikh Pesen 1791 J. Ritson, Pieces of Ancient Popular Poetry»el tramo del apéndice que va de Bodmer y Musäus a Ritson, con Pinkerton, Ganander, Brooke y Lvov entre ellos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 557»

«1800 ‘Otmar’, Volkssagen 1801 J. Strutt, Sports and Pastimes of the People of England 1802 W. Scott, Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border 1802 Chateaubriand, Génie du Christianisme 1804 K. Danilov, Dreonie Rossiyskie Stikhotvoreniya 1806 A. von Arnim/C. Brentano, Des Knaben Wunderhorn 1807 J. Görres, Die Deutsche Volksbücher 1808 W. Grimm, Uber die Entstehung der Altdeutschen Poesie 1810 F. L. Jahn, Deutsches Volkstum 1812 J. Grimm/W. Grimm, Kinder- und Haus-Märchen»el tramo del apéndice que va de los *Volkssagen* de *Otmar* a los *Kinder- und Haus-Märchen* de los Grimm, con Strutt, Scott, Chateaubriand, Danilov, Arnim y Brentano, Görres, Wilhelm Grimm y Jahn

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 557»

«1812 W. Abrahamson, Udvalgte Danske Visen 1814 A. Afzelius/E. Geijer, Svenska Folkviser 1814 V. S. Karadžić, Malo Prostonarodna Pesnaritsa 1817 G. Renier Michiel, Origine delle Feste Veneziane 1818 M. Placucci, Usi e Pregiudizi de’ Contadini della Romagna 1818 A. Czarnocki, O Słowiańszczyźnie przed Chréscijaństwem 1822 F. L. Čelakovský, Slowanské Národnj Pjsne 1824 C. Fauriel, Chants Populaires de la Grèce Modemě 1828 A. Durán, Romancero 1830 L. Gołębiowski, Lud Polski 1832 E. Geijer, Svenska Folkets Historie»el tramo del apéndice que va de Abrahamson y Afzelius-Geijer a la *Svenska Folkets Historie* de Geijer, con Karadžić, Renier Michiel, Placucci, Czarnocki, Čelakovský, Fauriel, Durán y Gołębiowski

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 557»

«1833 W. Zaleski, Pieśni Polskie i Ruskie ludu Galicyjskiego 1835 E. Lönnrot, Kalevala 1836 F. Palacký, Geschichte von Böhmen 1839 Villemarqué, Barzaz Breiz 1841 P. C. Asbjørnsen/J. Moe, Norske Folk-Eventyr 1841 N. Tommaseo, Canti Popolari 1846 J. Erdélyi, Népdalok és Mondák 1846 J. Michelet, Le Peuple»el cierre del apéndice 1, de Zaleski y el *Kalevala* de Lönnrot a *Le Peuple* de Michelet, con Palacký, Villemarqué, Asbjørnsen y Moe, Tommaseo y Erdélyi

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 558»

«Appendix 2 Select Publications Illustrating the Reform of Popular Culture, 1495–1664 1495 S. Brant, Das Narrenschiff (second edn) 1540 H. Sachs, Gespräch mit der Fastnacht»el apéndice 2 lista por años las publicaciones que ilustran la reforma de la cultura popular entre 1495 y 1664, y abre con la segunda edición del *Narrenschiff* de Brant y el *Gespräch mit der Fastnacht* de Hans Sachs

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 559»

«1553 T. Naogeorgus, Regnum Papisticum 1556 G. Paradin, Le Blason des Danses 1559 F. de Alcoçer, Tratado del Juego 1566 H. Estienne, Apologie pour Herodote 1577 J. Northbrooke, A Treatise against Dicing 1578 G. Paleotti, Scrittura 1579 C. Borromeo, Memoriale 1579 J. Northbrooke, Distractions of the Sabbath 1582 C. Fetherston, Dialogue against Dancing 1583 P. Stubbes, Anatomy of Abuses»el tramo central del apéndice 2, del *Regnum Papisticum* de Naogeorgus a la *Anatomy of Abuses* de Stubbes, con Paradin, Alcoçer, Estienne, Northbrooke, Paleotti, Borromeo y Fetherston

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 559»

«1584 R. Scot, Discovery of Witchcraft 1594 C. Bascapè, Contra gli Errori … avanti la Quaresima 1606 C. Bascapè, Settuagesima 1607 Anon., Discorso contra il Carnevale 1608 J. Savaron, Traité contre les Masques»el tramo siguiente, del *Discovery of Witchcraft* de Reginald Scot al *Traité contre les masques* de Savaron, con los dos escritos de Bascapè y el *Discorso contra il Carnevale* anónimo de 1607

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 559»

«1609 C. Noirot, L’Origine des Masques 1633 W. Prynne, Histriomastix 1640 G. D. Ottonelli, Della Christiana Moderatione del Teatro 1655 P. Wittewrongel, Oeconomia Christiana 1655 G. Hall, Triumph of Rome 1660 T. Hall, Funebria Florae 1664 J. Deslyons, Discours … contre le Paganisme des Rois»el cierre del apéndice 2, de *L'Origine des masques* de Noirot al *Discours contre le paganisme des rois* de Deslyons, con el *Histriomastix* de Prynne, Ottonelli, Wittewrongel, Hall y la *Funebria Florae* de Thomas Hall

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 560»

«Select Bibliography This bibliography is limited to books in English. A full bibliography will be found in the online edition of Popular Culture.»la bibliografía selecta declara su límite —sólo libros en inglés— y remite la completa a la edición en línea de la obra

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 561»

«J. Leersen (2006) National Thought in Europe, Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press J. Leersen (ed., 2018) Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism, 2 vols., Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press»la bibliografía selecta abre con los dos títulos de Joep Leerssen sobre el pensamiento nacional y el nacionalismo romántico; el troceo imprime *Leersen* con una sola ese

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 561»

«N. Z. Davis (1975) Society and Culture in Early Modern France, London, Duckworth.»la bibliografía selecta consigna el *Society and Culture in Early Modern France* de Natalie Zemon Davis en la edición londinense de Duckworth de 1975

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 563»

«C. Ginzburg (1966) The Night Battles: Witchcraft & Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth & Seventeenth Centuries, English translation, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *The Night Battles* de Carlo Ginzburg en su traducción inglesa de 1983

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 565»

«M. Bakhtin (1965) Rabelais and His World, English translation,»la bibliografía selecta consigna a Bajtín con fecha de 1965 y *English translation*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana, donde siguen el sello de Harvard y el año 1968 de la traducción que Burke maneja

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 561»

«Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1968. C. L. Barber (1959) Shakespeare's Festive Comedy; A Study of Dramatic Form and its Relation to Social Custom, Princeton, NJ,»remate de la ficha de Bajtín en la plana 562 —Harvard University Press, 1968— seguida del *Shakespeare's Festive Comedy* de C. L. Barber

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 562»

«C. Ginzburg (1976) The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller, English translation, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *El queso y los gusanos* de Ginzburg en su traducción inglesa de 1980

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 565»

«A. J. Gurevich (1981) Medieval Popular Culture, English translation, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988.»la bibliografía selecta consigna la *Medieval Popular Culture* de Aron Gurevich en su traducción inglesa de 1988

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 566»

«E. Le Roy Ladurie (1979) Carnival, English translation, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980.»la bibliografía selecta consigna el *Carnival* de Le Roy Ladurie en su traducción inglesa de 1980

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 568»

«C. Hill (1972) The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the English Revolution, London, Penguin Books.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *The World Turned Upside Down* de Christopher Hill

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 566»

«R. Darnton (1984) The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History, New York, Basic Books.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *La gran matanza de gatos* de Robert Darnton

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 563»

«E. Duffy (1992) The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England 1400–1580, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *The Stripping of the Altars* de Eamon Duffy

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 564»

«R. Hutton (1994) The Rise and Fall of Merry England, 1400–1700. Oxford, Oxford University Press. R. Hutton (1996) The Stations of the Sun, Oxford, Oxford University Press.»la bibliografía selecta consigna los dos libros de Ronald Hutton, *The Rise and Fall of Merry England* y *The Stations of the Sun*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 567»

«A. Fox (2000) Oral and Literate Culture in England, 1500–1700, Oxford, Oxford University Press.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *Oral and Literate Culture in England* de Adam Fox

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 564»

«R. C. Davis (1994) The War of the Fists: Popular Culture and Public Violence in Late Renaissance Venice, New York, Oxford»la bibliografía selecta consigna *The War of the Fists* de Robert C. Davis; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 563»

«S. Hall (2019) Foundations of Cultural Studies, Durham, NC, Duke University Press. S. Hall and P. Whannel (1964) The Popular Arts, 2nd edn, Durham NC, Duke University Press, 2018.»la bibliografía selecta consigna a Stuart Hall con sus *Foundations of Cultural Studies* y, con Paddy Whannel, *The Popular Arts*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 566»

«M. Harris (2011) Sacred Folly: A New History of the Feast of Fools, Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *Sacred Folly*, historia nueva de la fiesta de los locos, de Max Harris

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 566»

«U. McIlvenna (2022) Singing the News of Death: Execution Ballads in Europe, 1500–1900, Oxford, Oxford University Press.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *Singing the News of Death* de Una McIlvenna sobre los romances de ajusticiados

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 569»

«A. Mänd (2005) Urban Carnival: Festive Culture in the Hanseatic Cities of the Eastern Baltic, 1350–1550, Turnhout, Brepols.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *Urban Carnival* de Anu Mänd sobre las ciudades hanseáticas del Báltico oriental

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 569»

«J. Mori (forthcoming) Everyday Nature in English Popular Print,»la bibliografía selecta incluye un título aún sin publicar, el *Everyday Nature in English Popular Print* de Jennifer Mori; el tramo se corta en el límite del troceo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 569»

«R. Muchembled (1978) Popular Culture and Elite Culture in France, English translation, Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University Press, 1985. R. Muchembled (2025) La sorcière au bûcher, Paris, Les Belles Lettres.»la bibliografía selecta consigna los dos títulos de Robert Muchembled, el *Popular Culture and Elite Culture in France* y *La sorcière au bûcher*, este de 2025, el más reciente de la lista; el troceo espacia el pie de imprenta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 569»

«O. Niccoli (1987) Prophecy and People in Renaissance Italy, English translation, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1990.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *Prophecy and People in Renaissance Italy* de Ottavia Niccoli

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 570»

«M. Ostling (2011) Between the Devil and the Host: Imagining Witchcraft in Early Modern Poland, Oxford, Oxford University Press.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *Between the Devil and the Host* de Michael Ostling sobre la brujería en Polonia

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 570»

«V. Propp (1928) Morphology of the Folktale, English translation, 2nd edn, Austin, TX, University of Texas Press, 1968.»la bibliografía selecta consigna la *Morfología del cuento* de Vladímir Propp en su traducción inglesa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 571»

«K. V. Thomas (1971) Religion and the Decline of Magic, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *Religion and the Decline of Magic* de Keith Thomas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 573»

«R. C. Trexler (1980) Public Life in Renaissance Florence, 2nd edn, Ithaca NY, Cornell University /Press, 1991F.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *Public Life in Renaissance Florence* de Richard Trexler; el troceo imprime el pie corrompido, con una barra dentro de *University /Press* y una efe suelta tras el año

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 574»

«R. Weimann (1967) Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater, English translation, Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.»la bibliografía selecta consigna el *Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater* de Robert Weimann; el tramo cruza el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 575»

«S. Wilson (2000) The Magical Universe: Everyday Ritual and Magic in Pre-Modern Europe, London, Hambledon.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *The Magical Universe* de Stephen Wilson sobre el rito y la magia cotidianos de la Europa premoderna

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 575»

«F. Young (2025) Silence of the Gods: The Untold History of Europe's Last Pagan Peoples, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.»la bibliografía selecta incluye el *Silence of the Gods* de Francis Young, de 2025, sobre los últimos pueblos paganos de Europa

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 575»

«R. Zguta (1978) Russian Minstrels, Oxford, Oxford University Press.»la bibliografía selecta cierra con los *Russian Minstrels* de Russell Zguta

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 575»

«E. P. Thompson (1963) The Making of the English Working Class, London, Victor Gollancz.»la bibliografía selecta consigna *The Making of the English Working Class* de E. P. Thompson en la edición de Victor Gollancz; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana, donde sigue *Customs in Common*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 573»

«Index Aarne, Anti (1867–1925), Finnish Folklorist, xi Abraham a Sancta Clara (c.1646–1709), Swabian preacher, 48 Abu-Lughod, Lila (1952–), Arab-American anthropologist, 9 accommodation, 260»el índice onomástico abre con Antti Aarne, Abraham a Sancta Clara y la entrada de la *acomodación*, y da a cada persona sus fechas y su oficio; los números remiten a la paginación impresa, que el troceo no imprime en el cuerpo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 576»

«Addison, Joseph (1672–1719), English critic, 100, 315 Adelung, Johann Christoph (1732–1806), German scholar, 38 Afanasiev, Aleksandr (1826–1871), Russian folklorist, 24 Afzelius, Arvid August (1785–1871), Swedish folklorist, 22»las entradas de Addison, Adelung, Afanásiev y Afzelius, cada una con oficio y nación

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 576»

«Amilha, Bartholomé (c.1618–1673), priest, from Languedoc, 265 Amphibious upper classes, 70–71, 74»el índice registra a Amilha y, como concepto, las *clases altas anfibias*, la fórmula con que Burke nombra a quienes participaban de las dos culturas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 576»

«Bakhtin, Mikhail (1895–1975), Russian literary theorist, 2, 46, 215– 216, 233, 301–302»la entrada de Bajtín en el índice, *teórico literario ruso*, con seis remisiones; el troceo parte el rango de páginas en el fin de renglón

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 577»

«Carnival, 24, 36, 72, 212–238, 241–242, 234, 246, 249, 258, 260– 261, 265, 283, 304»la entrada *Carnival* del índice, la más larga de la letra, con la lista de páginas tal como la imprime el troceo, incluido el 234 fuera de orden

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 579»

«Chapbooks, xv, 3, 18, 26, 53, 60, 70–71, 101–104, 286, 289–290 Chappell, William (1809–1888), folksong editor, 36 Charivari, 229»las entradas del índice para *chapbooks*, el editor de canción popular William Chappell y la cencerrada

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 580»

«Chartier, Roger (1945–), French historian, ix, 5–6»la entrada de Roger Chartier en el índice, *historiador francés*, con dos remisiones, una de ellas al prólogo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 580»

«common culture, 6, 69, 73, 311 comparative method, 6, 60–61 conflict, cultural, 10–12 conformity, social, 186 consensus, cultural, 10»las entradas conceptuales del índice: cultura común, método comparado, conflicto cultural, conformidad social y consenso cultural

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 581»

«Davis, Natalie (1928–2023), American historian, 3, 5, 216, 232»la entrada de Natalie Davis en el índice, con fechas de nacimiento y muerte y cuatro remisiones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 582»

«Ginzburg, Carlo (1939–), Italian historian, 2, 5, 54»la entrada de Carlo Ginzburg en el índice, *historiador italiano*, con tres remisiones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 584»

«Gramsci, Antonio (1891–1937), Italian social and political thinker, xi, 4, 11, 74»la entrada de Gramsci en el índice, *pensador social y político italiano*, con cuatro remisiones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 585»

«humour, 52, 105, 137, 144, 155, 161, 209, 260, 283, 293, 367–368; see also clowns; fools; jestbooks»la entrada *humour* del índice, con remisión cruzada a payasos, bufones y libros de burlas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 587»

«literacy, 73, 76, 80–81, 91, 97–98, 284–286 little tradition, 46, 69, 73»las entradas conceptuales del índice para la alfabetización y la *pequeña tradición*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 589»

«Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1908–), French anthropologist, 220»la entrada de Lévi-Strauss en el índice, con la fecha de muerte sin poner, resto de una edición anterior

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 588»

«Stubbes, Phillip (c.1555–c.1610), English puritan, 245, 251, 313 subculture, 74»las entradas de Phillip Stubbes y de *subculture* en el índice

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 597»

«Syv, Peder (1631–1702), Danish divine, 312»la entrada de Peder Syv en el índice, *clérigo danés*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 597»

«Karadžić, Vuk Stefanović (1787–1864), Serbian folklorist, 22, 26,»la entrada de Vuk Karadžić en el índice, *folclorista serbio*; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana, donde siguen las demás remisiones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 587»

«Thomas, Keith (1933–), British historian, 4–5, 54 Thomason, George (d. 1666), English bookseller, 295 Thompson, Edward (1924–1993), English historian, 2–4, 12, 24, 101, 291, 302 Thompson, Stith (1885–1976), American folklorist, 96»las entradas de Keith Thomas, el librero George Thomason y los dos Thompson, Edward y Stith, en el índice

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 597»

«Tour, Georges de la (1593–1516), French painter, 117»la entrada del pintor Georges de La Tour en el índice, con las fechas invertidas tal como las imprime el troceo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 598»

«Turner, Victor (1920–1983), British anthropologist, 51, 231»la entrada de Victor Turner en el índice, *antropólogo británico*, con dos remisiones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 598»

«Weber, Max (1864–1920), German sociologist, 246, 290»la entrada de Max Weber en el índice, con las dos remisiones a la ética y al desencantamiento

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 599»

«withdrawal from popular culture, 6, 12, 302–311 Wittewrongel, Petrus (1609–1662), Dutch divine, 251»la entrada conceptual del índice para el *retiro de la cultura popular*, la tesis propia de Burke, seguida de la de Wittewrongel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 599»

«women, women's culture, 50–51, 73, 90–92, 115, 119, 122, 124, 179, 303–304»la entrada del índice para las mujeres y la cultura de las mujeres, con diez remisiones; el troceo imprime el apóstrofo recto en *women's*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 599»

«Williams, Raymond (1921–1988), Welsh critic, 4, 7–8, 11»la entrada de Raymond Williams en el índice, *crítico galés*, con cuatro remisiones

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 599»

«YAMS, 74, 217»la entrada *YAMS* del índice, en versales y sin glosa, tal como la imprime el troceo, junto a la de la cultura juvenil

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 599»

«Zuan Polo (Liompardi, fl.1504–1533), Venetian clown, 116»la última entrada del índice, el payaso veneciano Zuan Polo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 599»

«Contents List of Figures Preface Acknowledgements Note and Abbreviations Introduction to the Fourth Edition Part I In Search of Popular Culture 1 The Discovery of the People 2 An Elusive Quarry Part II The System of Popular Culture 3 Unity and Variety in Popular Culture»la tabla de contenidos nombra las partes y los capítulos; la primera plana llega hasta el capítulo 3

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 9»

«4 The Transmission of Popular Culture 5 Traditional Forms 6 Heroes, Villains, and Fools 7 The World of Carnival Part III Changes in Popular Culture 8 The Triumph of Lent: The Reform of Popular Culture 9 Popular Culture and Social Change Appendix 1: The Discovery of the People: Select Studies and Ant»la segunda plana de la tabla de contenidos, del capítulo 4 al apéndice 1; el tramo se corta en el límite de la plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 10»

«my reading, I have incurred many more debts, so I should like to thank Jim Amelang, Bengt Ankarloo, Alessandro Arcangeli, Francesco Benigno, Anton Blok, John Bossy, Michael Branch, Piero Camporesi, Roger Chartier, Tom Cheesman, William Christian, Palle Ove Christiansen, Paolo Coen, Natalie Davis»Burke agradece en el prólogo las deudas contraídas con sus lectores, de Jim Amelang a Natalie Davis; el troceo abre el tramo a media frase

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 19»

«ODNB H. G. C. Matthews and B. Harrison (eds.) Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (61 vols., Oxford, 2004).»la nota de abreviaturas declara que *ODNB* es el *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 21»

«19. R. Muchembled, Popular Culture and Elite Culture in France, 1400–1750 (1978: English translation, Baton Rouge, LA, 1985), pp. 1, 260–4, 319ff. Cf. J. Wirth, ‘Against the Acculturation Thesis’, in K. von Greyerz (ed.) Religion and Society in Early Modern Europe (London, 1984), pp. 66– 78.»la nota 19 del capítulo 1 remite la tesis de la aculturación al *Popular Culture and Elite Culture in France* de Muchembled y a la objeción de Jean Wirth

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 46»

«Hopkin (eds.) Folklore and Nationalism in Europe during the Long Nineteenth Century (Leiden, 2012), pp. 193–206, at pp. 202–206.»la nota remite el nacionalismo folclórico al volumen de Baycroft y Hopkin; el troceo abre el tramo a media ficha

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 85»

«20. M. Michael, Die Volkssage bei Abraham a Sancta Clara (Leipzig, 1933). ⏎ 21. J.W. Blench, Preaching in England (Oxford, 1964), ch. 3.»las notas 20 y 21 del capítulo 3 remiten a Abraham a Sancta Clara y al *Preaching in England* de Blench

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 126»

«49. D. M. Hopkin, Soldier and Peasant in French Popular Culture (Woodbridge, 2003), pp. 18–33. ⏎ 50. N.-A. Bringéus, Bildlore: Studier av folkliga bildbudskap (Stockholm, 1981).»las notas 49 y 50 remiten al *Soldier and Peasant in French Popular Culture* de Hopkin y al *Bildlore* de Bringéus

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 129»

«131. C. T. Smith, An Historical Geography of Western Europe before 1800 (London, 1967), ch. 5. ⏎ 132. F. Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life,»las notas 131 y 132 remiten a la geografía histórica de C. T. Smith y al *Capitalism and Material Life* de Braudel

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 204»

«152. C. Sachs, A World History of the Dance (1933: English translation, London, 1938); R. Hess, Il valzer: rivoluzione della coppia in Europa (Turin, 1993).»la nota 152 remite la historia de la danza a Curt Sachs y al *Il valzer* de Rémi Hess

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 206»

«30. Diderot to Sophie Volland, 5 September 1762, in P. France (ed.), Diderot's Letters (London, 1972), p. 119.»la nota 30 del capítulo 6 adjudica el pasaje de Diderot a su carta a Sophie Volland del 5 de septiembre de 1762

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 243»

«2000); G. Marnef, ‘Chambers of Rhetoric’, in H. Schilling and I.G. Tóth (eds.) Religion and Cultural Exchange in Europe (Cambridge, 2006), pp. 274–93.»la nota remite las cámaras de retórica al artículo de Guido Marnef; el troceo abre el tramo con el paréntesis de cierre del año

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 244»

«36. J. U. Surgant, Manuale Curatorum (1503), part 1, ch. 8; Anon., Sermones Dormi Secure (Reutlingen, 1484).»la nota 36 remite los manuales de predicación al *Manuale Curatorum* de Surgant y a los *Sermones Dormi Secure* anónimos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 294»

«52. George, English Political Caricature, p. 4, 25; D. Kunzle, The Early Comic Strip (Berkeley, CA, 1973), p. 3.»la nota 52 remite la caricatura política a M. D. George y al *Early Comic Strip* de David Kunzle

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 296»

«24. R. F. Wearmouth, Methodism and the Common People (London, 1945), p. 24; M. D. George, English Political Caricature (Oxford, 1959), ch. 7.»la nota 24 del capítulo 7 remite el metodismo y la gente común a Wearmouth y la caricatura a M. D. George

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 339»

«45. H. E. Rollins, A Pepysian Garland (Cambridge, 1922), no. 5. ⏎ 46. George, Caricature, p. 12.»las notas 45 y 46 remiten a *A Pepysian Garland* de Rollins y otra vez a la caricatura de George

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 341»

«83. T. Coryat, Crudities (1611: new edn, 2 vols., Glasgow, 1905), 1, p. 213. ⏎ 84. S. Ardener (ed.) Perceiving Women (London, 1975).»las notas 83 y 84 remiten a las *Crudities* de Thomas Coryat y al *Perceiving Women* de Shirley Ardener

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 345»

«DOI: 10.4324/9781032655468-10»la sección de láminas abre con su propio DOI y el rótulo de la figura 1; el troceo imprime la plana casi en blanco

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 347»

«Figure 3 Le Vielleur – The Old Man, Georges de Latour, 1593–1652,»el pie de la figura 3, el zanfonista de Georges de La Tour, con el apellido impreso *Latour*

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 349»

«France, French (The Hurdy-Gurdy Player). Peter Horree/Alamy Stock Photo 4 Skomorokhi at Ladoga in 1634, by Adam Olearius.»remate del pie de la figura 3 y entrada de la figura 4 en la lista de figuras del principio, con los *skomorokhi* de Ladoga dibujados por Adam Olearius en 1634; el mismo pie se reimprime en la sección de láminas

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 11»

«Figure 5 Charlatans on Piazza S. Marco, from Giacomo Franco's Habiti d’huomini et donne Venetiane… (early seventeenth century). ARTGEN/Alamy Stock Photo. Figure 6 Charlatans in Paris (early seventeent»los pies de las figuras 5 y 6, los charlatanes de la plaza de San Marcos en el *Habiti* de Giacomo Franco y los de París; el tramo se corta en el límite de la plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 352»

«Figure 7 A painted chest from Gudbrandsdal showing King Karvel and Ogier the Dane (perhaps painted by Jakob Klukstad). Courtesy Norsk Folksmuseum, Oslo.»el pie de la figura 7, el arcón pintado de Gudbrandsdal con el rey Karvel y Ogier el Danés, atribuido a Jakob Klukstad

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 353»

«Figure 8 Björn Frøysak, Norwegian peasant and family (1699).»el pie de la figura 8, el campesino noruego Björn Frøysak con su familia en 1699

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 354»

«Alamy Stock Photo. ⏎ Figure 4 Skomorokhi at Ladoga in 1634, by Adam Olearius.»el pie de la figura 4 en la sección de láminas, los *skomorokhi* de Ladoga de Adam Olearius; el troceo imprime el retorno de carro entre los dos pies

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 350»

«Figure 9 ‘Credit Is Dead’ from Jacques Lagniet's Recuil des plus illustres proverbs…. (Paris, 1657). [RB 10217]. This item reproduced by permission of The Huntington Library, San Marino, California.»el pie de la figura 9, *El crédito ha muerto* del *Recuil des plus illustres proverbs* de Jacques Lagniet; el troceo imprime *Recuil* con una sola ele

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 355»

«Figure 10 The mice bury the cat (Russian Broadside, c. 1765).»el pie de la figura 10, los ratones que entierran al gato, pliego ruso de hacia 1765

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 356»

«Figure 11 Medal of Admiral Vernon (1739).»el pie de la figura 11, la medalla del almirante Vernon de 1739

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 358»

«Figure 12 Painted hanging of Charles XII by Gustaf Reuter (1746).»el pie de la figura 12, la colgadura pintada de Carlos XII por Gustaf Reuter en 1746

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 359»

«Photo: Bertil Wreting. Courtesy Nordiska Museet, Stockholm. CC BY-NC-ND 13 The Four Sons of Aymon, detail from The Interior of the Buurkerk at Utrecht by Pieter Saenredam (1644).»remate del pie de la figura 12 y pie de la figura 13, *Los cuatro hijos de Aymón* en el interior de la Buurkerk de Utrecht pintado por Saenredam; el pie se imprime igual en el índice de figuras y en la sección de láminas, y `pagina()` devuelve la primera aparición

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 12»

«Figure 14 Chapbook title page, from Een schoone historie van de vier»arranque del pie de la figura 14, la portada de un cuadernillo neerlandés; el tramo se corta en el cambio de plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 361»

«Heemskindern… (Amsterdam, 1802). [185 C 9]. Courtesy Koninklijke»remate del pie de la figura 14, con el ejemplar de Ámsterdam de 1802 de la Koninklijke Bibliotheek; el pie se imprime igual en el índice de figuras y en la sección de láminas, y `pagina()` devuelve la primera aparición

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 12»

«Figure 15 Musicians masked as Jews, from Francesco Bertelli's Ill carneuale italiano mascherato… (Venice, 1642). [Douce C. 414, fol. 7v]. Album/Alamy Stock Photo. ⏎ Figure 16 Revolutionary plate: ‘Lon»el pie de la figura 15, los músicos enmascarados de judíos del *Carneuale italiano mascherato* de Francesco Bertelli, y el arranque del de la figura 16; el tramo se corta en el límite de la plana

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 363»

«‘Let's hope the game ends soon (a peasant carrying a prelate and a noble)’. Paris, Musée Carnavalet. PWB Images/Alamy Stock Photo. ⏎ Figure 18»el pie de la figura 17 en la sección de láminas —*ojalá acabe pronto el juego*, el campesino que carga a un prelado y a un noble— y el rótulo de la figura 18

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 365»

«22. R. Lassels, The Voyage of Italy (Paris, 1670), p. 195. ⏎ 23. H. Swinburne, Travels through Spain (2 vols., London, 1779), 1, p. 228.»las notas 22 y 23 del capítulo 7 remiten al *Voyage of Italy* de Lassels y a los *Travels through Spain* de Swinburne

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 405»

«42. C. Hill, The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the English Revolution (London, 1972), p. 186.»la nota 42 remite el mundo al revés al *World Turned Upside Down* de Christopher Hill

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 407»

«54. Mänd, Urban Carnival, p. 49. ⏎ 55. M. Harris, Sacred Folly: A New History of the Feast of Fools (Ithaca, NY, 2011).»las notas 54 y 55 remiten al *Urban Carnival* de Mänd y al *Sacred Folly* de Max Harris

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 408»

«65. Pola Falletti, Associazioni, 3, pp. 334f., 431f.; Toschi, Origini, pp. 16f., 44f.»la nota 65 remite las asociaciones juveniles a Pola Falletti y a los *Origini* de Toschi

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 409»

«Theoretical Concept of the Civilizing Offensive’, Human Figurations 2 (2013), http://hdl.handle.net/2027/ spo.11217607.0002.203.»remate de la nota 1 de la introducción a la parte III, con el artículo de Roy Powell sobre el concepto de *ofensiva civilizadora* y su enlace permanente

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 415»

«M. Rospocher, J. Salman and H. Salmi (2019) Crossing Borders, Crossing Cultures: Popular Print in Europe, 1450–1900, Munich,»la bibliografía selecta consigna el *Crossing Borders, Crossing Cultures* de Rospocher, Salman y Salmi sobre el impreso popular europeo

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 572»

«Basile, Gianbattista (c.1575–1632), Neapolitan writer, 47 Basset, family, 18th-century French engravers, figs. 17–18, 113, 222»las entradas del índice para Giambattista Basile —así lo imprime el troceo, *Gianbattista*— y la familia Basset de grabadores franceses

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 578»

«Evans-Pritchard, Edward (1902–1973), British anthropologist, 61 Ex votos, 56»las entradas del índice para el antropólogo Evans-Pritchard y los exvotos

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 583»

«Habermas, Jürgen (1929–), German philosopher and sociologist, 296 Hadorph, Johan (1630–1693), Swedish antiquary, 312»las entradas del índice para Habermas, de quien Burke toma la *esfera pública*, y para el anticuario sueco Hadorph

Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026)«Burke — Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (4.ª ed., Routledge 2026) · p. 586»

Conceptos tratados

Crítica de fuentes (criterios de inclusión y descarte)Declara el método del libro: imposible el acceso directo a la cultura popular, sólo caben rodeos por los mediadores —impresos, sermones de frailes, folcloristas tempranos, inquisidores, informes de funcionarios—, y de la crítica de las fuentes pasa a la evidencia positiva; enumera tres rodeos con nombre: el iconográfico, el regresivo y el comparativo.

burke-popular-culture-early-modern-europe · pp. 95, 99, 104, 106, 109, 111, 112

Cadena de transmisión (quién tomó de quién)Distingue en cada eslabón lo que la obra dice de aquello de donde lo tomó: los editores pioneros de poesía popular, cuya labor mide con la vara de hoy como poco menos que falsificación; los mediadores que se interponen entre el historiador y la gente común; y el trato de Herder con sus predecesores Addison, Sidney y Montaigne.

burke-popular-culture-early-modern-europe · pp. 75, 104, 111, 539

Obras citadas

Conversación

lo que dicen los lectores — distinto de lo consignado en la ficha, que lleva cita